In textbooks on the theory of literature, these categories are placed in different thematic sections, although by their specificity they should be in the same scientific block: artistic method - direction - flow. However, for example, L.I. Timofeev unites only “method and direction”, P.K. Volynsky proposes to study "style, literary direction and artistic method", N.A. Gulyaev combines "artistic method, direction, style", G.N. Pospelov builds his own triad, which consists of "styles, artistic systems and literary movements." At the same time, the scientist recommended abandoning the convergence of the categories "direction" and "flow", which are often used as synonymous concepts.
The artistic method, the direction and the literary movement have the right to exist, and the hierarchical sequence indicates the degree of aesthetic significance of each category: first the method, then the direction, the lowest level belongs to the literary movement.
Term; the difference between the artistic method and the creative method; realism and romanticism - aesthetic categories method
The term "method" (gr. - the path; in the sense of the path of knowledge) is used not only in literary criticism, the selection of subjects under study is characteristic of any science. Exact disciplines discover and explain the laws of nature, bypassing the emotional assessment of the scientist's personality. Art without the application of the personality of the artist loses its meaning.
Reference dictionaries and scientific developments the words and phrases “artistic method” and “creative method” are often used as nominations of a single series. Meanwhile, they differ in meaning and need clarification and canonization.
The "artistic method" is characterized by a stable and repetitive system, a way of selecting material and bringing it to life by a large group of writers. The ideological and aesthetic dominant of the artistic method is considered to be its stable functioning in all historical and literary eras, it does not exhaust its significance in a separate historical period of time.
The science of literature must separate the category of "artistic method" from the concept of "creative method". The idea of a "creative method" is associated exclusively with the practice of an individual writer, his individuality, unique stylistic manner. So, "artistic method" is an aesthetic category, and "creative method" is characterized by a paradigm of narrow meaning.
Literary theory has identified two types of artistic methods: a) realistic; b) romantic. Regarding realism, all scientists accept it unconditionally (the exception is modernists, who freed themselves from the dictatorship of realism). The situation with romanticism is much more complicated. Some critics attribute it to the method, others to the literary direction. Romanticism is included in the system of the artistic method.
realism as an artistic method
Coincidence and discrepancy between the truth of life and the truth of art; typical characters and circumstances; reliable and conditionally - allegorical forms of reflection of life; fidelity of detail; techniques borrowed from modernist art
Realism (lat. - real) in fiction functioning for several millennia. L.I. Timofeev and other experts in the field of realism built the following typology of realistic literature: ancient realism, medieval realism, Renaissance realism, enlightenment realism. As you can see, realism existed for a long time, and it received its terminological status only in the first half of the 19th century. Literary critics drew attention to the coincidence of the artistic style of writers who lived and worked in different times, and were united by a common worldview, themes, the pathos of their work. This identity was taken as the basis for the definition of the artistic method.
Realism is characterized by what critics have called "the truth of life." This method reveals the real reality, only much clearer and more beautiful than it. Most often, a realistic work performed in different genres, especially in the novel, creates the illusion of being, a living picture of everything that happens. However, illusion should not be overestimated in two respects.
I. One should not think that realistic art duplicates the world, what truthful image is a substitute for life, like a documentary newsreel. The plot, taken from earthly existence, repeats reality only in appearance, but the artistic authenticity is significantly accessible and picturesque.
II. The artistic method may consist in the forms of factual authenticity. All the same, realism is not only plausibility. In some of his experiments, conventionally allegorical forms are not alien to him. It happens that truth and plausibility coincide, but it also happens that truth arises on a false basis. What are typical characters and typical circumstances? Here we must remember about Shakespeare artistic world. Realism presupposes the artist's fidelity to details, in turn, concretely - the historical characters of the characters are realized in such a way that they become social - historical authenticity. So, life in "Dead Souls" is fragmented to trifles, and these details are given general meaning. The author used the microcosm, in which he established the laws of the macrocosm, this manifested itself in the ability to see the big in the small. The realistic method explores past and present life. At one time, the so-called socialist realism attempted, violating the laws of artistry, to include in its system utopian pictures of future happiness for all, ignoring the past and the tragedy of the present. We know how it all ended. Not less than important quality This artistic method also lies in the fact that the art of assimilation of reality, growing on its soil, is close to being called "scientific research". It is on the basis of realism that the most effective relations and mutual transitions of science and art are formed, the truth of life depicted by the writer almost always rises to the heights of encyclopedia. Wherein artistic study the activities of society and man can outstrip the scientific: sociologists learned more information from Balzac's novels than from the writings of economists of that time; the physicist who creates the theory of relativity is inspired by the discovery of a writer, and not by the work of a brilliant German mathematician. The historicism of realistic art expands before the author the possibility of penetrating into the spirit of the epoch and into the microcosm of the cosmos of the human soul (Grigory Skovoroda).
The novel genre is turning into specific form scientific research society, since a special logic of the realistic whole works here, a logic that presupposes a large sphere of contradictory intersection of truth and fiction, poetic and scientific. Balzac opened the abyss of economic secrets. His novels are a tool for the study of life at the level of a scientist - an economist. His strength is that he was a brilliant artist and this is the secret of his economic knowledge. Hippolyte Taine believed that literature is a subtle and precise instrument that captures and evaluates the most imperceptible processes and changes taking place in the social organism.
