Romantic utopia realized its significance under the name "Kingdom of God". Its embodiment is the main task of romanticism, and, as Friedrich Schlegel argued in 1798, that which in modern culture is not aimed at solving this problem is devoid of interest. These are “secondary things”. “ Kingdom of God” was also on the lips of the young Hölderlin and Hegel when they said goodbye to each other after five years at the Tübingen Institute. “Dear brother,” writes Hölderlin on July 10, 1794, “I am sure that you still sometimes thought of me from the time we parted - parted with our password on your lips. The Kingdom of God - by this password we seem to always recognize each other” .
The youthful friendship that bound Hölderlin, Hegel, and Schelling was nourished, as is well known, Oh, faith in the ideals of the French Revolution, And The "Kingdom of God" was conceived by them as its consequence and spiritual sublimation. The socio-political revolution was supposed to become, in their opinion, a religious and aesthetic "revolution of the spirit" - otherwise it would lose its meaning and justification, turn, if not into robbery, then into vulgarity. The common dream of the Jena romantics and the authors of The Oldest Program of German Idealism (1796) is a new universal church, not an institution of power, but a living organism, the spiritual brotherhood of all believers.
If for the Romantics the Middle Ages was the prototype and prediction of the future of Europe, then for Hölderlin this memory of the future was ancient greece . Just as the Middle Ages of the Yentse were not only a realm of the spirit, so Hölderlin's antiquity was not only the realm of the flesh. In both cases, we have dream of a “Third Kingdom”, belief in the ability of everything earthly to become the bread and wine of eternal life(elegy "Bread and Wine", 1800-1801).
WITH Novalis's "Christianity or Europe" (1799) called a conservative utopia. Meanwhile, Novalis preaches not a return to Catholicism, but the religion of God-manhood, which is to be born in the new soul of the modern secularized personality that has come to know and overcome its individualism. In the article “On Novalis” (1913), Vyacheslav Ivanov compared him with Napoleon: Napoleon set himself the goal of carrying out an unheard-of synthesis - the synthesis of world revolution and world monarchy. Novalis conceived the same thing in the realm of the spirit - to harness the new individualism to the chariot of Christian catholicity, which would unite the whole of Europe anew.
That is exactly what function of antiquity in Hölderlin. ancient greece, which comes to life in his poetry and prose, is not a distant object of knowledge, but the main character in the modern drama of ideas. The memory of her is called upon to justify the history of European culture, to complete the project of spiritual emancipation, which forms the content of the Modern era.
In Hölderlin's work, the idea of the "Third Kingdom" is most clearly expressed in the epistolary novel Hyperion, or the Greek Hermit (Hyperion oder der Eremit in Griechenland). Its conception and first fragments belong to the era of the Jacobin terror, its last edition was published in 1797-1799. Hyperion is the hero of the historiosophical novel of education, and the goal of education is already in his name. That was the name of one of the mythological titans, children 
Uranus and Gaia, god of heaven and goddess of earth. “Your great namesake heavenly Hyperion has incarnated in you", - says Hyperion his beloved Diotima, and he himself says about himself:" I foresee a new kingdom, a new deity
” . In him and through him, the two kingdoms, heavenly and earthly, must unite, the earth to become heavenly, the sky - earthly. The whole world must become what Hyperion sees it when, enlightened by the holy love of Diotima, he wanders with her through the mountains of Calabria, the birthplace of Joachim of Florence: “We called the earth the flower of the sky, and the sky the endless garden of life” .
The image of Diotima, beloved and girlfriend of Hyperion, goes back to Plato's "Feast", where she is a priestess of eros; eros is interpreted as falling in love with life, a thirst for its fullness and fullness, the will to give birth to a new person who is to be “born in beauty”. Diotima explains to Hyperion his task, his mission as an artist-theurge. He is called upon to restore the broken connection of times, to revive the golden age of antiquity in the form of the coming God-manhood. Hyperion is a poet, he composes poetry, sings the “Song of Fate”. But poetry, as Hölderlin understands it, is a performative, magical act, the poet is the architect of a new being, his work is the divine-human process of incarnation of the logos, in which the word becomes flesh, metaphysical reality acquires physical existence. The meeting of Hyperion and Diotima takes place, in the words of the poet, “at the feast of Plato during the plague” (Pasternak) .
The action of the novel takes place in contemporary Hölderlin Greece, which has lost its former greatness, suffering from political humiliation and spiritual degeneration. The historical background is the so-called. The Peloponnesian uprising of the Greeks against the Ottoman Empire, raised in 1770 by Count Orlov in the interests of Russia. But if the Russians won, the Greeks lost. Despite the victory of the Russian fleet at Chesma, the Greek uprising is defeated. Hyperion, the leader of the rebels, is experiencing the tragedy of Karl Moor. He is fighting for a new Hellas, for a new ideal humanity, and cannot come to terms with the fact that his comrades-in-arms are turning into a gang of robbers and pirates. So he becomes a hermit. The content of the novel consists of letters that he writes to his friend Bellarmine.. They restore the past, the history of his hopes and disappointments that preceded his abdication.
The novel opens with the theme of Hyperion's despair. He painfully experiences the “pain and homelessness of a mortal”, expelled from the “paradise of holy nature”, from the unity of divine being: “ Nature no longer opens her arms to me, and I stand before her like a stranger, not understanding her.. It seems to Hyperion that the world is completed and ended tragically unfortunate; the principle of dualism finally triumphed in it. Flesh and spirit, subject and object, feeling and mind are divorced forever, just as the shameful present and the great past of his homeland are divorced. Reality, especially modern, is a fetid swamp or a coffin littered with a heavy stone, the inhabitants of the real world are the living dead, slaves and barbarians. Antique beauty has forever moved into the realm of a ghostly dream, ethereal and unrealizable. In Hölderlin's lyrical prose, the leitmotif of Schiller's philosophical poetry of the 1890s is clearly heard, and Hyperion's lamentations anticipate the poetic maxim that Schiller soon formulates in the poem "The Beginning of a New Age" (1801) - " Beauty blooms only in song, and freedom in the realm of dreams” . Hyperion is losing faith in knowledge, in its ability to provide a breakthrough to the reality of life.
The Enlightenment cult of reason seems to him the same illusion as the unlimited power of the transcendental subject. He mourns that man has opposed himself to nature and history and is unable to penetrate their secret, because they are not amenable to forcible intrusion - neither the dictates of reason, on which his first teacher Adamas relied, nor the violence of political will, on which he relies his friend Alabanda. According to Hegel's terminology, Hyperion - the bearer of "unhappy consciousness". The apotheosis of “unfortunate consciousness” is given in the so-called. letter on nihilism: “The purpose of our birth is Nothing; we love Nothing, we believe in Nothing, we work sparing no effort to turn gradually into Nothing<…>. Around us - endless emptiness” .
In the preface to the novel, Hölderlin names his hero "elegiac character" . The ancient heroic principle coexists in it with modern sentimental melancholy., which Schiller described (“On Naive and Sentimental Poetry”, 1795-1796) . Doubts about the feasibility of the ideal visit him already in his youth, long before the final disappointment. But t when Diotima enters his life as a savior. She is at defeats him that “Our frailty only seems to us”
, for the fate of the world is not yet predetermined, the act of creation has not yet been completed, and it is Hyperion, the man-artist who has retained the memory of the great past, that has to complete it. Modern humanity, Diotima teaches, is a fragment of a broken ancient statue of a deity, and the mission of the artist is to supplement the decapitated torso with the power of his imagination.
In the twentieth century, this metaphor is picked up by Rilke. In the poem " Archaic torso of Apollo”(1907) contemplation of a fragment of an ancient statue is presented as an act of creative imagination. To imagine (einbilden) means to embody in oneself the image of perfection, and at the same time, to embody oneself and one's image in the world, to re-create oneself and re-create the world. Imaginary beauty is not an object of weak-willed contemplation, but an event of spiritual life, a factor in its transformation. The last line of Rilke's poem, to which Peter Sloterdijk dedicated a whole book in 2009, is addressed to the contemplator: “ You must change your life” (Du musst dein Leben ändern) .
Listening to Diotima, Hyperion is inspired: "WITH holy nature! You are the same in me and outside of me. This means that it is not so difficult to merge together both what exists outside of me and what is divine within me. So let everything, everything from top to bottom, become new!”. Hölderlin's utopia presupposes the realization of the Christian idea of salvation in this world of historical reality, in the form of a "free state" that will win its place on earth. The name of this state, or rather, the brotherhood of free people, is the "sacred theocracy of beauty", opposed to all types of modern historical state - and feudal Germany, and bourgeois England, and the Jacobin dictatorship. WITH means of its creation is, according to Hölderlin, not political violence, but, like Schiller, aesthetic education, its citizens will be people as artists of their lives, humanity as a subject of life-creation, as a result of which all beauty will become life, and all life - beauty.
The outlines of this utopia emerge in the course of Hyperion's relationship with his friend Alabanda, who is fascinated by the idea of a strong state, allegedly capable of ensuring the happiness of its subjects. Hyperion opposes the rational norm of the law, based on power and submission, infusio amoris, the suggestion of love and the call of grace, which has the power to penetrate into the depths of the innermost god-like Self and from there “deify” the whole being of man, his flesh and his spirit. A totalitarian society, in which communication between people is provided by a normative ideology, seems to Hyperion to be the same barbarism as a society of disunited individuals, connected with each other only by cold calculation. “ State, says Hyperion, a stone wall enclosing the garden of humanity. But why fence a garden in which the soil has dried up? Only one thing will help here - rain from the sky. O life-giving rain from heaven! You will return spring to the people!
” . In a dispute with Alabanda, Hyperion claims the ideal of a religious community, clearly anticipating that utopia of spiritual collectivism, which occupied such a significant place in the history of Russian social thought of the XIX-XX centuries.
One of its late adherents and analysts, S.L. Frank wrote in 1926: “The Western worldview takes the I as the starting point of thinking, idealism corresponds to individualistic personalism. However, a completely different point of view is possible, according to which it is not I, but WE that forms the last basis of spiritual life. In this case, we are conceived not as an external, only later formed synthesis of many selves, but as their primary, indecomposable unity, from the womb of which each individual self grows and thanks to which it is only formed, asserting its freedom and unique originality. If we use the comparison coming from Plotinus, I am like a leaf on a tree that does not come into contact with other leaves or comes into contact with them only accidentally, but internally, through the connection of branches and branches with a common root, is connected with all other leaves and leads a common life with them. . It is not the freedom and originality of personal selves that is denied here, but only their disunity, self-sufficiency and isolation. It is, so to speak, "we-philosophy" as opposed to the "I-philosophy" of the West.» .
It should be emphasized, however, that the image of a tree, sometimes dried up, sometimes blooming, is a stable metaphor for a social organism and in Hölderlin's novel, moreover, in the very meaning of the organic interdependence of parts and the whole, which Frank evaluates, albeit with reference to Plotinus, as a sign of the Russian worldview, and not the Western one.
The political aspect of Hölderlin's utopia is inextricably linked with the metaphysical aspect.. Like the Romantics of Jena, Hölderlin owes much to Fichte, but in Hyperion he is on the way from Fichte to Spinoza and Plato. In Fichte's philosophy, I - individual consciousness is, as you know, the only and last foundation of the entire universe. At Hölderlin sovereign subject of consciousness suffers from metaphysical loneliness, from the inability merge with all living” . Idealistic anthropocentrism is opposed to the realism of a mystical feeling, a sense of the rootedness of the conscious Self in the unity of cosmic life. It is not man who stands at the pinnacle of being, he is not the basis of unity, but, as Hölderlin writes in a letter to his brother, "god living among us" . Personal Self conceived by Hölderlin as an organic part of a supra-personal whole, res inter rebus, as Spinoza put it, or, as the novel puts it, “Oh the bottom of the guise of God” , With related to the universe as a microcosm with a macrocosm.
Comprehending his connection with the whole, his involvement in the cosmic unity of the world, a person becomes an artist. He embodies the image of divine perfection and affirms his humanity as divinity in the act of life-creation. This concept is religion of beauty- Hölderlin develops in the so-called. Athenian letter: Hyperion, Diotima and their friends contemplate the ruins ancient city
, and Hyperion muses: “ The first achievement of human, divine beauty is art. In it the divine man renews and recreates himself. He wants to understand himself and therefore embodies his beauty in art. This is how man created his gods. For in the beginning, man and his gods were one whole - when there was an eternal beauty that had not yet known itself. I introduce you to the mysteries, but they contain the truth” [2, II, S. 181]. What this truth is, expressed in the last words of the Athenian letter: “ And there will still be beauty: humanity and nature will merge into a single all-encompassing deity”
.
The ideological plot of the novel is outlined by Hölderlin in the preface, which was not included in the latest edition, but was published by Schiller in his journal New Thalia in 1793. Man and mankind go through the intended path - from the initial simplicity, when the harmony of all forces and relations is given to him without his participation, by nature itself, to the complexly organized unity of the multitude, which he can create only at the cost of his own creative efforts. In the later text of the novel, the same cyclic model expanded in the words of Hyperion: “ First, people tasted the happiness of plant life;from it they grew and grew until they reached maturity. Since then they have been in constant fermentation., and the human race, having reached the limitless disintegration, is a chaos, from which everyone who is still able to see and understand, the head is spinning. But beauty flees from everyday life up into the realm of the spirit; what was nature becomes an ideal, and in it a select few recognize themselves. They are one, because the one lives in them, and this they will start a new age” . Cycle idea, which forms the mythological subtext of "Hyperion", suggests the incomplete identity of the unconscious truth at the beginning and the truth of the conscious, "reflected" at the end, the initial inseparability of God and the world in the "Golden Age" and their final inseparability in the "Kingdom of God".
Hölderlin sees ancient Greece as the thesis, future Germany as the bearer of the idea of Europe as the synthesis.. In Hyperion, Germany and the Germans are depicted with bitter sarcasm, but in poems written in parallel with the novel, such as, for example, Heidelberg (1800) or Germany (1801), the image of Germany carries a premonition of the return of the ancient gods.
The experimental hero of Hölderlin keenly experiences all the dissonances inherent in the transitional state of the world in the stage of antithesis, is disappointed in the ideals of love and freedom, breaks down to the brink of nihilism and metaphysical despair. But the stage of antithesis, the era of the “gap of the gods” – it is a situation of crisis on the eve of the coming resolution of all contradictions in the concordantia oppositorum. By the end of the novel, the theme of the crisis grows, but does not prevail. The ideal of freedom collapses in the face of human imperfection, Diotima dies without waiting for victory, Hyperion, rejected by his father and misunderstood by his compatriots, becomes a hermit. But he knows that death and life, victory and defeat are parts of the unity that is encrypted in dissonances, and dissonances are not canceled: “In All the dissonances of the world are only a quarrel between lovers. Discord conceals reconciliation, and all that is divided will meet again.” . So the death of Diotima is just separation; placing lovers in different planes of being, it serves the purposes of the universal combination of these planes. The final words of the novel sound like a promise: “So I thought. The rest later” .
The hermitage and loneliness of Hyperion in the face of false reality, as well as the painful dumbness of Hölderlin himself in the face of false language, is the price that the poet must pay for the coming renewal. But when this price is paid, the path of renunciation will be passed, the true reality of world life will be revealed to him, and he will embody it in unprecedented images that will become the flesh of a new perfect world. Then - the end of dualism, which determined the tragedy of the New Age: soul and body, spirit and flesh, subject and object, appearance and essence, life and death, male and female, the immanent world and the transcendent world, man and God, the City of the earth and the City of God - everything will be reunited in the post-historical space of the coming kingdom.
Story chiliastic mythology of the “Third Kingdom” does not begin with Hölderlin and does not end with him. On the eve of the 1848 revolution Heine's last romantic writes the poem "Germany. winter fairy tale” and the cycle of poems “New Spring”, in which the mythologeme of the “Third Kingdom” is re-actualized under the 
the radiance of Saint-Simon, and the antithesis of spiritualism and sensationalism, "Nazarite" and "Hellenism" is resolved in the image of the "Third Kingdom". “I am a new song, I am a better song / I will sing to you for a friendly cup: / We will create the kingdom of heaven / Here on earth, on our
”
. At the end of the century the successor of Nietzsche's romanticism preaches, as Hölderlin already does in his hymns, a synthesis of Christ and Dionysus. In 1889, sending a friend the just completed cycle of Dionysian Dithyrambs to a friend, Nietzsche writes: Here are my new songs: God is now on earth, the world is enlightened and the heavens rejoice”
.
It is noteworthy that when at the beginning of the 20th century the center of the world revolution moved to Russia, the same Merezhkovsky, the main ideologist of Russian apocalyptic neo-Christianity, “rearranging the main motifs of the Chiliast concept of the “Three Testaments”” (13, p. 251). The meaning of the revolution and for him, as for most of the revolutionaries of those years, is creation of a “religious community”. The whole history of the Russian intelligentsia from Chaadaev to the decadents is styled by Merezhkovsky as aspiration of the new church as the Kingdom of God on earth. “Russia, - writes Merezhkovsky, - should not run away from Europe and not imitate Europe, but accept it into itself and overcome it to the end” , i.e. overcome the dualistic worldview in that sensual-supersensory synthesis, which will mean the incarnation of the spirit and the spiritualization of the flesh. Hölderlin, hating modern Germany, dreamed that it was she who would become the spiritual center of the renewed Europe - the new Hellas. Russian thinkers of the era of religious and philosophical renaissance translate this dream into the language of their native culture and give it the name of the "Russian idea". In his publicistic book of 1908 “Not the world, but the sword. Toward a Future Criticism of Christianity” Merezhkovsky addresses the West: “ In order to understand the meaning of the Russian revolution, it should be considered as the last act of the worldwide tragedy of liberation, while its first act is the Great French Revolution.<…>The Russian revolution is not only politics, but also religion, which is the most difficult thing for Europe to understand, for which religion itself has long been politics. You judge by yourself: it seems to you that we are experiencing a natural illness of political growth, which all European peoples experienced in their time; let's get carried away– all the same, we won’t jump above our heads, we’ll end up the same way as you, we’ll settle down, we’ll stretch our legs along our clothes, we’ll bridle with a parliamentary muzzle and be satisfied instead of the City of God, with a bourgeois-democratic middle in half – it was like that everywhere, it will be like that with us . Perhaps, and indeed, it would be so, if we were not you inside out, if not our transcendence, which makes us smash our heads against the wall, fly “heels up”» <… > .
In Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, the collision between politics and religion that the german romantics who turned their backs on the Jacobin dictatorship precisely because it betrayed the religious idea of a “revolution of the spirit.” It is noteworthy that in 1914 Zhirmunsky ends his book “German Romanticism and Modern Mysticism” with the words “ Let your kingdom come" . According to the author of the book, the break in tradition between the “first romantics” and the symbolists of the “end of the century” is apparent, the revolution of the spirit is permanent.
The dream of a "Third Kingdom" is an influential meta-narrative of the Modern era. The concept of metanarrative was introduced, as is well known, Jean Francois Lyotard in The Postmodern State: A Report on Knowledge (1979). A metanarrative is not an artistic narrative, but a holistic and comprehensive system of worldview, which is designed to explain all the facts of history, all the phenomena of being, building them in a harmonious, linear sequence, like a kind of developing plot that leads to a natural finale, to the embodiment of a super-goal or super-idea. To such metanarratives that dominate Western culture, Lyotard refers Christianity, Enlightenment, Marxism. It is obvious that and the mythological concept of the “Third Kingdom” can also be considered as a metanarrative. According to Lyotard, the new era of postmodernity that came to the West in the 1970s undermines the credibility of any metanarratives and recognizes instead a plurality of discourses that can contradict each other. Meanwhile, the dominance of contradictions and dissonances by no means excludes the relevance of the metanarrative as a forever postponed, deferred meaning. The absurd world presupposes it as its “other”, as a sign of its fundamental incompleteness and openness. Last words in Hölderlin's novel The rest later”- are consistent with the definition of romantic poetry in the 116th fragment of Fr. Schlegel: “Romantic poetry is a progressive universal poetry<…>. It is still in the process of becoming, moreover, its very essence is that it will forever become and can never be completed.” . This means that Hölderlin's "later" will never come.
According to legend, an open volume of Hyperion always lay on the table in Hölderlin's room - throughout all the long years of his seclusion and silence, spent by him in a state of mental stupefaction under the supervision of the Tübingen carpenter. “ We no longer believe that the truth remains the truth if the veil is removed from it, ” Nietzsche wrote in The Gay Science. Based on this statement, Jean Baudrillard develops the idea of truth as an eternal temptation. “One can only live by the idea of distorted truth. This is the only way to live in the element of truth. The absence of God. Or the absence of the Revolution. The life of the Revolution is supported only by the idea that everything and everything is opposed to it, and especially its parodic counterpart - Stalinism. Stalinism is immortal: its presence will always be necessary to hide the fact of the absence of the Revolution, the truth of the Revolution - in this way it again and again revives the hope for it” .
Essentially, we are talking about the same thing that Hölderlin writes about at the end of his novel. The dissonances of the world are the cipher by which its harmony is encrypted. The "Third Kingdom" is invisibly present in the world of dissonances as love in the quarrels of lovers; they fight because they love. It is possible that the unity of European self-consciousness is determined precisely by this - the invisible presence in it of indelible mythological structures that remind of themselves through their distorted counterparts.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Athenaeum. Eine Zeitschrift von August Wilhelm Schlegel und Friedrich Schlegel. Berlin, 1798. Nachdruck: Leipzig: Philipp Reclam jun., 1978 - 245 p.
2. Hölderlin, F. Sämtliche Werke und Briefe. bd. 1–4. Hrsg. vom Günter Mieth. Berlin: Aufbau-Verlag, 1970.
3. Gerhard, J. (Hrsg.). Die Revolution des Geistes. Politisches Denken in Deutschland 1770–1830. Goethe. Kant, Fichte. Hegel. Humboldt. Munich: List-Verlag, 1968.
4. Ivanov Vyach. Sobr. cit.: In 4 vols. Bruxelles: Foyer oriental chretien, 1971–1987. T.4. pp. 252–278 Bruxelles: Foyer oriental chretien, 1971–1987].
5. Schiller F. Selected Works: In 2 vols. M.: Fiction, 1959. . Moscow: Khudozhestvennaya literatura, 1959].
6. Sloterdijk P. Dumusst dein Leben ändern. Uber Anthropotechnik. Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp - 692 S.
7. Rilke R.M. Archaischer Torso Apollos. In: Rilke R.M. Samtliche Werke. bd. 1–6 / Hrsg. vom Rilke-Archiv in Verbindung mit R. Sieber-Rilke besorgt durch E. Zinn. Frankfurt a. M.: Insel Verlag, 1955–1966. bd. 1 (1955) - 630 S.
8. Frank S.L. Spiritual foundations of society. M.: Respublika, 1992. 511 p. . M.: Respublika, 1992. 511 p.].
9. Vietta S. Die literarische Moderne. Eine problemgeschichtliche Darstellung der deutschsprachigen Literatur von Hölderlin bis Thomas Bernhard. Stuttgart: J.B. Metzler, 1992 - 361 s.
10. Heidegger M. Singing - for what? / Translation from German, foreword. and comment. V. Bakuseva. M.: Text, 2003 - 237 p. . Translated s nem., predisl. I comm. V. Baksueva. M.: Tekst, 2003. 237 p.].
11. Heine G. Germany / Translated by L. Penkovsky, entry. Art. G. Lukach. M.-L.: Academia, 1934. 214 p. . / Perevod L. Pen’kovskogo, vstup. St. G. Lukacha. M.; L.: Academia, 1934. 214 p.].
12. Nietzsche F. Sämtliche Briefe. Kritische Studienausgabe in 8 Banden. hg. von Giorgio Colli u. Mazzino Montinari. München: Deutscher Taschenbuch-Verlag, 1986. Bd. 8 - 670S.
13. Polonsky V.V. Between metaphysics, history and politics: religious mythology in later work D.S. Merezhkovsky // Polonsky V.V. Between tradition and modernism. Russian literature at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries: history, poetics, context. M.: IMLI RAN, 2011. 472 p. pp. 251–265. . M.: IMLI RAN, 2011. 472 p. pp. 251-265].
14. Merezhkovsky D.S. Full composition of writings. SPb. - M .: Edition of the t-va M.O. Wolf, 1911. T. Kh. - 335 p. . SPb.; M.: Izdanie tva M.O. Volfa, 1911. T. X. 335 p.].
15. Zhirmunsky V.M. German romanticism and modern mysticism. SPb.: Type. T-va Suvorin “New time”, 2014. 207 p. . SPb.: Tip tva Suvorina “Novoye vremya”, 2014. 207 p.].
16. Lyotard J.-F. Postmodern state / translation from French. ON THE. Shmatko. St. Petersburg: Adeteya, 1998. 160 p. . / Translation of frants. N.A. Shmatko. SPb.: Adeteija, 1998. 160 p.]. 17. Nietzsche F. Op.: In 2 vols. / Comp., ed., entry. Art. and approx. K.A. Svasyan. M.: Thought, 1990. T. 1. 832 p. . / Sost., red., vstup. st. I prim. K.A. Swasijana. M.: Mysl’, 1990. T. 1., 832 p.].
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A. I. Zherebin
Doctor of Philology, Professor, Head of Department
foreign literature Russian State Pedagogical University. A.I. Herzen, Russia,
191186 St. Petersburg, embankment of the Moika River, 48, [email protected]
HÖLDERLIN'S NOVEL HYPERION AND
THE UTOPIA OF THE THIRD KINGDOM IN EUROPEAN CULTURE
A. I. Zherebin
Doctor of Philological Sciences, Professor, Chair of the Department of Foreign Literature
at The Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia,
48 Naberezhnaya Reki Moiki 191186 St. Petersburg, Russia, [email protected]
The ideological plot of Hölderlin's novel "Hyperion" is studied as one of the manifestations of the mythological
poetic concept of the "Third Kingdom" - an influential meta-narrative of the modern era, preserved
nyayuschaya its relevance as a deferred meaning of the history of European culture.
The ideological plot of Hölderlin's Novel Hyperion is viewed as a manifestation of the mythopoetic
concept of ‘the Third Kingdom’ – an infl uential metanarrative of the modern era, which still obtains as a
postponed meaning of the history of European culture.