In a realistic work, firstly, the situation forms the typical character of the hero, and the system of events is, as it were, the logical development of the character; secondly, the social nature of reliable circumstances is actively operating, acting as external environment, and how social relations; thirdly, artistic details are truthfully reproduced.
In the 20th century, realism as an artistic method assimilates the categories modernist literature, expands the subject matter at the expense of technical achievements (aviation, cinema, telephone ...), uses narrative techniques unusual for past eras (“iceberg”, “stream of consciousness”), creates new genre forms ( musical novel, novel - screenplay, bestseller, thriller, blockbuster, gonzo, comic book, kitsch…).
Classical literary criticism of the 20th century identified several universal types of realism, among which the most prominent are: a) critical realism XIX century; b) the realism of the 20th century, which reduced the intensity of frank accusatory pathos; c) typological systems of realism functioning in different historical and literary epochs; d) magical realism, which is not an artistic method, but only an offshoot of it, and is closest to literary movements. The artistic method acts as a historically conditioned, steadily recurring unity in the work of a significant part of writers, who converge by a common interpretation of problems, an aesthetic ideal, and a life process.
In the theory of realism, there are some doubts about the category of “typical”, which seems to run counter to individualization, depriving the artistic method of the right to be exclusive. Are the behaviors of Hamlet, Don Quixote or old Santiago so typical? What is typical in methodology does not exclude the factor of the unique, historically and aesthetically unrepeatable.
As a result, we offer a conditional and memorable formula of the artistic method: the truth of life + philosophy + aesthetics. This synthesis keeps realism alive in art for all time.
romanticism AS AN ARTISTIC METHOD
Terminological varieties; the exceptional as a model for mastering life; artistic historicism; romantic irony; romantic personality
Judgments of literary critics about romanticism drastically diverge. One group of scientists attribute romanticism to the artistic method, the other sees elements of the literary trend in this category. Both those and others thoroughly argue their conclusions, so there will be no error if one of the acceptable scientific versions is followed.
Romanticism was born in Western Europe at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries simultaneously in all the literatures of this cultural region. A prerequisite for the activation of romanticism was a protest against the aesthetics of classicism and unpretentious enlightenment realism.
The concept of "romanticism as the antithesis of realism" was put forward by A.N. Sokolov. If “typical characters and typical circumstances” function in realism, then in romanticism exceptional circumstances are autonomously formed in which the exceptional characters of literary heroes manifest themselves.
Romanticism reflects life with the help of fantasy, grotesque, symbol, hyperbole. The biography of the character practically remains undeveloped and mysterious, his position is significantly schematized. According to his worldview, the hero does not accept the reality around him, he protests, rebels against personal, social and cosmic circumstances. Romantic writers show a heightened interest in history. Thanks to romanticism, a genre appeared historical novel, and the term "artistic historicism" came into scientific use. This method established two types of historicism: a) in the center of the work there is a hero - a historical personality who finds himself in far-fetched conditions; b) the main character is fictional, but he acts in specific historical events.
The foundations of the theory of romanticism were created by German scientists in the 19th century. Thus, in the works of representatives of the Jena school (brothers Schlegel, Tieck, Novalis, Fichte), the concept of romantic irony. It boils down to several points: a) irony helps to rise above the squalor of life; b) affirms genius virtue; c) reveals the highest spiritual activity.
The theorists of the Jena school classified the romantic personality according to a number of exceptional features. For Novalis, the ideal character is a passive, static, contemplative hero; Fichte has his own view of the romantic "I" - this is a thinking nature, its exceptional qualities are by no means given initially, they are realized in the process of thinking; F. Schlegel sees in the romantic "I" the creator, the artist, and only in this perspective can the hero claim to be a unique personality; Tick indicates the possibility of degradation of the "I" when it descends to everyday life, so the hero must be a genius, a madman; Wackenroder defended the right of a romantic person to create exclusively for himself or a small circle of art lovers.
Representatives of the Heidelberg school of romantics (brothers Grimm, Brentano) paid attention to the problem of romantic circumstances, which consist of several indicators.
I. Romantic environment. It becomes exceptional only when it is native, national, best of all - native medieval. It is strongly suggested here to study folklore according to scientific methods (certification collected material; information about the information carrier; place of collection of works of oral creativity; educational qualification of the keeper of folk wisdom).
II. Race as an indicator of exceptional circumstances. The race puts forward a brilliant personality from its midst, while it should be elevated to a cult. Attention is paid to the genealogical prerequisites, which also shape the circumstances.
III. The spirit of the ancestors, the call of the blood of the departed (the dead keep alive) strives to fulfill its duty to contemporaries. The invisible substance also shapes the romantic setting.
IV. The doctrine of local color. Its essence boils down to the following: the writer is obliged to see and convey the unique signs inherent only in this nation, era, small homeland. The role of exotic space in the formation of a bright personality is taken into account.
Critical realism of the 19th century characterized by such indicators that bring it closer to the realism of antique, medieval, renaissance, enlightenment. A similar typology is established in romanticism - ancient romanticism, medieval romanticism ... This type of creativity is objectively characteristic of all eras. But the measure of their objectivity (historicism) is different. In different ways they understand the essence of social processes.
The romantic type of circumstances recreates the spirit of the era with its symbolic forms, pointing to the ideal or ugly tendencies of time, opens and plunges into the world that reality could become. Hence the abundance of symbolism, the limitedness and innuendo of actions that tend to recreate pathetic - culminating moments. The fantastic-legendary plot is subordinated to the same tasks.