Key words: anthropocentrism, God-manhood, metanarrative, mystical feeling,
sod, revolution, romanticism, utopia, chiliasm
Key words: anthropocentrism, the godly humankind, metanarrative, mystic awareness, the modern era,
revolution, Romanticism, Utopia, Millenarianism
Izvestiya RAN. SERIES OF LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE, 2015, volume 74, no. 5, p. 38–44
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Introduction
The work of Friedrich Hölderlin is still being actively debated in scientific circles as the work of a writer who created works that were in many ways ahead of their time.
In the 18th century Hölderlin was not yet as famous as it is now. His works have been interpreted in different ways, depending on the dominant ideological currents or on the dominant aesthetic trend.
The interest of modern researchers in Hölderlin is determined by his influence on artistic thinking in national literature. This influence can be traced in the works of F. Nietzsche, S. George, F.G. Junger, after all, without understanding the idea and design of Hölderlin's creativity, it is difficult to interpret the late R.M. Rilke, S. Hermlin, P. Celan.
At present, disputes over the creative heritage of F. Hölderlin and his place in German literature do not fade away. There is a wide range of issues to be considered.
First, the problem of the poet's belonging to a certain literary era. Some scholars tend to attribute him to the representatives of the late Enlightenment, while others argue that Hölderlin is a true romantic. For example, Rudolf Gaim calls the poet "a side branch of romanticism", since fragmentation, a moment of the irrational, aspiration to other times and countries are the main features of his work.
Secondly, researchers are interested in the topic "Hölderlin and antiquity". In one of his fragments, "Point of View on Antiquity," there is a confession of exceptional importance. He explained his attraction to antiquity by the desire to protest against modern slavery. Here we are talking not only about political slavery, but also about dependence on everything forcibly imposed” Hölderlin, F. Works / A.Deutsch // Friedrich Hölderlin / A.Deutsch. - Moscow: Fiction, 1969. - p. 10 .
Thirdly, the main task of most researchers in the middle of the 20th century (F. Beisner, P. Beckmann, P. Hertling, W. Kraft, I. Müller, G. Kolbe, K. Petzold, G. Mith) was to study the philosophical aspect of Hölderlin's work . They touched not only on the problems of his reflection of the ideas of Greek philosophy, but also on the role of the poet in the development of German idealism.
Fourthly, researchers are interested in the question of the genre of the novel "Hyperion". W. Dilthey in his work “Das Erlebnis und die Dichtung: Lessing. Goethe. Hölderlin comes to the conclusion that, due to a special understanding of life and its general laws, Hölderlin managed to create a new form of the philosophical novel. K.G. Khanmurzaev in the book "German romantic novel. Genesis. Poetics. The Evolution of the Genre" found in this work also elements of a social novel and "novel-education".
So, despite the impressive number of scientific papers various subjects it can be stated that a number of controversial issues remain in the study of the literary heritage of this writer.
Target of this work is to study the novel "Hyperion" by F. Hölderlin as a work of the epistolary genre, which reflects the traditions of classical epistolary literature, and also outlines the features of a new trend in German literature.
To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks works:
1. define the epistolary novel as a genre of literature and identify its main features;
2. to study the specifics of the development of the epistolary novel of the 18th century;
3. to reveal the interaction of traditional-classical and progressive formative and meaning-generating elements in F. Hölderlin's epistolary novel.
An object research - a genre of epistolary literature.
Item research - features of the epistolary novel of the XVIII century and their reflection in the novel "Hyperion".
Material for the study was the work of F. Hölderlin "Hyperion".
To conduct the study, methods of synthesis and analysis were used, as well as a comparative historical method.
ChapterI. Epistolary novel as a genre: the problem of invariant structure
1.1 Epistolary novel as a scientific problem. The originality of the artistic world and artistic text in the novel in letters
In one form or another, writers have turned to narrative in letters throughout the history of literature, from ancient letters to modern novels in the form of electronic correspondence, but epistolary novel as a genre existed only during the 18th century. The vast majority of researchers consider it as a definite and historically logical stage in the development of the novel. It was in the 18th century that the epistolary novel became part of the literary process, appeared as a "literary fact".
In modern literary criticism, there are many problems associated with the definition of the concept of epistolary in literature. One of the main ones is the following: the distinction between the terms "epistolary literature", "epistolography", "epistolary form" and "epistolary novel". Epistolary literature is understood as "correspondence that was originally conceived or later comprehended as fiction or journalistic prose, involving a wide range of readers." Epistolography is a sub-historical discipline that studies the types and forms of personal writing from the ancient world and the Middle Ages. The epistolary form is a special form of private letters, which is used as a means of public presentation of thoughts.
The concept of an epistolary novel is more particular in relation to the above. This is "a novel in epistolary form and at the same time a novel with an epistolary plot, here the story of the characters' correspondence is told in the form of letters, each of which, as part of the novel whole, is both a "real" letter (for the characters) and an art form (for the author)" . There are two points of view on the origin of the epistolary novel. According to the first, this type of novel developed from everyday correspondence through the consistent acquisition of artistic integrity and plot. These views are shared by J.F. Singer, C.E. Caney, M.G. Sokolyansky. According to M.M. Bakhtin, the epistolary novel comes “from the introductory letter of the baroque novel, i.e. what was an insignificant part in the baroque novel acquired integrity and completeness in the epistolary novel of sentimentalism” [p.159-206, 3] .
It is advisable to consider the novel in letters as a hierarchically organized speech and stylistic unity and, in this sense, a poly-genre and poly-subject formation, in which, within the framework of the artistic whole, there is an existence of diverse elements, “primary” and “secondary” genres. In this paper, the phenomenon of correspondence in an epistolary novel is limited to two communicative levels that are hierarchically subordinate to each other. At the first level, writing is considered as a unit of epistolary communication. For the structural organization of a letter as a minitext in the composition of correspondence, it is characteristic:
2. Mosaic structure, which "is explained by the polythematic nature, looseness, meaningful freedom of these letters" [p.136, 13].
3. Special composition. A letter usually consists of three parts:
- "etiquette (here main goal the narrator is establishing contact with the addressee);
Business (directly the letter itself, in which there is a spiritual outpouring of the narrator, may also contain a request or recommendation);
Etiquette (farewell)” [p.96-97, 6].
4. Recreation of the speech image of the addressee, which is actually outside the text, since the correspondence is only conditionally literary, secondary. Artificial modeling of the content of the addressee's response remarks is carried out in two thematic areas: an indication of the addressee's well-being and a demand or request that expresses the addressee's interest in receiving certain information. “The presence of the image of the addressee is felt through a number of epistolary formulas: greetings, farewells, assurances of friendship and devotion, which is especially common in sentimental-romantic epistolary prose” [p. 56-57, 4]. The images of two addressees - friends and readers "are equally explicated by nominal ("dear friend / friends") and deictic means - personal pronouns of the second person singular and plural" [p. 58, 4]. Orientation to two addressees allows a combination in one descriptive fragment of two means of nomination at once - a friend and readers. If an epistolary work loses its rigid orientation, it loses its meaning and turns into "an indirect informative for the reader, and serves to depict, rather than implement, a communicative situation." Orientation to the addressee is expressed in the use of various intertextual means of communication: appeals, imaginary dialogues, etc. Some forms of expression contradict the norms of epistolary communication subject relations. One of the main inconsistencies is the presence of secondary characters in epistolary prose. "Alien" speech, which serves as a form of expression of this plan, is included in the epistolary dialogue as an extraneous speech passage.
6. Writing as a form of self-disclosure and self-determination. According to Aristotle, the epistolary form has the properties of a lyric, allowing the author to "remain himself". This quality is possessed by letters of confession and letters-messages, as well as real letters that have received public distribution. The exchange of correspondence eliminates the actual author, but still the impression of the presence of a natural "I", a casual conversation of correspondents among themselves, remains.
7. Synthesis of elements of various functional styles with a focus on conversational style. The epistolary form causes a number of stylistic features, which include the following: a large number of questions; expected responses; persuasiveness; the use of words that make out the extension; colloquial vocabulary; free syntax - incomplete sentences, self-interrupting sentences; default; offers with open ends; colloquial and publicistic intonation.
As for the second communicative level, “the functioning of writing as a polysubjective dialogic structure as part of the novel as a whole is due to a number of genre features” . The main oppositions in the genre of the epistolary novel include:
1. The opposition "fictitiousness / authenticity", which is embodied in the elements of the heading complex, as well as in such framing structures as the preface or afterword of the author, who, as a rule, acts as an editor or publisher of the published correspondence. This type of opposition is realized through the creation by the author himself within the epistolary novel of the effect of authenticity, reality, non-fictionality of the correspondence that forms its basis, or with the help of a "minus-device - the author's play with this opposition, which emphasizes its fictional, "fake" character" . [p.512, 12]
2. Opposition "part/whole". Two options are possible here: either the correspondence includes other inserted genres, or it is itself included in various kinds of framing structures, in which case it is a completed, formalized part of the whole. It should be noted that the epistolary novel as a literary text does not appear as a combination of individual letters into a certain linear sequence, but as "a complex multi-level formation, where texts are inserted into each other, the type of their interaction is hierarchical" . Thus, there is an implementation of the text-in-text model here.
3. The opposition "external/internal", thanks to which the structure of time and space can be described in an epistolary novel. The presence in the life of the heroes of correspondence means the materialization of "immaterial relations", their existence in the inner world of the work, along with other things and objects. This allows us to speak of letters as “inserted genres” in the lives of heroes, since their presence is insignificant quantitatively and spatially.
Thus, based on the formal characteristics of the genre, the epistolary novel can be considered as “a prose narrative of any length, mostly or entirely fictional, in which writing serves as an intermediary for conveying meaning or plays an important role in plot construction” .
1.2 European epistolary novel traditionXVIIIcentury
In the 18th century, the epistolary novel acquired the significance of an independent genre. At this stage of their development, works of this kind had some moral or philosophical content. Thanks to the latter feature, the novel acquires "openness", it becomes accessible to a fairly wide range of readers. In European literature, works arise that owe their plot to ancient messages. For example, Ovid's Heroides contains samples of almost all variants of love correspondence.
Many literary critics see one of the main reasons for the popularity of the epistolary genre in the 18th century in the fact that this particular genre at that time was the most convenient form for giving credibility to the events described. But to a greater extent, the interest of readers increased due to the opportunity to "look" into inner world a private person, to analyze his feelings, emotions, experiences. Writers were given the chance to entertain readers with a kind of moral lesson. This responded to the demands of the critics of the time, which rejected immorality in the new novels.
The epistolary novel of the 18th century reflected the traditions of classical epistolography, also influenced by the new literary era certain innovations have taken place.
In English literature, the classic example of an epistolary novel is S. Richardson's Clarissa, or the Story of a Young Lady (1748), where "an extended polyphonic correspondence is presented: two pairs of correspondents, joined from time to time by other voices, each with its own stylistic features » . The authenticity of this narration is emphasized by the carefully adjusted chronology of the narration, the stylistic orientation to the existing patterns of private correspondence, it is also modeled using a certain set of means that is typical for this genre: letters are often delayed, they are hidden, intercepted, reread, forged. These details lead to further narration. The writing of letters becomes an integral part of the life of the characters, as a result, the correspondence itself becomes the content of the work.
As noted above, the effect of reliability is achieved through penetration into the inner world of the hero. Here it should be noted the principle of writing to the moment, which was discovered by S. Richardson. This principle assumes that all letters are created by characters at the very moment when their thoughts and feelings are completely absorbed by the subject of discussion. Thus, the reader finds something that has not yet been subjected to critical selection and comprehension.
The most famous epistolary novel of the 18th century in French literature is the novel by J.J. Rousseau "Julia, or New Eloise"(1761), in which there is both male and female correspondence, but the main thing is love correspondence, which was also found in earlier works of the epistolary genre, but in this novel this type of correspondence is conducted in a more confidential, friendly manner. The epistolary form allows not only to convey the most intimate feelings of the characters, not only to highlight the love story from the inside, but also to show the story of true friendship, which is given a philosophical and lyrical character. The characters are free to express their opinions on issues that concern them the most. Through the "internal" history of the relationship between the characters and through the characters themselves, the author of the novel draws a didactic line of the work.
Often, "an epistolary novel reveals the possibility of correspondence as a means of seduction." The author pays special attention to the methods of building intrigue around letters and through letters. The frankness of the messages here is almost always apparent, it is part of a thoughtful game. The moralism of the novel lies in the instructiveness of the example presented. The author intends to warn the reader against any rash actions. At the same time, the writer does not miss the opportunity to show society its licentiousness and meanness.
It should be noted that since the middle of the 18th century, the epistolary novel has been characterized by a gradual reduction in the didactic function and the rejection of the style of the "open" form of correspondence. This leads to the fact that the epistolary novel loses its meaning. An important role in the transformation of the classic novel in letters is played by the fact that the writer increasingly involves the author's self in the narrative, although often the authors identify themselves as ordinary publishers of the novel. Some of them allow themselves only remarks and certain abbreviations. Thus, they are more likely to solve technical problems, rather than take a role in completing the narrative. Some writers, for example Zh.Zh. Russo, I.V. Goethe, leave the reader in doubt, that is, the reader at the beginning of the novel assumes that the author composed all this himself, but this is only an assumption. Further, the reader understands that the novel contains some autobiographical background.