A visible element must also be added to the romantic type of circumstances. We are talking about the role of the author, which always consists in capturing, captivating the reader, in order to infect him with his aspirations, his ideas about a real person and real life. It is often difficult to distinguish an idealized hero from the author, he is a particle of his soul, a mouthpiece of ideas. Speaking of subjectivity, it must be remembered that, like subjectivity in lyrics, it must be separated from subjectivism. The subjective in romanticism is also objective; it includes in its sphere everything that is called the fate of the heart, the history of the human soul. It can be said that romanticism is a continuous lyricism, an impulse towards the high, the ideal. Romantic lyricism develops on an ideal poetic basis. However, not all lyricism is romantic. Therefore, it is extremely difficult to film a romantic work. The works of A. Dovzhenko and S. Parajanov can be called successful in this respect. Poetic cinema is constantly in search of its own paradigm. There is an artist - a romantic in the true sense of the word, and there are writers whose artistic vision grows on the basis of the "removal" of the sublime principle.
In the second half of the 20th century, a new doctrine declares itself - neo-romanticism. Realism is also updated, but the artistic method (realism and romanticism) is determined by stable and historically stable features.
Dogmatic literary criticism divided romanticism into several types: "progressive", "revolutionary", "reactionary", "religious". These nominations have lost their scientific significance.
Romanticism as an artistic method clarified the shortcomings of the aesthetics of materialists - contemplators and began to cultivate the problem of the subjective factor in the literary process. A romantic writer is obliged, like a realist, not to "imitate" nature, but to creatively transform it, not to copy the phenomena of life, but to express his feelings and ideals through the prism of the aesthetics of the exceptional.
LITERARY TREND AS AN AESTHETIC REALITY
Baroque, classicism, sentimentalism, naturalism, symbolism, social realism, existentialism, modernism
Literary trends develop on an acceptable philosophical basis and aesthetic ideal, which made it possible to ensure a relatively long life in art. They function within one century, and only after that they lose their significance and fall out of the artistic process, becoming a historical and literary fact.
In the textbooks of the 20th century, the history of the struggle of the frantic "vissarions" against literary trends was intrusively studied, with an undoubted victory for the realistic (and romantic) artistic method. Indeed, heated battles with the participation of "vigilant" politicians and critics "in civilian clothes" took place around literary movements, but the theory of literature has established that after 70 - 100 years of functioning, literary movements themselves leave the aesthetic arena. And this is natural. The reason for this can be considered the fact of the loss in its formula of such a category as “the truth of life”. The model of the literary trend retains the philosophical platform and aesthetics. We offer the following, quite understandable scheme: philosophy + aesthetics = literary direction.
Literary trends began to appear at a time when aesthetic thought reached its high development, and artists began to unite according to the type of creativity and the commonality of aesthetic convictions. In one literary era, several artistic trends can function. The most famous are baroque, sentimentalism, classicism, naturalism, symbolism, social realism, existentialism, modernism.
BAROQUE AS A LITERARY TREND
Term; birthplace of the baroque; philosophical basis (ancient humanism and medieval theologism); theme and poetics of the baroque
The term "Baroque" (Italian - strange, bizarre; Portuguese - "baroque perrola" - an irregularly shaped pearl) is being clarified, and its meaning is filled with new meaning. In the 20th century, the origin of this nomination began to be associated with the Latin "mnemonic" designation of the fourth type of the second figure of the scholastic syllogism. Initially, this word was called "bad taste" in relation to art that appeared after the Renaissance. The scientific status of the term "Baroque" began to be affirmed by Western European philologists in the 18th century, its status was largely fixed by art historians and architectural theorists. "Baroque" in the science of literature became widely known in the second half of the 19th century (J. Carducci, E. Porembovich).
The history of the formation of the literary baroque begins in the middle of the 16th century in Italy and develops to the end. XVII century. In the 17th century, this trend flourished in Spanish poetry and drama; at the same time, the “Ukrainian baroque” clearly declares itself, on the traditions of which the work of N.V. Gogol, V. Narezhny and other writers of the "Ukrainian school". US theorists R. Welleck and O. Warren wrote about this: “The Baroque style spread to the art of the whole of Eastern Europe, including Ukraine”, barely affecting Moscow literature (Welleck R. and Warren O. Theory of Literature, p. 71). This is Razviyany Morok!
The literary genres in which the Baroque was most fully manifested are associated with the names of great writers: in Italy - the poetry of T. Tasso and D. Marino, the fairy tales of D. Basile (“Pentameron”); in Spain - the sonnets of Gongora, the tragedies of Calderon, the dramas of Tirso de Moline, the satires of Quevedo, the picaresque novel (M. Alemán "Guzman", L. Velez de Guevara "The Lame Bes"); in England - the poetry of John Donne, the drama of D. Webster; in Germany - the tragedies of A. Gryphius, the lyrics of Fleming, the folk novel of Grimmelshausen; in France - the work of Agrippa d "Aubigne, Ch. Sorel; in Poland - the poetry of V. Pototsky; in Ukraine - the lyrics and scientific treatises of poets - theologians Ioanniky Galyatovsky, Anthony Radivilovsky, M. Sakovich, the dramaturgy of Feofan Propokovich.