Representatives of the epistolary genre in German literature F. Hölderlin (the novel "Hyperion", 1797-1799) and I.V. Goethe ("The Suffering of Young Werther", 1774). As Goethe famously admitted, the writing of his novel was a positive outcome for himself, which cannot be said of the readers who followed his example. The process of creating the novel helped the writer to survive the spiritual crisis, to understand himself. All letters in Goethe's novel belong to one person - Werther; before the reader - a novel-diary, a novel-confession, and all the events that take place are revealed through the perception of the hero. Only a brief introduction and the last chapter of the novel are objectified - they are written on behalf of the author. The reason for the creation of the novel was a real event in the life of Goethe: an unhappy love for Charlotte von Buff. Of course, the content of the novel goes far beyond the biographical episode. In the center of the novel there is a large philosophically meaningful theme: man and the world, personality and society.
Among the epistolary works of XVIII century the greatest interest F. Hölderlin's novel "Hyperion" evokes among researchers. Since the work was created at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, it contains features of two major literary trends: classicism and romanticism. The novel is a letter from Hyperion to his friend Bellarmine, but there are no responses to the heartfelt outpourings of the protagonist in the novel, which, in the spirit of romanticism, creates, on the one hand, a confession of the narrative, on the other hand, enhances the idea of Hyperion's loneliness: he seems to be alone in general the world. The writer chooses Greece as the scene of action. Thus, a romantic “remoteness” arose, creating a double effect: both the opportunity to freely use ancient images, and the creation of a special mood that contributed to immersion in contemplation. The author is interested in reflections on issues of timeless significance: a person as a person, a person and nature, what freedom means for a person.
Despite the popularity of the epistolary novel in the 18th century, interest in it faded at the beginning of the next century. The classic novel in letters begins to be perceived as unreliable, devoid of credibility. But nevertheless, ways are outlined for a new, experimental use of letters in the novel: for the archaization of the narrative or as one of the "reliable" sources.
From the foregoing, it follows that the form of the novel in letters was an artistic discovery of the 18th century, it made it possible to show a person not only in the course of events and adventures, but also in the complex process of his feelings and experiences, in his relation to the outside world. But after its rapid flourishing in the 18th century, the epistolary novel loses its significance as an independent genre, its discoveries develop the psychological and philosophical novel in a different form, and the epistolary form itself is used by the authors as one of the possible methods in narration.
ChapterII. "Ghyperion» F. GHölderlin as a work of the epistolary genre
2 .1 Letter as a unit of epistolary communication in the novel by F. Hölderlin
The history of the creation of the novel by F. Hölderlin "Hyperion, or the Hermit in Greece" is being debated by researchers of the work of this German poet to this day. Hölderlin worked on his novel for seven years, from 1792 to 1799. Before proceeding to the allocation of communicative levels in this epistolary work, it should be noted that there were several versions of this novel, which differ significantly from each other.
In the autumn of 1792, Hölderlin created the first version of the work, which literary historians call "Pra-Hyperion". Unfortunately, it has not survived, but its existence is confirmed by excerpts from the letters of Hölderlin himself and his friends.
As a result of hard work from November 1794 to January 1795, Hölderlin created the so-called metric version of the Hyperion, which was revised again a year later and was called the Youth of Hyperion. In this version, you can see that part of the novel "Hyperion", which describes the years spent by the main character near his teacher Adamas.
The next version is the Lovell Edition (1796), which is written in a conditionally epistolary form, there are no separate letters here, as in the final version, this is a single epistolary text, where Hyperion expounds to Bellarmine his thoughts and some events from life.
Two years later, "Chronicles for the final edition" or "Penultimate edition" appeared, identical in form to the novel. This version contains only six letters (five to Diotima, one to Notara), which mainly describes the events of the war years.
In 1797, the first part of the final version of Hyperion was published, and, finally, in 1799, the work on the novel was fully completed.
Having so many options this work explained by the fact that each creative stage Hölderlin's ideological views underwent significant changes. Thus, the chronology of versions of the emergence of the novel "Hyperion" is a kind of chronology of Hölderlin's philosophical school, his searches and hesitations in solving important problems of the world order.
So, let's move on to a more detailed analysis of the work. At the first communicative level, each individual letter will be considered as a unit of epistolary communication, a kind of minitext, character traits which were mentioned in chapter I.
1. The presence of a narrator.
Of course, his image is present in the novel - this is Hyperion, the protagonist of the work. The narration is conducted in the first person, which gives the whole work a confessional form. This allows the author to more deeply reveal the inner world of the individual and the features of his attitude to life: “... Ich bin jetzt alle Morgen auf den Höhn des Korinthischen Isthmus, und, wie die Biene unter Blumen, fliegt meine Seele oft hin und her zwischen den Meeren, die zur Rechten und zur Linken meinen glühenden Bergen die FüYae kühlen... morning on the mountain slopes of the Isthmus of Corinth, and my soul often rushes to fly, like a bee over flowers, now to one, then to another sea, which, right and left, blows with coolness at the foot of the hot from the heat ...). (Translated by E. Sadovsky). In his letters to his friend Bellarmine, Hyperion the narrator shares his thoughts, experiences, reasoning, memories: “... Wie ein Geist, der keine Ruhe am Acheron findet, kehr ich zurück in die verlaЯnen Gegenden meines Lebens. Alles altert und verjüngt sich wieder. Warum sind wir ausgenommen vom schönen Kreislauf der Natur? Oder gilt er auch für uns?.. "(... Like the soul of the deceased, not finding rest on the shores of Acheron, I return to the edges of my life that I left. Everything grows old and younger again. Why are we excluded from the beautiful cycle of nature? Or maybe are we still included in it? ..). (Translated by E. Sadovsky). Here the protagonist is concerned about a partly philosophical question: is man a part of nature, and, if so, why those laws of nature that are valid for all living things are not applicable to human soul. In the quote below, Hyperion sadly recalls his teacher, spiritual mentor Adamas, to whom he owes a lot: "... Bald fürte mein Adamas in die Heroenwelt des Plutarch, bald in das Zauberland der griechischen Götter mich ein ..." [Band I, Erstes Buch, Hyperion an Bellarmin, s.16] (... My Adamas introduced me either to the world of Plutarch's heroes, or to the magical realm of the Greek gods ...). (Translated by E. Sadovsky).
2. Mosaic structure.
This feature is typical for individual letters of Hölderlin's novel. So, in one of the messages to Bellarmine, Hyperion reports that the island of Tinos has become small for him, he wanted to see the world. On the advice of his parents, he decides to go on a journey, then Hyperion tells about his journey to Smyrna, then he quite unexpectedly starts talking about the role of hope in a person’s life: “... Lieber! was wäre das Leben ohne Hoffnung?..”[Band I, Erstes Buch, Hyperion an Bellarmin, s.25] (…Honey! What would life be like without hope?..). (Translated by E. Sadovsky). Such “jumps” of the protagonist’s thoughts are explained by a certain looseness, meaningful freedom of the reasoning presented, which becomes possible due to the use of the epistolary form.
3. Compositional features. As for the construction of messages in Hölderlin's novel, it should be noted that for all letters, with the exception of single ones, it is characteristic that they lack the first and third etiquette parts. At the beginning of each letter, Hyperion does not greet his addressee; there are no greeting formulas and appeals to Bellarmine or Diotima. At the end of the message, words of farewell or any wishes to the addressee are not applied. Thus, almost all letters are characterized by the presence of only a business part, which contains the spiritual outpouring of the protagonist, his life stories: “Meine Insel war mir zu enge geworden, seit Adamas fort war. Ich hatte Jahre schon in Tina Langweilige. Ich wollt in die Welt…” (My island has become too small for me since Adamas left. I missed Tinos for many years. I wanted to see the world…). (Translated by E. Sadovsky). Or: “Ich lebe jetzt auf der Insel des Ajax, der teuern Salamis. Ich liebe dies Griechenland berall. Es trägt die Farbe meines Herzens ... "(I now live on the island of Ajax, on the priceless Salamis. This Greece is dear to me everywhere. She wears the color of my heart ...). (Translated by E. Sadovsky). As can be seen from the above quotes, almost every message Hyperion begins with a narrative. But at the same time, there are letters in the novel, where at the very beginning there is an etiquette part, but the number of such epistles is small. The main task of the narrator in this part is to establish contact with the addressee, please listen, understand and thereby help the main character overcome his spiritual crisis: “Kannst du es hören, wirst du es begreifen, wenn ich dir von meiner langen kranken Trauer sage?.. (Can you listen to me, will you understand me when I tell you about my long and excruciatingly painful sadness? ..). (Translated by E. Sadovsky). Or: “Ich will dir immer mehr von meiner Seligkeit erzählen…” (I want to tell you again and again about my past bliss…). (Translated by E. Sadovsky).
4. Speech image of the addressee. In the novel under study, there are two images of addressees: Hyperion's friend Bellarmine and beloved Diotima. In fact, both Bellarmine and Diotima are outside the scope of the text, since this correspondence is conventionally literary, secondary. The presence of these two images is carried out through the use of the following intertextual means of communication: appeals, imaginary dialogues, the presence of pronouns of the second person singular, imperative verbs: “Ich war einst glücklich, Bellarmin!..”, (I was once happy, Bellarmine!..), “…ich muss dir raten, dass du mich verlässest. meine Diotima." , (... I must advise you to part with me, my Diotima.), " … LdchleNur! Mir war es sehr ernst.", (... Laugh! I didn't feel like laughing at all.)," Frägst du, wie mir gewesen sei um dieseZeit?", (You ask how I felt then?), "... Hцrst du? Hörst du?..”, (Do you hear, do you hear?), “… Nimm mich, wie ich mich gebe, und Denke, dass es besser ist zu sterben, weil man lebte, als zu leben, weil man nie gelebt!.." to live, because he has never lived before! ..). (Translated by E. Sadovsky).
5. Dialogization and implementation of the communicative axis "I" - "you".
As for this communicative axis, it is certainly present in every letter of Hyperion: “I” is the narrator, Hyperion himself, “you” is the image of the addressee (either Bellarmine or Diotima, it depends on who the message is addressed to). This axis is implemented in letters through appeals, questions intended for the addressee. Dialogization, in its essence, implies the presence of a letter from the protagonist and a response message from the addressee. In Hölderlin's novel, one cannot observe the full implementation of this principle: Hyperion writes to his friend, but there are no letters in response from Bellarmine in the work. Presumably they could exist, the following lines of Hyperion's message testify to this: “ Frdgstdu, wiemirgewesenseiumdiesesZeit? , (You ask how I felt then?). (Translated by E. Sadovsky). This suggests that perhaps Hyperion had a letter from Bellarmine, where the latter was interested in what Hyperion in love felt, what emotions overwhelmed him. If we talk about the letters of Hyperion to Diotima, then they were not unanswered. Although there are only four letters of Diotima herself in the novel, we can state that in Hölderlin's work, the implementation of the principle of dialogization is observed.
6. Writing as a form of self-disclosure and self-determination.
Hölderlin did not accidentally choose an epistolary form for his novel, thanks to which the reliability of the events described is enhanced. Each letter resembles the confession of the protagonist. It is quite possible that Hölderlin's own philosophical concepts and ideological views were reflected in Hyperion's letters. So, in his message to Bellarmine, Hyperion writes: "... Eines zu sein mit allem, was lebt, in seliger Selbstvergessenheit wiederzukehren ins All der Natur, das ist der Gipfel der Gedanken und Freuden ...", (Merge into one with all living things, return to blissful self-forgetfulness into the all-being of nature - this is the pinnacle of aspirations and joys ..). (Translated by E. Sadovsky). And, according to the author himself, a person is a part of nature, when he dies, then in this way he returns to the bosom of nature, but only in a different capacity.
The protagonist of the novel is going through a severe mental crisis, which is caused by the fact that the participants in the battles for freedom, having won, become marauders. At the same time, Hyperion understands that violence will not bring freedom. He faces an insoluble contradiction: the creation of a state to preserve freedom inevitably leads to the loss of independence by a person. In fact, here Hölderlin refers to the events of the French Revolution and expresses his attitude towards them. At first, this popular movement engendered in the poet hopes for the renewal and spiritual improvement of mankind, as evidenced by the following lines from Hölderlin’s letter to his brother Karl: “... my cherished aspirations are that our grandchildren will be better than us, that freedom will certainly come someday that virtue, warmed by the sacred fire of freedom, will give better shoots than in the polar climate of despotism ... ”Hölderlin, F. Works / A.Deutsch // Friedrich Hölderlin / A.Deutsch. - Moscow: Fiction, 1969. - p. 455-456. . But later his enthusiasm disappears, the poet understands that with the advent of the revolution, society has not changed, it is impossible to build a state on tyranny and violence.
7. Stylistic features. Each message in this novel is characterized by pathos, high lyrics, ancient images: the very name of the protagonist Hyperion is the son of Earth and Sky, the father of the god of light Helios, which creates secondary plans in the characterization of the character, this connects him with the three gods of antiquity; events unfold in the mountains of Greece, but the place is most often not specified, only Athens becomes the center of attention, because their culture and social structure are especially close to the author. A wide layer of high vocabulary is used in Hyperion's letters: for example, in one of his first letters to Bellarmine, describing his attitude to nature, the protagonist uses the following words and expressions: der Wonnengesang des Frühlings (delightful song of spring), selige Natur (blissful nature) , verloren ins whitee Blau (get lost in the endless azure).