The philosophical basis of the "fancy" trend is ancient humanism and medieval theologism. Synthesis of pagan mythology and Christian symbols allowed to create artistic masterpieces in art and literature.
baroque poetics. Using the grotesque and mythology, wrapping the events of the unreal in allegorical dreams, writers include in the system of antitheses such phenomena as asceticism and hedonism, abstract fantasy and realistic concreteness, historical fact and declarativeness of its interpretation. It is significant that the stylistic narrative drawings impress with oppositional devices. Here, vulgar simplicity and exquisite complexity, mobility and static presentation of events, picturesqueness and decorativeness, ornamentalism and integrity of the depicted paintings, naturalness and theatricality coexist. Supporters of the literary direction of the Baroque deliberately overload the text with emblematisms, refined and ingenuous comparative figures. great attention the authors paid attention to metaphorical speech, usually it was built according to the schemes of baroque wit.
In poetic genres, poets traditionally used ready-made formulas that were polemically rethought and created space for creative dialogue. Writers demonstrate encyclopedic knowledge, use unique and exotic non-literary material.
In the art and literature of the Baroque, the themes of sadness, lack of faith, the fragility of life are mastered leitmotifically, and the ideas of tragic doom are cultivated. Literary heroes go through a path of painful suffering, fall into a closed world of the terrible, inevitable, fragile. Artistic topography is localized by gloomy castles, towers, rocks.
Gloomy evil is mastered by the following genres: tragedy of fear, satirical drama, sad and fatal sonnets. Baroque to a certain extent ignores artistic prose (novels and short stories) because of the epic narrative chronotope, which is unable to convey the dynamics of the tormenting passions that befell literary heroes.
LITERARY DIRECTION CLASSICISM
Term; birthplace of classicism; rationalism as the philosophical basis of the direction; theory and poetics of classicism: three unities; conflict between duty and feelings
Classicism (from Latin - exemplary) as a literary movement appears in Italy in the 16th century. It was at this time that the ancient theater was being revived, being a counterbalance to the “barbaric” medieval dramaturgy. Therefore, classicism received its most complete embodiment, first of all, in theatrical art. Imitating the ancient drama, which was rightly called classical, perfect, exemplary, classicism uses the experience of the ancient stage masters.
Universally and vividly, this trend manifested itself in the 17th century in France, where absolutism began to dominate, establishing a balance in society between aristocrats and representatives of the middle class. The heyday of classicism in France is associated with social and ideological prerequisites. The literary direction becomes the result of the efforts of the state (royal) policy. The ruling elite financially approved the work of writers, poets, playwrights with competitive prizes and life-long pensions, cultural workers were awarded awards, honorary titles and other incentives.
The basis artistic classicism the rationalist philosophy of Descartes. He put reason at the forefront, as a result of which the truth was achieved not through experience, but by speculative constructions.
The founder of French aesthetic classicism was Malherbe, who advocated the purity of the French literary dialect without the dominance of provincialisms and "dead" classical languages. Artistic creativity must obey the single organizing will of the mind, leading the artist to clarity, accuracy, noble simplicity(R. Samarin). Malherbe's sonnet "To Cardinal Richelieu" is considered to be programmatic in this respect; the author develops an odic motive for praising the title character. The deeds of the cardinal are exaggerated, he is endowed with " great soul”, the hero has done a “great work” and is confidently leading France to a brighter future, while France itself has noticeably younger during this period. The king, thanks to Richelieu, will conquer the whole world. The sonnet contains the ideology of artistic classicism.
Boileau is rightly called the theoretician of the literary trend of classicism. In the poetic treatise "Poetic Art" (1674), he established the rules literary genres, introduced the philosophical method of Descartes into art. Boileau argued that the mind creates a beautiful, lofty, promising worldview. By "reason" he understood the adherence to the "lost" during the Middle Ages of ancient aesthetics. In the course of work of "reason" this gap between cultures decreases. At the same time, the ratio becomes the property of not only the ruling elite, but also the townspeople living surrounded by libraries, theaters, educational institutions. Boileau urged poets to study and sing of the urban cultural layer, calling it the pride of the nation.
The concept of "three unities" becomes the pinnacle of the teachings of classicism. Theorists of this trend believed that ancient artists created their masterpieces according to rules known to them in advance, they must be discovered, studied and then successfully applied in their work. Experiments in this direction led the classicists to the idea that high tragedy and low comedy are based on three aesthetic unities: time, place, action. The time of events in a drama should not exceed a day (24 hours), therefore, there are no long excursions into the past or a forecast into the future. The place where the action takes place is localized and static: where dramaturgical stories begin and end; movements in space were not allowed; the scenery, imitating the color of the space, did not change. The unity of the action is connected with the moving event outline of the drama, it was subordinated to one depicted picture, history, fact. Classicists did not allow plot ramifications in plays.
Theorists of classicism divided literary genres into high and low. The former included tragedy, ode, epic, myth, genres of spiritual (religious) poetry. "High" genres developed themes of state or historical significance. "Low" genres - comedy, satire, fable, fairy tale, landscape sketch - should be mastered privacy, everyday worries of "mere mortals" and those of the middle strata of society. The dismissive attitude of the classicists to such genres as burlesque, everyday realism, carnival scenes, and songs is noted. All of them were included in the category of lightweight and rough arts. (Recall that socialist realism also forbade and persecuted such genres as the sonnet, ghazal, spiritual poetry). Rationalist aesthetics denies fantasy, an exception is made for ancient mythology, which belonged to the "reasonable" (wise) literature. High genres focused on ancient literary plots, medium - "new" - novel, epic - lyrical forms, low - fablios, farces, anecdotes. High aesthetics does not accept the subjective beginning in low genres, which displaces rational aesthetics.
The classicists created the doctrine of literary heroes. In epic and tragedy, the carriers of good and evil were kings, generals, historical figures; the heroes of comedies were townspeople, merchants, lawyers, bourgeois; actors satire and farce became commoners. The characters' characters were static: the ideal hero from the beginning to the end retains his position, the spokesmen of the dark beginning also do not change and fix their negative destiny.
The problem of conflict was solved in the aspect of ideological confrontation between reason and feelings, clash of personal and state interests. Private desires faded into the background, preference was given to the homeland and the ruler of the state.
Views of the classicists on the category of beauty in art. The source of beauty, according to the teachings of Boileau, was and remains the harmony of the Universe, it is based on a spiritual act. Here the idea of “imitation of nature” is developed, a kind of analogue to the ancient “mimesis”, and only justice should prevail in art and society. Boileau said: "There is nothing more beautiful than nature."
Classicism as a literary trend dominated France during the 17th century, and in other literatures it episodically asserted itself in the 18th century.
SENTIMENTALISM AS A LITERARY TREND
Term; the philosophical doctrine of P. Gassendi, Berkeley, Hume; cult of feelings; genres of sentimental literature
Sentimentalism (French - feeling) is attributed by some scientists to the literary movement (CLE, M.L. Tronskaya), others rightly believe that, according to aesthetic features, this phenomenon functioned as a literary movement. The terminological designation was fixed by Lawrence Stern, making it into the title of the novel " sentimental journey". And in this literary direction, the "truth of life" is replaced by the philosophical doctrine of sensationalism; the chronicle of the existence of sentimentalism in art also covers almost one century.
England was the birthplace of sentimentalism. Sentimentalism in the 18th century acted as a statement of personal values and significance human feelings. The idea of the primacy of mood opened up the prospect of deepening psychological self-expression and a new understanding of nature: the landscape turned out to be not only a form of admiration, but also an object of empathy, which required writers to use an emotionally colored word that dramatically changed the meaning of beauty even at the lexical level. Sentimentalism prefers confidential genre forms (epistole, idyll, journey, confession, poem, notes). Writers - sentimentalists took as a basis the creative method of S. Richardson.
English sentimentalism used the philosophical doctrine of sensationalism (lat. - feeling, sensation) of Berkeley and Hume, which recognized as a starting point human sensations. It is appropriate here to name French philosopher XVII century P. Gassendi, who studied sensory experience as the main source of universal knowledge. In the essay "Code of Philosophy" it is argued that in the mind there is nothing "what would not be in the senses."
An initial contribution to literary sentimentalism was made by the English poet John Thomson, who introduced dreams of a rural idyll into the plot of his didactic poem The Four Seasons (1730). Lyrical sketches of subjective pictures of nature are given in the poetry of E. Jung ("Night Thoughts"), T. Gray ("Elegy"), O. Goldsmith ("Abandoned Village"). In the second half of the 18th century, English sentimentalists turned to prose genres. These are novels created by S. Richardson, L. Stern, T. Smollett. Prose writers use the themes and plots of medieval legends, which contributed to the creation of the "Gothic novel", the forerunner of which was Anna Radcliffe (1764 - 1823). The event basis of the new genre was marked by murders, "skeleton in the closet", mysterious ghosts, werewolves, vampires. Anna Radcliffe's novels The Udolphian Secrets and The Italian were especially popular, in which a world of terrible and mysterious was created, where a hero-villain acts, with strong will and indomitable passions.
EXISTENTIALISM AS A LITERARY TREND
Term; the philosophy of Siren Kierkegaard; postulates of artistic existentialism
The term "existentialism" (lat. - existence) reflects the desire to comprehend human life such as it is given to consciousness.
The philosophical system of this direction was formed in the 19th century and its creator was the Danish scientist Siren Kierkegaard (1813 - 1855). This doctrine was a kind of antithesis of the philosophy of the ideal of things. For S. Kierkegaard, things turn into evil, they torture and impose their will on a person. The main signs of existentialism existed even in the period of the mythological consciousness of Homo sapiens. Interest in the philosophy of existence does not fade, on the contrary, it is increasing in the 21st century.
Existentialism as a literary movement originates in the 20th century. A significant contribution to the aesthetics and philosophy of this doctrine was made by French writers, among whom J.-P. Sartre and A. Camus stand out.
Brief information about the life and work of Siren Kierkegaard. He was born in Copenhagen. His father in early years accused the Almighty of injustice, then abandoned the romantic rebellion and became a major merchant and a god-abiding citizen. In childhood, Siren begins to engage in introspection, feeling the bifurcation of his soul into rebellion and humility. Strict parents gave their son a religious upbringing. He was considered a late child: his father was 56, and his mother was 44 years old. At the age of seventeen, Siren entered the theological faculty of the University of Copenhagen, and in 1841 delivered his first sermon in the Lutheran church. The biographical episodes of Kierkegaard cited here will later become the subject of close study by many scholars. It was believed that mental discord and further fate philosopher associated with his late birth, in essence he was the son of an old man.