After analyzing the letters of Hyperion and Diotima, we can conclude that there are no significant differences at the level of style in them: both the messages of Hyperion and the Messages of Diotima sound sublime, pathetic. But there are other differences. It should be noted that Diotima is a woman, a woman in love, who is completely absorbed in this wonderful feeling, therefore her letters are more expressive, while Hyperion’s letters to Diotima, on the contrary, are more restrained, they mostly represent his reasoning, a presentation of military events, where they are used in mostly narrative sentences: "... Wir haben jetzt dreimal in einem fort gesiegt in kleinen Gefechten, wo aber die Kämpfer sich dürchkreuzten wie Blitze und alles eine verzehrende Flamme war ...", (... We won three times in a row in small skirmishes, in which, however, , the fighters collided like lightning, and everything merged into a single fatal flame ...), (translated by E. Sadovsky).
All of the above creates associations that make up the distinctive features of the poetics of the entire novel as a whole. As for the syntactic features, they are due to the fact that a separate message is a kind of co-reflection, which is characterized by the presence of interrogative sentences: “WeiЯt du, wie Plato und sein Stella sich liebten?” , (Do you know how Plato and his Stella loved each other?); persuasiveness, the use of words that form an extension: "Frägst du, wie mir gewesen sei um diese Zeit?" , (You ask how I felt then?); free syntax: the presence of incomplete sentences and self-interrupting sentences: "... Ein Funke, der aus der Kohle springt und verlischt ...", (... A spark flying out of hot coals and immediately dying out ...), (translated by E. Sadovsky).
Thus, based on the foregoing, it can be stated that all letters in Hölderlin's novel function as polysubjective dialogic structures, which are characterized by the presence of a narrator, the reconstruction of the speech image of the addressee, dialogization and the implementation of the communicative axis "I" - "you", the mosaic structure of the structure. But the messages of this epistolary work are characterized by compositional features, which consist in the absence of etiquette parts. hallmark each letter is the use of high style.
2.2 The interaction of traditional-classical and progressive form-building in the structurenovel by F.Hölderlin "Hyperion"
The description of the invariant structure of the epistolary novel by F. Hölderlin focuses on the functioning of writing in it as a speech genre and correspondence as a polysubjective dialogical structure within the novel as a whole. At the second communicative level, where not individual letters are analyzed, but the totality of epistles, the features of their interaction in the work, the novel in letters will be considered in three aspects:
In the compositional and speech aspect;
In the aspect of the inner world of the work;
In terms of artistic completion.
In the aspect of the compositional-speech whole, the opposition “part/whole” is relevant. Hölderlin's "Hyperion" is a collection of letters that resemble a lyrical diary-confession, the "chronicle of the soul" of the hero. According to the modern researcher of the novel N.T. Belyaeva, "the prose of the novel is built like a piece of music, the four books of Hyperion are like four parts of a symphony with a program." Based on this similarity, it is fair to say that F. Hölderlin, having combined verbal creativity with musical composition in his novel, approached the romantics.
Hölderlin's novel includes other inserted genres, here the external enters the world of the work through the internal, personal. Writing, as a form of expression of Hyperion's spiritual tension, has a multi-genre basis. As part of the letter, Hölderlin turns to short genres: dialogue, aphorism, fragment. The novel "Hyperion" is not replete with dialogical speech. The dialogues presented in the novel are built taking into account the complex properties and possibilities human memory, that is, a person cannot literally reproduce what he said or heard after a long period of time. A person remembers only the feelings that he experienced at that moment. This explains the fact that the dialogue lines are interrupted by the author's retelling of the characters' speech: “...Mit einmal stand der Mann vor mir, der an dem Ufer von Sevilla meiner einst sich angenommen hatte. Er freute sich sonderbar, mich wieder zu sehen, sagte mir, daI er sich meiner oft erinnert und fragte mich, wie mirґs indens ergangen sei…”
, (... Suddenly I saw a person in front of me - the same one who once took part in me on the outskirts of Seville. For some reason, he was very happy with me, said that he often remembers me, and asked how I was living ...), ( translation by E. Sadovsky).
The next distinguishing feature of the dialogues in the novel is the presence of the author's commentary of emotions, feelings after each uttered replica of the characters. The absence of these comments would turn the entire dialogue into an insignificant communication between the characters. The author's commentary is a means of expressing the inner world of the characters, revealing their special psychology. Below is a fragment of the dialogue, accompanied by the author's explanations:
Ist denn das wahr? erwidert ich mit Seufzen.
Wahr wie die Sonne, rief er, aber la I das gut sein! Es ist für alles gesorget.
Wieso, my Alabanda? sagt ich.
Or maybe it's not true? Sighing, I said.
As sure as the sun, he replied. But let's not talk about it! Everything is already predetermined.
How so, Alabanda?
(translated by E. Sadovsky).
It should be noted that dialogic speech in Hölderlin's work is not intended to give Additional information from the outside world, but in order to more deeply reveal the inner experiences of the characters.
F. Hölderlin often uses aphorisms in his novel, which are a generalized thought expressed in a concise, artistically pointed form. The topics of aphorisms presented in the work are quite diverse:
Man: “…Ja! Ein göttlich Wesen ist das Kind, solang es nicht in die Chamäleonsfarbe der Menschen getaucht ist…” fiction novel epistolary Hölderlin
His relationship with other people: "... Es ist erfreulich, wenn gleiches sich zu gleichem gesellt, aber es ist göttlich, wenn ein groЯer Mensch die kleineren zu sich aufzieht ...", (... It is joyful when an equal communicates with an equal, but divine when great person raises the little ones to himself ...) (translated by E. Sadovsky);
The inner world of man: "... Es ist doch ewig gewiЯ und zeigt sich berall: je unschuldiger, schöner eine Seele, desto vertrauter mit den andern glücklichen Leben, die man seelenlos nennt ...", (... There is an eternal truth, and it is universally confirmed: what the purer, more beautiful the soul, the more friendly it lives with other happy creatures, about which it is customary to say that they have no soul ...), (translated by E. Sadovsky).
His activities: “…O hdtt ich doch nie gehandelt! Um wie manche Hoffnung wär ich recher!..”, (…Oh, if I never acted, how much richer I would be in hopes!..) (translated by E. Sadovsky);
Nature, human perception and knowledge of nature: “…Eines zu sein mit allem, das ist Leben der Gottheit, das ist der Himmel des Menschen…” translation by E. Sadovsky).
Hölderlin's aphorisms reflected the originality of his thinking, the originality, the ambiguity of his ideas. If we talk about the architectonics of aphorisms, it is important to note their atypicality, emotionality, they widely use vivid imagery, a play on words.
One of the main forms artistic expression a fragment appears in the novel "Hyperion". By definition, V.I. Sinners, “a fragment is a clot of thought, monologue in form and dialogic in content, many fragments suggest an opponent; in their intonation, they are affirmative and interrogative at the same time, often have the character of reflections ”Greshnykh V.I. mystery of the spirit. Kaliningrad, 2001. pp. 42-43. The dialogues in Hölderlin's work consist of monologues, which, in their essence, are fragments. It is noteworthy that they have neither beginning nor end. The author's thought emerges from the depths of consciousness quite unexpectedly, without any reason, thus it violates the sequence of the narrative. The fragment also performs the function of retardation in the novel, that is, it delays the development of the storyline. With the help of a fragment, Hölderlin draws our attention to more significant segments of the novel, he enables the reader to more deeply comprehend what was read earlier. Hyperion's letters are essentially fragments that have different thematic lines: childhood, years of study, wanderings, friendship, love, loneliness. Each new letter is already a new story, it is formally completed, but in terms of its content it is not completed. Here the core of content is at the same time connecting. As you can see, the novel form is created by the content level of fragments - a description of Hyperion's life path from childhood to his perfection.
In the aspect of the inner world of the work, one of the key oppositions is the opposition "fiction/authenticity". As in other epistolary works, in Hyperion the problem of authenticity-fictitiousness is realized in the elements of the heading complex, as well as in the framing structures, which is Hölderlin's preface. As is known, only three versions of the preface have survived: to the Thalia Fragment, to the penultimate edition of the novel, and to the first volume of Hyperion. All three options are significantly different from each other. Traditionally, a prologue is a form of introduction to a work, where "the general meaning, plot or main motives of the work" are anticipated. The preface to the "Thalia Fragment" is a statement of the idea of the whole work, the writer's desire to create reflections on the ways of human existence. This part is perceived as an epigraph to everything that is said in Hyperion's letters to Bellarmine. Thus, Hölderlin sets the reader in advance to discover in the entire history of Hyperion the so-called eccentric path. The preface to the penultimate edition is a conversation between the writer and the reading public. In the preface to the novel (the latest version), the writer does not address the reader, but talks about them with an imaginary interlocutor. Hölderlin worries that he will remain misunderstood, that the meaning of the novel, which is so dear to him, will not be fully comprehended: indes die andern gar zu leicht es nehmen, und beede Teile verstehen es nicht ... ", (... But I'm afraid some will read it as a compendium, trying to comprehend only fabula docet What this story teaches (lat.), while others will perceive it too superficially, so that neither one nor the other will understand it ...), (translated by E. Sadovsky). Thus, the preface to "Hyperion" is one of the epistles created by the author and addressed directly to readers, this is one of the original channels of communication between the author and readers.
To create the effect of authenticity, reality, Hölderlin resorts to the method of rewriting letters: Hyperion does not just recall incidents from life, but rewrites letters from ancient times - his letters to Bellarmine, to Diotima, to Notara. This kind of "documentary" makes the events of the novel more sincere, believable.
The ratio of external and internal at the level of the plot organization of "Hyperion" is realized as a parallel existence and development of two plots: the plot of correspondence and the plot of the real life of the characters. Through the opposition "external / internal" in Hölderlin's work, the structure of time and space - the chronotope - can be considered. The topical structure of the novel is due to the complex interaction of the internal space of correspondence and the external space of the hero's "real life". These two spaces interpenetrate and mutually influence each other. The space of "real life" begins where the correspondent's letter ends, signs of real life are outlined: "...Und nun kein Wort mehr, Bellarmin! Es wäre zuviel für mein geduldiges Herz. Ich bin erschüttert, wie ich fühle. Aber ich will hinausgehn unter die Pflanzen und Bäume und unter sie hin mich legen und beten, daI die Natur zu solcher Ruhe mich bringe…” I'm exhausted, I feel it, but I'll go wander among the grasses and trees, then I'll lie down under the foliage and pray that nature will grant me the same peace...) (translated by E. Sadovsky). Thus, the epistolary space is violated here, and the reader is transferred to another space - “real”, which differs from the space of correspondence in that it is a space of concepts, this is not yet felt, not experienced by the main character.
As for the category of time, at the moment of narration in the novel, the past is opposed to the present. In "Hyperion" describes mainly the events of the past days. At the beginning of the work, Hyperion appears before the readers, who has already “survived his story”, he sets it out in letters to his friend Bellarmine, and at the end of the novel everything returns to the starting point. Based on this, a special compositional principle, which was designated by K.G. Khanmurzaev as “compositional inversion”.
From the foregoing, it follows that the totality of letters in F. Hölderlin's epistolary novel functions as a polysubjective dialogic structure as part of the novel whole, which is considered in three aspects, they, in turn, are determined by three oppositions. The opposition "part/whole" is realized through the use of inserted genre formations by the author: dialogues, aphorisms, fragments. The opposition "fictitiousness / authenticity" is carried out due to the presence of a framing structure - a preface, where Hölderlin expresses the search for the meaning of human existence. And, finally, the opposition “external/internal”, through which the chronotope is presented in the work. The categories of time and space in "Hyperion" are multifaceted, they enter into a complex relationship and, at the same time, are one of the forms of depicting the inner world of the protagonist.
Conclusion
Having completed this study, we can conclude that the epistolary novel as a genre of literature is a prose narrative of any size, which is mostly or entirely fictional. In such works, through writing, the meaning is conveyed and the plot of the novel is constructed as a whole.
The particular popularity of the epistolary form in the 18th century is explained by the fact that the use of this genre enhances the authenticity and plausibility of the events described.
F. Hölderlin's epistolary novel is part of the epistolographic experience of the 18th century. Creating his novel, the writer resorts to using the achievements of the epistolary genre: Richardson's revelation, Goethe's emotionality, free handling of form.
After analyzing this novel, we came to the conclusion that each individual message in "Hyperion" functions as a polysubjective dialogic structure, for which the presence of a narrator is necessary, the reconstruction of the speech image of the addressee, dialogization and the implementation of the communicative axis "I" - "you", the mosaic structure of the structure . The peculiarity of the letters of Hölderlin's novel lies in their construction: in all messages there is a lack of etiquette parts. A distinctive feature of each letter is the writer's use of a lofty, pathetic style.
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Hölderlin's home, c. 1840
Hölderlin Tower, Tübingen
In addition to Hyperion, after Hölderlin there was still the unfinished tragedy The Death of Empedocles - a lyrical poem in dramatic form, serving, like Hyperion, as an expression of the poet's personal mood; translations from Sophocles - "Antigone" and "Oedipus Rex" - and a number of lyric poems. Hölderlin's lyrics are imbued with a pantheistic worldview: Christian ideas seep as if by accident; in general, the mood of Hölderlin is the mood of a pagan Hellene, in awe of the greatness of divine nature. Hölderlin's poems are rich in ideas and feelings, sometimes sublime, sometimes tender and melancholic; the language is extremely musical and brilliant vivid images, especially in numerous descriptions of nature.
Disease .
In the history of literature Hölderlin is a tragic figure. In the thirty-first year of his life, the poet, who had already been melancholic, dreamy and overly sensitive, falls into an incurable madness, and he spends the rest of his long seventy-three years of life in Tübingen in the Hölderlin castle above the Neckar, immersed in the darkness of schizophrenic psychosis. In one of the windows of the castle one could often see a strange figure in a white pointed cap, which, like a ghost, now appeared and then disappeared. Impressed by this picture, the young student Mörike wrote a fantastic ballad about a fiery horseman: “See over there, in the window, / The red hat again ...”. However, the gradual cooling of feelings and the rigor of the soul could be felt many years before the outbreak of the actual psychosis in the sounds of Hölderin's poems, from which it breathes schizophrenic horror, gradually turning his own spirit and the world around him into a world of ghosts.
“So where are you? I lived little, but my evening
Already breathing cold. And I'm already here
The shadow of silence; already silently
Dormant, shuddering in the chest, the heart.
Hölderlin, who was distinguished by an extremely sensitive, tender mental organization in need of protection, was a deeply religious nature. Already in the last years of his madness, he suddenly asked the skilled carpenter Zimmer, who was following him, to make a Greek temple for him from wood, and wrote the following words on the board:
"The zigzags of life will draw such
That the path of the path and the slope of the mountain will remind
The God of Eternity will fulfill us here
Harmony, retribution and peace.
Hölderlin's feelings were often wounded even before his illness. Inwardly, he could never bridge the deep gulf between the autistic dreams of his tender and proud soul and the raw, traumatic realities of the human world. But a strongly developed sense of spiritual independence did not allow him to seek in the teachings of the church the satisfaction of his inner need for "harmony and peace." Therefore, his religious feeling found a very revealing outlet for itself in modest deep pantheism, which from his very youth remained with him a kind of starting point for his personality and his poetic work. He himself points out the internal sources of this mystical love for nature in the ode "Cranky". “I understood the silence of the ether, I did not understand the human word. The harmony of whispering oak forests is my teacher, among the flowers I learned to love. And I grew up in the hands of the gods.
Recognition and legacy.
"Hölderlin's revival" is a significant trend in the movement of world poetry in the second half of the 20th - early 21st centuries. This refers to the translations and arrangements of his poems, which the greatest poets of different languages devote their strength to during this period, and to the wider experience of assimilation of the poetics of both his early, romantic, and later works. His works were not only translated and re-studied, but publicly recited (for example, in Berlin in the expressionist "New Club").
Poetry, prose, translations and the very figure of Hölderlin gave an impetus to the thinking of philosophers and theologians (Wilhelm Dilthey, Friedrich Nietzsche, Karl Jaspers, Martin Heidegger, Walter Benjamin, Maurice Blanchot, Aris Fioretos, Romano Guardini, Hans Küng), philologists (Roman Jacobson, Peter Szondi), to the work of writers (Stefan Zweig, Georg Geim, Peter Hertling, etc.). Among the initiators of Hölderlin's Russian translations are Mikhail Tsetlin (Amari) and Yakov Golosovker, his poems were translated by Arkady Steinberg, Sergei Petrov, Efim Etkind, Greinem Ratgauz, Vladimir Mikushevich, Sergei Averintsev, Vyacheslav Kupriyanov.
Quote from Friedrich Hölderlin What has always turned the state into a hell on earth is man's attempts to make it an earthly paradise." is the epigraph to the chapter "Great Utopia" of the book Nobel laureate in economics F. von Hayek "Road to slavery".
In 1983, the German sculptor Angela-Isabella Laich creates a marble sculpture "
The glory of Hölderlin is the glory of a poet of a lofty Hellenic ideal. Anyone who has read Hölderlin's works knows that his understanding of antiquity is different, darker, more imbued with the idea of suffering, than the bright utopia created by the Renaissance and the Enlightenment era. This testifies to the later nature of his worldview. However, Hölderlin's Hellenism has nothing to do with academic Classicism XIX century or with Nietzsche's later crudely modernized Hellenism. The key to understanding Hölderlin lies in the originality of his view of Greek culture.
Marx, with inimitable clarity, revealed the social basis of admiration for antiquity during the period of the French Revolution. "... No matter how heroic bourgeois society may be, heroism, self-sacrifice, terror, internecine war and battles of peoples were needed for its birth. In the classically strict traditions of the Roman Republic, fighters for bourgeois society found ideals and artificial forms illusions that they need in order to hide from themselves the bourgeois-limited content of their struggle, in order to keep their enthusiasm at the height of the great historical tragedy.
Germany of the Hölderlin era was still far from ripe for a bourgeois revolution, but the flames of heroic illusions should already have flared up in the heads of its advanced ideologists. The transition from the age of heroes, from the ideal of the republic, revived by Robespierre and Saint-Just, to the prose of capitalist relations is carried out here purely ideologically, without a previous revolution.
Three young students of the Tübingen Seminary greeted with enthusiasm the great days of the liberation of France. With youthful enthusiasm they planted the tree of freedom, danced around it and swore eternal fidelity to the ideal of the liberation struggle. This trinity - Hegel, Hölderlin, Schelling - represents in the future three possible types of development of the German intelligentsia in connection with the development of revolutionary events in France. Schelling's life path is finally lost in the obscurantism of the romantic reaction of the early 1940s. Hegel and Hölderlin did not change their revolutionary oath, but the difference between them is still very great. They represent two paths along which the preparations for the bourgeois revolution in Germany could and should have proceeded.
Both friends had not yet had time to master the ideas of the French Revolution, when in Paris the head of Robespierre had already rolled off the scaffold, Thermidor began and after it the Napoleonic period. The elaboration of their world outlook had to be carried out on the basis of this turn in the revolutionary development of France. But with Thermidor, the prosaic content of the ideal ancient form came to the fore more clearly - bourgeois society with all its unchanging progressiveness and all its repulsive sides. The Napoleonic period in France still retained, albeit in a modified form, a touch of heroism and a taste for antiquity. He confronted the German bourgeois ideologists with two contradictory facts. On the one hand, France was the bright ideal of national greatness, which could flourish only on the soil of a victorious revolution, and on the other hand, french emperor brought Germany into a state of deepest national humiliation. In the German countries there were no objective conditions for a bourgeois revolution that would have been able to oppose Napoleon's aspirations for the revolutionary defense of the fatherland (just as France in 1793 defended itself from intervention). Therefore, an insoluble dilemma was created for the bourgeois-revolutionary aspirations for national liberation, which was supposed to lead the German intelligentsia to reactionary romance. "All the wars of independence that were being waged against France at that time," says Marx, "were of a dual character: revival and reaction at the same time."
Neither Hegel nor Hölderlin joined this reactionary romantic trend. This is their common feature. However, their attitude to the situation after Thermidor is diametrically opposed. Hegel builds his philosophy on the basis of the completion of the revolutionary period of bourgeois development. Hölderlin does not compromise with bourgeois society, he remains true to the old democratic ideal of the Greek polis and collapses when confronted with the reality that expelled similar ideals even from the world of poetry and philosophy.
Nevertheless, Hegel's philosophical reconciliation with the actual development of society made possible the further development of philosophy in the direction of materialistic dialectics (created by Marx in the struggle against Hegel's idealism).
On the contrary, Hölderlin's intransigence led him to a tragic dead end: unknown and unmourned, he fell, defending himself against the muddy wave of Thermidorianism, like a poetic Leonid, faithful to the ancient ideals of the Jacobin period.
Hegel moved away from the republican views of his youth and came to admiration for Napoleon, and then to the philosophical glorification of the Prussian constitutional monarchy. This development of the great German philosopher is a well-known fact. But, on the other hand, returning from the realm of ancient illusions to the real world, Hegel made profound philosophical discoveries; he unraveled the dialectic of bourgeois society, although it appears in him in an idealistically distorted form, put on its head.
The conquests of the classics of English economic thought are for the first time included in Hegel's general dialectical conception of world history. The Jacobin ideal of equality of property based on private property is disappearing, giving way to a cynical recognition of the contradictions of capitalism in the spirit of Ricardo. "Factories, manufactories base their existence precisely on the poverty of a certain class," writes Hegel after his turn to bourgeois reality. The ancient republic, as an ideal to be realized, leaves the stage. Greece becomes a distant past that will never return.
Historical meaning This position of Hegel lies in the fact that he understood the movement of the bourgeoisie as an integral process in which revolutionary terror, Thermidorianism and the Napoleonic empire are consecutive moments of development. The heroic period of the bourgeois revolution becomes for Hegel an irretrievable past, just like the ancient republic, but such a past that was absolutely necessary for the emergence of an everyday bourgeois society, now recognized as historically progressive.
Deep philosophical virtues are closely intertwined in this theory with admiration for the prevailing order of things. And yet, turning to the reality of bourgeois society, renouncing the Jacobin illusions was for Hegel the only way to a dialectical interpretation of history.
Hölderlin invariably refuses to acknowledge the correctness of this path. Some of the development of society during the decline of the French Revolution was reflected in his worldview. In the so-called. the Frankfurt period of Hegel's development, during his "Thermidorian turn", both thinkers again lived and worked together. But for Hölderlin, the "Thermidorian turn" means only the elimination of the ascetic elements of the Hellenic ideal, a more decisive emphasis on Athens as a model, as opposed to the dry Spartan or Roman virtue of French Jacobinism. Hölderlin continues to be a Republican. In his later work, the hero answers the inhabitants of Agrigentum, who offer him the crown: "Now is not the time to choose a king." And he preaches - of course, in mystical forms - the ideal of a complete revolutionary renewal of mankind:
What did they find, what did they honor,
What did the ancestors pass on to you, fathers, -
Law, ritual, deities of the ancient name, -
Forget you. To divine nature
Like newborns, look up!
This nature is the nature of Rousseau and Robespierre. This is a dream of restoring the complete harmony of man with society, which has become second nature, restoring the harmony of man with nature. "What was nature has become an ideal," says Hölderlin's Hyperion in the spirit of Schiller, but with great revolutionary pathos.
It is precisely this ideal, which was once a living reality, the nature of which, for Hölderlin, is Hellenism.
"Once peoples came out of the harmony of children," Hyperion continues, "the harmony of spirits will be the beginning of a new world history."
"All for one and one for all!" - such is the social ideal of Hyperion, rushing into the revolutionary struggle for the armed liberation of Greece from the Turkish yoke. This is the dream of a national liberation war, which at the same time must become a war for the liberation of all mankind. The radical dreamers of the great revolution, like Anacharsis Kloots, hoped for the wars of the French Republic in much the same way. Hyperion says: "Let no one recognize our people from now on by the flag alone. Everything must be renewed, everything must become radically different: pleasure - full of seriousness, and work - fun. Nothing, the most insignificant, everyday, does not dare to be without spirit and gods Love, hatred and our every exclamation must alienate the vulgarity of the world from us, and even a moment does not dare, at least once, to remind us of the base past.
Thus Hölderlin passes over the limitations and contradictions of the bourgeois revolution. Therefore, his theory of society is lost in mysticism, the mysticism of confused forebodings of a real social upheaval, a real renewal of mankind. These forebodings are much more utopian than the utopias of individual dreamers of pre-revolutionary and revolutionary France. In undeveloped Germany, Hölderlin did not even see the simple beginnings, the germs of those social tendencies that could lead him beyond the bourgeois horizon. His utopia is purely ideological. It is a dream of the return of a golden age, a dream in which the presentiment of the development of bourgeois society is combined with the ideal of some real emancipation of mankind. Curiously, Hölderlin constantly struggles with a reassessment of the role of the state. This is especially striking in Hyperion. Meanwhile, his utopian concept of the state of the future is basically not far from the ideas of the first liberal ideologists of Germany, like Wilhelm Humboldt.
For Hölderlin, only a new religion, a new church, can be the cornerstone of the rebirth of society. This kind of turning to religion (with a complete break with the official religion) is very typical of many revolutionary minds of that time, who wanted to deepen the revolution, but did not find a real way to this deepening. The most striking example is the cult of the "Supreme Being" introduced by Robespierre.
Hölderlin could not avoid this concession to religion. His Hyperion wants to limit the limits of state power and at the same time dreams of the emergence of a new church, which should become the bearer of his social ideals. The typical character of this utopia is confirmed by the fact that at a certain time it also appears in Hegel. After his "Thermidorian turn" Hegel was also seized with the idea of a new religion, "which includes endless pain and all the burden of its opposite, which, however, is removed untouched and pure if it arises. free people and if for reason its reality is reborn as a moral spirit, which finds courage in its own soil and from its own greatness to take on its pure image.