Next biographical moment: Siren saw the death of his brothers and sisters. Of the seven children, only two survived. It is significant that in the diaries of the scientist, and they amounted to fourteen volumes, there are records only about the father, as for the mother, there is not even a mention of her. And this mysterious circumstance is interpreted in its own way by existentialist historians. Thus, August Vetter in his book “Piety as a Passion” explains the complex of attachment to the father and indifference to the mother by the fact that there has been a violation of the category of biological happiness: the son must inherit the maternal, and the daughter - the paternal principle. And as an example, the names of the "happy" in their work of Goethe and Kant and the "unhappy" ones - Nietzsche, Schopenhauer, are cited, Kierkegaard is also ranked among them. Later, this scheme of biographism will take its place in the teachings of Z. Freud, who will create his own theory of the Oedipus and Electra complexes.
The works of S. Kierkegaard "All or Nothing" (in translation - "Either - Or"), "Fear and Trembling", "Repetition", "Philosophical Crumbs", "The Concept of Fear", "Stages life path”, “Life and the power of love”, “Illness and death”.
The philosophical system of S. Kierkegaard, which is successfully mastered by Western writers of the 20th and early 21st centuries, is aimed at understanding a person, with his behavioral impulses and structures, feelings of despair, often embracing a mortal.
Let us designate the defining postulates of existentialism.
I. The world is immutable, and man is a meaningless creature in it, he is an outsider on earth (A. Camus). The cosmos has no purpose, and human pain and suffering mean nothing to the universe. There was an alienation of man from nature, in fact, according to S. Kierkegaard, such closeness never existed. This is not a philosopher's invention. Let's turn to Omar Khayyam: “We will leave without a trace - no name, no signs. This world will stand still for thousands of years. We weren't here before, and we won't be here after. There is no harm or benefit from it.”
II. The tragedy of human loneliness. The cause of the tragedy is in the consciousness that a person is mortal, he understands his limit, his finiteness. The philosophy of loneliness and tragic being fit into the following sphere: circle - center - periphery. God is placed in the circle, and he separates the individual (periphery) from society (center). His formula of loneliness (the book "Either - Or") rests on the antithesis: "I can be here, but I don't want to; I want to go there, but I can't; and here and there I am unhappy.” Almost Georgian toast.
III. Man and fear. The category of fear has been cultivated from all eternity by all religions of the world, institutions of power and families. The Danish philosopher reached a different level of interpretation of fear and awe. In his work “Sickness and Death”, he wrote: “There is no person in the world who would not fall into despair for some reason, who would not experience at least a little despair, there is no person in whose innermost depths there would not be some kind of anxiety. , anxiety, disharmony, some kind of fear of the unknown or of something that he does not even want to realize. The theory of fear can be stated in a concise form. Fear, apprehension relate to creative matter. While the child does not know fear, he perceives the world locally: the room, toys, parents. All this is blinders, a veil, because the child during this period has not yet taken shape as a person. As soon as the soul has let fear into itself, and every person remembers this time and event, he will accompany him until his death. And now the limits of his world are expanding to cosmic dimensions. Fear becomes the most important impulse of creativity.
IV. individual consciousness. Personality, according to the teachings of existentialism, does not take into account the desires, morality, happiness of others. The inevitable and spontaneous development of an idea does not depend on activity, on society, the universal spirit manifests itself spontaneously in people. Their actions, thoughts, destinies are uncontrollable, although they perceive themselves as the creators of their own happiness. The people and the individual do not create history, this "history of the idea" organizes itself, subordinating generation after generation to its inevitable will. A single life becomes an adventure for each individual in the ocean of life.
VI. The theory of rebellion. S. Kierkegaard rejects the historical, social, religious premises of any collective protest. There are no positions about "bottoms" and "tops" here. The scientist paradoxically directed the problem towards biologism. Uprisings, military actions, social and national cataclysms are the essence of natural physiological need human nature. The activation of events goes something like this: the most timid, weak and oppressed person must rebel once in his life. This is an axiom. And there comes a year, a month, a day, an hour when the desire to protest seizes many, and then chaos and riots come. In this regard, not one, even the best of ideas, will be safe as long as there is a person who dares to openly declare his “no”. That is why new philosophical doctrines and ideas should be treated with extreme caution.
VII. The demonic influence of one person on another. This thesis has not lost its significance in philosophy and literature XXI century. It is difficult to explain the attachment of people, what secret force attracts or repels them, again on a psychological level. S. Kierkegaard dwelled on two aspects of this global problem. The first moment is "Music as a medium of demonic sensibility". This idea is illustrated by the material of the literary Don Juan. In the book The Concept of Fear, S. Kierkegaard comes to the conclusion that the Don Juan theme is born of the Christian worldview, it is unthinkable within pagan or Eastern cultures. The scientist wrote: “When exactly the idea of Don Juan arose is unknown: it is only certain that it belongs to Christianity and through Christianity to the Middle Ages.” Christianity, unlike ancient paganism, introduced erotic sensitivity and anxiety into the world. By denying and forbidding it, theologians for the first time created a precedent unknown to paganism. The ban on sensuality awakens a global interest in it. And Don Juan affirms this idea, which probably originated with the biblical Eve. From this follows the idea of the demonic: I forbid, therefore I allow. ancient world He did not know heightened sensuality because polytheism did not forbid it. Therefore, the pagan does not know the tense relationship between lovers, for him this is a natural, natural beginning. Having come into conflict with the spiritual world, love in the Middle Ages takes shape in a demonic image and acts as a temptation. S. Kierkegaard believes that Don Juan is a seducer by nature. His love is not spiritual, but sensual and therefore wrong. Don Juan's passion is directed not to one person, but to all, that is, a person seduces everyone. And although the Greek heroes and gods in their love adventures resemble the deeds of Don Juan, however, the very idea of amorous temptations for classical literature completely alien, since the erotic principle is devoid of the demonic principle. In ancient times human body was not a sinful subject, it was a secret book, and it served as the subject of "reading" and research. In the essay "Silhouettes" S. Kierkegaard completes the image of Don Juan, showing the destructive power of his erotic genius (the East, we note in passing, curbed its Don Juan with the institution of a harem). The most acceptable form of expressing the idea of Don Juan is music. Mozart's opera "Don Giovanni" (the work of S. Kierkegaard "Musical and Erotic") led to the conclusion: "Music is a demonic" manifestation of voluptuousness (see also: Malis Yu.G. The legend of Don Giovanni from a biological point of view. - SPb., 1908).