Within the framework of such representations, the drama of Hyperion is played out. The starting point of the action is the attempted uprising of the Greeks against the Turks in 1770, which was carried out with the help of the Russian fleet. The internal action of the novel is created by the struggle of two directions in the realization of Hölderlin's revolutionary utopia. The war hero Alabanda, who has been given the features of Fichte, represents the trend of armed rebellion. The heroine of the novel, Diotima, is a trend of ideological-religious, peaceful enlightenment; she wants to make Hyperion the educator of her people. The conflict ends first with the victory of the militant principle. Hyperion joins Alabanda to prepare and carry out an armed uprising. To Diotima's warning - "You will win and forget what you won in the name of" - Hyperion replies: "Slavery service kills, but right-wing war makes every soul alive." Diotima sees the tragic conflict that lies in this for Hyperion, i.e., after all, for Hölderlin: "Your overflowing soul commands you. Not to follow her is often death, but to follow her is an equal share." The disaster is coming. After several victorious skirmishes, the rebels occupy Mysistra, the former Sparta. But after the capture, robberies and murders take place in it. Hyperion turns his back on the rebels in disappointment. "And to think what an incongruous project: to create Elysium with the help of a gang of robbers!"
Soon after, the rebels are decisively defeated and dispersed. Hyperion seeks death in the battles of the Russian fleet, but in vain.
This attitude of Hölderlin towards armed insurrection was not new in Germany. Hyperion's repentant mood is a repetition of Schiller's Karl Moor's despair at the end of The Robbers: "Two people like me could destroy the entire edifice of the moral world." It is by no means accidental that the Hellenizing classic Hölderlin highly valued Schiller's youthful dramas until the very end of his conscious life. He substantiates this assessment with compositional analyses, but the real reason lies in his spiritual relationship with Schiller. However, along with this closeness, the differences between them should also be highlighted. The young Schiller recoiled in horror not only from the severity of the revolutionary methods, but also from the radical content of the revolution. He fears that during the coup they would collapse moral foundations world (bourgeois society). Hölderlin is not at all afraid of this: he does not feel himself inwardly connected with any visible form of manifestation of society. He hopes precisely for a complete revolution - a revolution in which nothing would remain of the current state of society. Hölderlin retreats in horror before the revolutionary element, he is afraid of the decisiveness of the revolutionary method, believing, like every idealist, that the use of force can only perpetuate the old social conditions in a new form.
This tragic split was insurmountable for Hölderlin, for it stemmed from the class relations of Germany. With all the historically necessary illusions about the revival of antiquity, the revolutionary Jacobins in France drew their impulses, their energy from their connection with the plebeian elements of the revolution. Relying on the masses, they could - of course, very briefly and contradictoryly - fight against the egoistic baseness, and cowardice and greed of the French bourgeoisie, and move the bourgeois revolution further by plebeian methods. The anti-bourgeois trait of this plebeian revolutionary spirit is very strong in Hölderlin. His Alabanda says of the bourgeoisie: “They don’t ask you if you want. You never want, you slaves and barbarians! remove you from the victorious path of mankind."
That is how the Parisian Jacobin of 1793 might have spoken, with the noisy approval of the plebeian masses. Such a mood in Germany in 1797 meant a hopeless isolation from the real social situation: there was no such social class to which these words could be addressed. After the collapse of the Mainz uprising, Georg Forster could at least go to revolutionary Paris. For Hölderlin there was no homeland either in Germany or outside of Germany. There is nothing surprising in the fact that the path of Hyperion after the collapse of the revolution is lost in hopeless mysticism, that Alabanda and Diotima perish due to the collapse of Hyperion; there is nothing surprising in the fact that the next great work of Hölderlin, which remained in the form of a fragment, the tragedy "Empedocles", has a theme of sacrificial death.
Reaction has long clung to this mystical disintegration of Hölderlin's world outlook. After the official German history of literature had for a long time interpreted Hölderlin's work as a small episode, a by-product of romance (Heim),
it was "discovered" again during the imperialist period in order to be used in the interests of reaction. Dilthey makes him a predecessor of Schopenhauer and Nietzsche. Gundolf already distinguishes between Hölderlin's "primary" and "secondary" experiences.
Dilthey and Gundolph imagine that one can reveal the innermost essence of Hölderlin's work by sweeping aside the "time-conditioned" features. Hölderlin himself knew very well that the elegiac feature of his poetry, his yearning for the lost Greece, in short, what was essential to him politically, was wholly conditioned by time. Hyperion says: “But this, this pain. Nothing compares to it. It is an incessant feeling of complete annihilation, when our life loses its meaning so much, when you already say this to yourself in your heart: you must disappear, and nothing will remind you of you; you did not plant a flower, and you did not build a shack, in order to have at least the right to say: and my trace was left on the earth ... Enough, enough! If I grew up with Themistocles, if I lived under the Scipios, my soul would truly never I found myself like this."
And the mysticism of nature? And what about the fusion of nature and culture, man and deity in the "experience" of Hellenism? So the modern admirer of Hölderlin, influenced by Dilthey or Gundolf, may object. We have already pointed out the Rousseauist character of Hölderlin's cult of nature and the cult of antiquity. In the long poem "The Archipelago" (which Gundolf chose as the starting point for his interpretation of Hölderlin), Greek nature and the greatness of the Athenian culture that grew out of it are depicted with a captivating elegiac pathos. However, at the end of the poem, Hölderlin, with the same pathetic force, says the following about the cause of his grief:
Alas! Everything wanders in the darkness of the night, as if in an Orc,
Our race, not knowing God. chained people
Rock to your needs, and in the smoky, rumbling forge
Everyone only hears himself, and madmen work
With a powerful hand relentlessly. But forever and ever
Like fury labors, the efforts of the unfortunate are fruitless
Such places in Hölderlin are not isolated. After the struggle for freedom in Greece was suppressed and Hyperion experienced deep disappointment, at the end of the novel, Hölderlin turns against contemporary Germany. This chapter is an angry prose ode to the degradation of man in the miserable philistine narrow world of emerging German capitalism. The ideal of Greece, as a unity of culture and nature, in Hölderlin is an accusation of the modern world, a call (albeit vain) to action, to the destruction of this miserable reality.
The "subtle analysis" of Dilthey and Gundolf removes from Hölderlin's work any traits of social tragedy and provides the basis for the crudely demagogic falsifications of the fascist "historians of literature." Praying for Hölderlin as the great forerunner of the Third Empire is now considered by fascist writers good tone. Meanwhile, to prove that Hölderlin had such views that would make him related to the ideologists of fascism is an impossible task. It was easier for Gundolf to cope with his task, since his theory of art for art's sake allowed him to appreciate art form Hölderlin's works, and because of this, the internal contradictions of the false image he created were not immediately evident.
Taking this "subtle analysis" as a basis, Rosenberg makes of Hölderlin the representative of the German "purely racial" yearning of the spirit. He tries to entangle Hölderlin in the social demagogy of National Socialism. “Didn’t Hölderlin,” says Rosenberg, making demagogic attacks against the capitalists, “didn’t suffer from these people already at a time when they did not yet rule over our life as omnipotent bourgeois; already when, in search of great souls, Hyperion had to make sure that thanks to diligence, science, thanks even to their religion, they became only barbarians? Hyperion found only artisans, thinkers, priests, bearers of various titles, but he did not find people; in front of him were only factory products without spiritual unity, without internal impulses, without vitality ". However, Rosenberg is careful not to specify this social critique of Hölderlin. The point boils down to the fact that Hölderlin is declared to be the bearer of Rosenberg's nonsense about the "aesthetic will."
The later drawings of the fascist portrait of Hölderlln are sustained in the same spirit. A number of articles reveal a "great turn" in Hölderlin's life: his departure from the "eighteenth century", his conversion to Christianity, and at the same time, to the fascist-romantic "German reality". Hölderlin is to be included in a romance specially designed in a fascist fashion and delivered next to Novalis and Geres. Matthes Ziegler in the National Socialist Monthly portrays Meister Eckhardt, Hölderlin, Kierkegaard and Nietzsche as the forerunners of fascism. “The tragedy of Hölderlin,” writes Ziegler, “was that he left human society before he was given to see the creation of a new society. He remained alone, misunderstood by his era, but took with him faith in the future. He did not want to revive ancient Greece, did not want any new Greece, but found in Hellenism the northern heroic core of life that perished in Germany of his time, while only from this core can the future society grow.He had to speak the language of his time and use the ideas of his time and that is why it is often difficult for us, the people of today, shaped by the experiences of our modern times, to understand it. But our struggle to create an empire is a struggle for the same thing that Hölderlin could not do, for the time had not yet come. So Hölderlin is Hitler's predecessor! It is hard to imagine a more wild delirium. In depicting Hölderlin, the National Socialist writers go even further than Dilthey and Gundolf, making his image even more abstract, even more devoid of any individual and socio-historical features. The Hölderlin of the German fascists is any romantic poet stylized in a brown spirit: he is almost no different from Georg Buchner, who was also slandered, turning into a representative of "heroic pessimism", a precursor of Nietzsche-Beumler's "heroic realism". Fascist falsification of history paints every image brown.
Hölderlin is by no means a romantic, per se, although his critique of developing capitalism bears some romantic features. If the romantics, beginning with the economist Sismondi and ending with the mystic poet Novalis, flee from capitalism into the world of a simple commodity economy and oppose the orderly Middle Ages to the anarchist bourgeois system, Hölderlin criticizes bourgeois society from a completely different side. Like the romantics, he hates the capitalist division of labor, but, according to Hölderlin, the most essential moment in the degradation of man, which must be fought, is the loss of freedom. And this idea of freedom tends to go beyond the narrowly understood political freedom of bourgeois society. The difference in subject matter between Hölderlin and the Romantics - Greece versus the Middle Ages - is thus a political difference.
Plunging into the festive mysteries of ancient Greece, Hölderlin mourns the lost democratic community. In this he not only goes hand in hand with the young Hegel, but follows, in essence, the path blazed by Robespierre and the Jacobins. In a long speech, which served as an introduction to the cult of the “higher being”, Robespierre says: “The true priest of the Supreme Being is nature; his temple is the universe; his cult is virtue; his holidays are the joy of a great people, united before his eyes, in order to closer to tie the bonds of universal brotherhood and to offer him the veneration of sensitive and pure hearts." In the same speech, he refers to the Greek festivals as a prototype of this democratic-republican education of the liberated people.
Of course, the mystical elements of Hölderlin's poetry go far beyond the limits of those heroic illusions that Robespierre had. These elements are longing for death, sacrificial death, death as a means to unite with nature. But Hölderlin's mysticism of nature is also not wholly reactionary. A Russoist-revolutionary source constantly peeps through it. As an idealist, Hölderlin involuntarily had to strive to elevate the socially determined tragedy of his strivings to the level of cosmic tragedy. However, his idea of sacrificial death is clearly pantheistic, anti-religious in nature. Before Alabanda goes to his death, he says: "... If the potter's hand created me, then let him break his vessel as he pleases. But what lives there is not born, then already in his seed is divine in nature, it is above all power, all art, and therefore indestructible, eternal. His life was not "created by God".
Almost the same thing is written by Diotima in his farewell letter to Hyperion about "the divine freedom that death gives us." "Even if I turned into a plant, is it really such a big deal? I will exist. How could I disappear from the sphere of life, where all animals are connected by the same eternal love common to all? How could I fall out of the bond that holds all beings?"
If the modern reader wants to gain a historically correct point of view on German natural philosophy at the beginning of the 19th century, then he must never forget that this was the era of the discovery of the dialectic of nature (of course, in an idealistic and abstract form). This is the period of the natural philosophy of Goethe, the young Hegel and the young Schelling. (Marx wrote about Schelling's "sincere youthful thought"). This is a period in which mysticism is not only a dead ballast, preserved from the theological past, but often, in an almost inseparable form, an idealistic fog that envelops the paths of dialectical knowledge that have not yet been found, vaguely guessed. Just as at the beginning of bourgeois development, in the Renaissance, in Bacon's materialism, the intoxication with new knowledge assumes excessive and fantastic forms, so it is at the beginning of the 19th century, with the flourishing of the dialectical method. What Marx says about Bacon's philosophy ("Matter smiles with its poetic, sensuous brilliance at all man. But Bacon's teaching, expressed in aphoristic form, is still full of theological inconsistency") applies - mutatis mutandis - to our period as well. Hölderlin himself takes an active part in the initial development of the dialectical method. He is not only a companion of youth, but also a philosophical companion of Schelling and Hegel. Hyperion speaks of Heraclitus, and Heraclitus's "in itself distinct unity" is for him the starting point of thinking. "It is the essence of beauty, and before it was found, there was no beauty." Thus, for Hölderlin, philosophy is also identical with dialectics. Of course, with an idealistic dialectic that is still lost in mysticism.
This mysticism stands out in Hölderlin especially sharply, because it has an essential task for him: to transform the tragedy of his situation into something cosmic, to indicate a way out of the historical hopelessness of this situation - the path to meaningful death. However, this perspective, lost in a mystical fog, is also a common feature of his era. The death of Hyperion and Empedocles is no more mystical than the fate of Macaria in Goethe's Wandering Years, or the fate of Louis Lambert and Seraphite in Balzac. And just as this mystical shade, inseparable from the work of Goethe and Balzac, cannot eliminate the high realism of this work, in the same way the mysticism of sacrificial death in Hölderlin does not eliminate the revolutionary character of his poetry.