The second moment, explaining the nature of demonic attraction, is indicated by S. Kierkegaard more specifically: "Tragic guilt as a source of demonic aestheticism." The category of "tragic guilt" was developed in the aesthetics of Aristotle. S. Kierkegaard approaches the problem by referring to the historical personality of Nero.
In the 20th century, French writers expanded the concept of the demonic influence of one person on another. This problem is given a worthy place in the works of J. - P. Sartre, A. Camus, O.G. Marcel, M. Proust. So, J.-P. Sartre established the laws of attraction - repulsion, born at the level of a biological executioner and his victim: where two people appear, relations between a leader and a follower, a vampire and a donor, an executioner and a victim are established between them. At the same time, the provocative side, and this is the paradox of existentialism, is the victim: the executioner becomes the victim of his victim.
In the treatise "Being and non-being" J. - P. Sartre outlined another variety of the demonic. He believes that there is a call, a mysterious rapprochement between the killer and the fallen woman, the prostitute. Each of the bearers of his guilt, no matter how far apart, will find each other, their paths will cross. This was the order of the unknowable demonic magic, for example, in the fate of Raskolnikov and Sonya Marmeladova. These plot schemes are successfully exploited by French and American cinema. Shakespeare's heroes, subject to the tragedy of incest, got into the demonic zone.
Jean - Paul Sartre put forward one of the most mysterious categories of existentialism: “Man will regret that he was born. And a person will regret that he was not born. However, this philosophical absurdity of existence was known to ancient and medieval literature. So, in 242 rubles of Omar Khayyam, the motive of happiness from not being born sounded:
In this monastery, in which there are two doors,
Given to us from the century longing and loss,
Therefore, those who are not born at all are blessed,
He did not measure our sadness with his soul.
In this rubaiyat, a demonic reality is created, which existentialists designate as “exit from time”, “exit from space” and “non-entry into human time-space”. There comes an opportunity to fall out of this historical moment or to get into another space with its unknown labyrinths. In the traditions of existentialism, the heroes of A. Platonov also reason (the stories "Dzhan" and "Taksyr"). Here is an example of an existential dialogue:
- - Good for those who died inside their mother, - said Gulchatai.
- - In your stomach? Nazar asked. Why didn't you leave me there? I would have died and I was gone now, and you ate and drank and thought about me, as if I were alive.
Let us review the concepts of existentialism of J. - P. Sartre and A. Camus. AT scientific treatise"Being and non-being" (1943), the author of the novel "Nausea" considers the following categories: the randomness and meaninglessness of being; the helplessness of the mind (however, this idea was expressed by Ecclesiastes - “Because in much wisdom there is much sorrow; and whoever increases knowledge, increases sorrow”); the fragility of existence and the inevitability of death give rise to the idea of absurdity (it is absurd that we were born, it is absurd that we will die); constant anxiety from the "shadow of death". Hence the "longing", "dizziness", "nausea". A person in an absurd world turns out to be abandoned, weak and lonely (“A fragile creature, lost in the woeful ocean of the finite, lonely and weak, on which non-existence falls at every moment”); the randomness and meaninglessness of being (“The man was not asked about this. It looks like he was thrown here. Who? - Nobody. For what? So simple, for nothing”); the confusion of the mind, it is unable to figure out what is right and what is wrong (“There is no truth among us ... Duality and inconsistency surround us, and we hide from ourselves”), the only truth is “my personal existence”; being is also hostile to man ("Being is a viscous, thick, fermenting mess"; "Being in itself is excessive, blinding, viscous; it always threatens to trap"). J. - P. Sartre refers to the saying of Zarathustra that "only in the desert does the hermit find revelation." The main sign of existence for the author of the book "Being and non-being" is constant anxiety, which is generated by the "shadow of death."
Other French laureate Nobel Prize Albert Camus in the philosophical treatise "The Myth of Sisyphus" proves the idea of the absurdity of existence. Sisyphus A. Camus differs from the mythical one in that he, condemned to eternal meaningless labor (does not see the results of his work), finds consolation in his own intransigence and contempt for circumstances, he does not rebel, the next ascent to the top is perceived as the conquest of many heights, that "it is capable of filling the heart of a man" and therefore "it is necessary to imagine Sisyphus happy."