Hölderlin is one of the most profound elegiacs of all times and peoples. In his definition of an elegy, Schiller says: "In an elegy, grief should flow only from the animation awakened by the ideal." With severity, perhaps too straightforward, Schiller condemns all representatives of the elegiac genre, who are sad only about the fate of a private person (like Ovid). In Hölderlin's poetry, the fate of the individual and society merges into a rare tragic harmony. Hölderlin failed in everything in his life. He failed to rise above the material level of a home teacher, and further as a home teacher Hölderlin could not create a tolerable existence for himself. As a poet, despite the benevolent patronage of Schiller, despite the praise of the most significant critic of that time, A. V. Schlegel, he remained in obscurity. His love for Suzette Gontar ended in a tragic renunciation. Hölderlin's external as well as internal life was so hopeless that many historians saw something fatally necessary even in the madness that ended his life development.
However, the mournful nature of Hölderlin's poetry has nothing to do with a complaint about an unfortunate personal life. The unchanging content of his complaints forms a contrast between Hellenism, once lost but subject to a revolutionary revival, and the meagerness of German modernity. Hölderlin's grief is a pathetic indictment against his era. This is an elegiac sadness about the lost revolutionary illusions of the "heroic period" of bourgeois society. This is a complaint about the hopeless loneliness of the individual, which is created by iron necessity. economic development society.
The flame of the French Revolution was extinguished. But the historical movement could still give rise to fiery souls. In Stendhal's Julien Sorel, the revolutionary fire of the Jacobin era still lives on just as it does in Hölderlin's images. Although in Stendhal's worldview hopelessness has a completely different character, although the image of Julien is not an elegiac complaint, but a type of person fighting against the social baseness of the Restoration era with the help of hypocritical and Machiavellian means, nevertheless, the social roots of this hopelessness here are the same Julien Sorel also does not go further pseudo-heroic sacrificial death, and after a life full of unworthy hypocrisy, finally throws his contempt of an indignant plebeian into the face of a hated society. In England, the belated Jacobins - Keats and Shelley - came forward as supporters of an elegiacly colored classicism. In this respect they are closer to Hölderlin than to Stendhal. Keats' life had many similarities with Hölderlin's, but in Shelley a new sun breaks through mystical mist and elegiac melancholy. In the largest of his poetic fragments, Keats laments the fate of the titans, defeated by the new low gods. Does Shelley also sing of this theogony? - the struggle of old and new deities, the struggle of Prometheus against Zeus. The usurpers - the new gods - are defeated, and the freedom of mankind, the restoration of the "golden age", opens with a solemn hymn. Shelley - poet rising sun proletarian revolution. His release of Prometheus is a call to revolt against capitalist exploitation:
Let the tyrant not reap your sowing,
The fruit of your hands will not go to swindlers.
Weave a cloak and wear it yourself.
Forge a sword, but for self-defense.
Around 1819 this poetic vision was possible in England for a revolutionary genius like Shelley. In Germany at the end of the 18th century, it was not possible for anyone. The contradictions in Germany's internal and world-historical position pushed the German bourgeois intelligentsia into the swamp of romantic obscurantism; Goethe and Hegel's "reconciliation with reality" saved from destruction the best of the revolutionary heritage of bourgeois thought, although in many respects in a reduced and reduced form. On the contrary, heroic intransigence, devoid of revolutionary ground, was bound to lead Hölderlin into a hopeless dead end. Indeed, Hölderlin is the only poet of his kind who did not and could not have any followers - however, not at all because he was not genius enough, but because his position was historically unique. Some later Hölderlin, who failed to rise to the level of Shelley, would no longer be Hölderlin, but only a limited "classic" in the liberal high school spirit. In the Correspondence of 1843, published in the German-French Yearbooks, Ruge begins his letter to Hölderlin's famous complaint against Germany. Marx answers him: “Your letter, my dear friend, is a good elegy, a soul-rending funeral song; but there is absolutely nothing political in it. many years, he will fulfill, in a moment of sudden enlightenment, all his pious wishes.
The praise of Marx can be attributed to Hölderlin, for Ruge later on only flatly varies his aphorisms, while the censure applies to all those who tried to renew the elegiac tone of Hölderlin's poetry after the justifying reason - the objective hopelessness of his position - was abolished by history itself.
Hölderlin could not have had any poetic followers. The later disillusioned poets of the 19th century (in Western Europe) complain about their personal fate, much smaller. Where they mourn the miserable nature of all their contemporary life, their mourning is devoid of the deep and pure faith in humanity with which it is inextricably linked in Hölderlin. This contrast lifts our poet high above the common false dilemma of the 19th century, he does not belong to the category of flat optimists, but at the same time he cannot be classified as desperate. Stylistically, Hölderlin avoids academic objectivism, and at the same time he is free from impressionistic vagueness. His lyrics are devoid of didactic dryness, but the lack of thought inherent in "mood poetry" does not belong to Hölderlin's vices. Hölderlin's lyrics are the lyrics of thought. The Jacobin ideal of the Greek republic and the miserable bourgeois reality - both sides of the contradiction of this era - live in his poetry in a real, sensual life. Hölderlin's enduring greatness lies in the masterful poetic treatment of this theme, the theme of his whole life. He not only fell as a martyr of revolutionary thought on the abandoned barricade of Jacobinism, but turned his martyrdom into an immortal song.
The novel "Hyperion" also has a lyric-elegiac character. Hölderlin tells less than complains and accuses. However, bourgeois historians, without any reason, find in Hyperion the same lyrical expansion of the narrative form as in Novalis' Heinrich von Ofterdingen. Hölderlin is not a romantic in stylistic terms either. Theoretically, he does not accept Schiller's conception of the ancient epic as "naive" (as opposed to the new "sentimental" poetry), but he tends to move in the same direction. Revolutionary objectivity is his stylistic ideal. "An epic, apparently naive poem," Hölderlin writes, "is heroic in its meaning. It is a metaphor for great aspirations." So, epic heroism leads only to impulse, from great aspirations only an elegiac metaphor can be created. The epic fullness passes from the world of active life into the purely spiritual world. This is a consequence of the general hopelessness of the poet's worldview. However, Hölderlin attaches a high sensual plasticity and objectivity to the internal action - the struggle of spiritual movements. The collapse of his attempt to create a great epic form is also heroic: to Goethe's "educational novel", in the spirit of reconciliation with reality, he opposes the "educational novel" in the spirit of heroic resistance to it. He does not want to "poeticize" the prose of the world, as the romantics Tieck or Novalis do, in contrast to Goethe's "Wilhelm Meister"; To the German paradigm of the classical bourgeois novel, he contrasts the outline of the novel with civic virtue. An attempt to epic portray the "citizen" of the French Revolution was bound to end in failure. But out of this failure grows a peculiar lyric-epic style: it is a style of sharp criticism of the degeneration of the bourgeois world, which has lost the charm of "heroic illusions" - a style full of objective bitterness. Hölderlin's novel, filled with action only in the lyrical or even only in the "metaphorical" sense, thus stands alone in the history of literature. Nowhere is there such a sensuously plastic, objective depiction of inner action as in Hyperion; nowhere does the poet's lyrical attitude penetrate so far into the narrative style as here. Hölderlin did not oppose the classic bourgeois novel of his time, as Novalis did. Despite this, he contrasts it with a completely different type of novel. If "Wilhelm Meister" organically grows out of the social and stylistic problems of the Anglo-French novel of the eighteenth century, then Hölderlin is, in a sense, the successor of Milton. Milton made an unsuccessful attempt to transfer the ideal citizenship of the bourgeois revolution into the world of plastic forms, to combine Christian morality with the Greek epic. The plasticity of the epic was resolved by Milton with magnificent lyrical descriptions and lyrical-pathetic outbursts. Hölderlin from the very beginning renounces the impossible - the desire to create a real epic on bourgeois soil: from the very beginning he places his heroes in the circle of everyday bourgeois life, even if stylized. Thanks to this, his stoic "citizen" is not without some connection with the world of the bourgeoisie. Although the ideal heroes of "Hyperion" do not live a full-blooded material life, nevertheless Hölderlin approaches plastic realism more than any of his predecessors in the image of the revolutionary "citizen". It was the personal and social tragedy of the poet, which turned the heroic illusions of Jacobinism into a mournful complaint about a lost ideal, that created at the same time the high advantages of his poetic style. The conflicts of the soul depicted by a bourgeois writer have never been so far from purely subjective, narrowly personal motives, have not been so close to the social situation of his day, as in this work of Hölderlin. Hölderlin's lyric-elegiac novel, despite its inevitable failure, is an objective civic epic of the bourgeois era.
The lyrical novel - the largest work of the writer - is written in epistolary form. The name of the protagonist - Hyperion - refers to the image of a titan, the father of the sun god Helios, whose mythological name means High-reaching. It seems that the action of the novel, which is a kind of “spiritual odyssey” of the hero, unfolds outside of time, although the scene of the events is Greece in the second half of the 18th century, which is under the Turkish yoke (this is indicated by references to the uprising in Morea and the Battle of Chesme in 1770).
After the trials that fell to his lot, Hyperion withdraws from participation in the struggle for the independence of Greece, he has lost hope for the near liberation of his homeland, he recognizes his impotence in modern life. From now on, he chose the path of hermitage for himself. Having the opportunity to return to Greece again, Hyperion settled on the Isthmus of Corinth, from where he wrote letters to his friend Bellarmine, who lives in Germany.
It would seem that Hyperion achieved what he wanted, but contemplative hermitage also does not bring satisfaction, nature no longer opens its arms to him, he, always longing to merge with her, suddenly feels like a stranger, does not understand her. It seems that he is not destined to find harmony either within himself or outside.
In response to Bellarmine's requests, Hyperion writes to him about his childhood spent on the island of Tinos, the dreams and hopes of that time. He reveals the inner world of a richly gifted teenager, unusually sensitive to beauty and poetry.
A huge influence on the formation of the views of the young man is exerted by his teacher Adamas. Hyperion lives in the days of bitter decline and national enslavement of his country. Adamas instills in the pupil a sense of admiration for the ancient era, visits with him the majestic ruins former glory, tells about the valor and wisdom of great ancestors. Hyperion is having a hard time about the upcoming parting with his beloved mentor.
Full of spiritual strength and high impulses, Hyperion leaves for Smyrna to study military affairs and navigation. He is lofty, longs for beauty and justice, he is constantly faced with human double-mindedness and despair. The real success is the meeting with Alabanda, in which he finds a close friend. Young men revel in youth, hope for the future, they are united by the high idea of liberating their homeland, because they live in a desecrated country and cannot come to terms with it. Their views and interests are close in many ways, they do not intend to become like slaves who habitually indulge in sweet sleep, they are overwhelmed by a thirst for action. This is where the discrepancy appears. Alabanda - a man of practical action and heroic impulses - constantly holds the idea of the need to "blow up rotten stumps." Hyperion, on the other hand, insists that it is necessary to educate people under the sign of the "theocracy of beauty." Alabanda calls such reasoning empty fantasies, friends quarrel and part.
Hyperion is going through another crisis, he returns home, but the world around is discolored, he leaves for Kalavria, where communication with the beauties of the Mediterranean nature awakens him to life again.
Notar's friend brings him to a house where he meets his love. Diomite seems to him divinely beautiful, he sees in her an unusually harmonious nature. Love connects their souls. The girl is convinced of the high vocation of her chosen one - to be the "educator of the people" and lead the struggle of the patriots. And yet Diomita is against violence, even if it is to create a free state. And Hyperion enjoys the happiness that has come to him, the peace of mind he has gained, but foresees the tragic ending of the idyll.
He receives a letter from Alabanda with a message about the impending action of the Greek patriots. Having said goodbye to his beloved, Hyperion hurries to join the ranks of the fighters for the liberation of Greece. He is full of hope for victory, but is defeated. The reason is not only impotence in front of the military power of the Turks, but also in discord with the environment, the collision of the ideal with everyday reality: Hyperion feels the impossibility of planting paradise with the help of a gang of robbers - the soldiers of the liberation army commit robberies and massacres, and nothing can hold them back.
Having decided that he has nothing more in common with his compatriots, Hyperion enters the service of the Russian fleet. From now on, the fate of an exile awaits him, even his own father cursed him. Disappointed, morally broken, he seeks death in the Chesme naval battle, but remains alive.
Having retired, he intends to finally live in peace with Diomita somewhere in the valley of the Alps or the Pyrenees, but receives news of her death and remains inconsolable.
After many wanderings, Hyperion ends up in Germany, where he lives for quite some time. But the reaction and backwardness prevailing there seem suffocating to him; in a letter to a friend, he sarcastically speaks of the falsity of the deadening social order, the Germans' lack of civic feelings, the pettiness of desires, reconciliation with reality.
Once upon a time, the teacher Adamas predicted to Hyperion that natures like him were doomed to loneliness, wandering, to eternal dissatisfaction with oneself.
And now Greece is defeated. Diomite is dead. Hyperion lives in a hut on the island of Salamis, goes over memories of the past, mourns for losses, for the impracticability of ideals, tries to overcome internal discord, experiences a bitter feeling of melancholy. It seems to him that he repaid the mother earth with black ingratitude, disregarding both his life and all the gifts of love that she wasted. His destiny is contemplation and philosophizing, as before, he remains true to the pantheistic idea of the relationship between man and nature.