Many works have been written about the philosophy of existentialism, among them, undoubtedly, they stand out for their deep meaning books: Gaidenko P.P. The tragedy of aestheticism (M.: Art, 1970), Kossak Jerzy. Existentialism in Philosophy and Literature (Moscow: Politizdat, 1980), Evnina E.M. Modern french novel(M.: AN SSSR, 1962).
The philosophy of existence, established and discovered by Sirenne Kierkegaard, provided the literary movement with stability in the artistic process. Many of its representatives have been awarded the Nobel Prize. And yet, existentialism will not be able to grow into an artistic method and secure eternal life in art, although Western literature and culture successfully and productively use the philosophical discoveries of S. Kierkegaard.
OTHER LITERATURE TRENDS
Naturalism; symbolism; social realism; modernism
Naturalism (lat. - nature) as a literary trend was formed in France in the second half of the 19th century and spread throughout European countries and the United States. The methodology of naturalism is distinguished by the utmost reliability of the depiction of events, characters and destinies of heroes. And all this is passed through physiology and the socio-material environment.
The creator of artistic naturalism was Emile Zola, however, his teachers - the brothers Jules and Edmond Goncourt - constantly challenged the priority of the author of The Womb of Paris. E. Zola outlined the theoretical provisions of this literary trend in the work "Experimental Novel" (1880) and in a number of critical works. He opposed fiction, steadily asserted the right of the writer to depict all the physiological and social aspects of human activity. E. Zola recommended replacing fiction with protocol authenticity, working under the dictates of life, not inventing plots, but taking them from the streets, markets, and family troubles.
Representatives of naturalism removed an attractive halo from the ideal, they denied the educational function of literature. Sometimes naturalism was called "scientific realism" (the Goncourt brothers), putting into this concept the words of G. Flaubert: "I believe that great art must be scientific and impersonal,” and the writer’s gaze must be directed to rough reality, which would throw off the veil of false pathos from poetry. Such an approach to the tasks of literature made it possible to objectively assess human dignity. The depicted events must obey the "flow of life" scenario.
Proponents of naturalism believed that society should be studied in the same way as a naturalist investigates the laws of nature. As for the doctrine of the "theory of the environment", here we are talking about the household environment (bytovism).
The philosophical basis of naturalism was the teaching of the French scientist Auguste Comte (1798 - 1857) on positivism, he created the theory of three stages of the intellectual evolution of mankind: a) theological; b) metaphysical; c) scientific. O. Comte believed that the artist should explore the "average man", a representative of the black mass, he also opposed fiction, and represented the typical as something between statistics and a photograph. Reasons for rise and fall literary hero should be sought and studied in his heredity.
Symbolism (French, from Greek - sign, symbol) refers to the "European literary - artistic direction... "(KLE, vol. 6, column 831). The term "symbolism" was introduced into wide use by J. Mores, who substantiated its aesthetic meaning in the "Manifesto of Symbolism" (1886). He also formulated the goals and objectives of this direction: "The poetry of symbolism seeks to embody the Idea in a tangible form, which, however, is not an end in itself, but, serving the expression of the Idea, retains a subordinate position." In France, the program magazines Symbolism, Pages on Art, and White Journal are published. French symbolism has its roots in the poetry of C. Baudelaire.
The philosophical basis of symbolism is the teaching of A. Schopenhauer (1788 - 1860) ("The World as Will and Representation") and E. Hartmann (1842 - 1906) ("Philosophy of the Subconscious"). The doctrine of symbolism was reduced to the search for deep meaning in ordinary and everyday things, in which the secret of the Idea is hidden and it can be known only with the help of art, music and poetry. The author's sense of mystery (Stefan Mallarme's article "Mystery in Poetry", 1896) becomes the muse of the creative process.
The Symbolists established their connection with the religion of the Middle Ages, they saw in ancient art a similar methodology in ways of conveying the abstract through the concrete (the symbol of power is Zeus, the sign of strength is Hercules).
The subject of idealization among the symbolists was "non-existence", "nothing", verbal - musical suggestion (S. Mallarme). Symbolists created new form verse, called "ver libre"; discovered the "alchemy of vowels" (A. Rimbaud's sonnet "The Vowels"), improved the traditions of Ch. Baudelaire in the field of odorism and synaestheticism: the poetics of aroma, colors, sounds, tastes. The symbolic literary trend clearly declared itself once again in the 20s of the XX century.
Socialist realism as a literary movement. In the former Soviet Union, social realism was cultivated as "the highest, qualitatively new stage in the history of world art" (N.A. Gulyaev). Dogmatic literary criticism elevated this trend to the category of an artistic method, predicting immortality for it. "Literature socialist realism» G.N. Pospelov also perceived as a stage in the development of world literature; L.I. Timofeev theoretically substantiated the idea that "socialist realism" undoubtedly represents an "artistic method"; finally, “the leading role of the party in the development of the literature of socialist realism” is affirmed (P.K. Volynsky). For seven decades, in theoretical developments, social realism was planted and advertised as the pinnacle of artistic method. A powerful totalitarian ideological machine worked to approve this idea: on the one hand, an incentive system helped in the field of theory and artistic thought(orders, awards, trips abroad, preferential family and living conditions); on the other hand, the most severe coercive apparatus and even the physical elimination of dissidents who deviated from the principles of a “truthful”, historically concrete depiction of reality in its mandatory revolutionary development. However, it didn't work out. Time has confirmed that the false (self-proclaimed) artistic method ignores the “truth of life”, since it depicts a poster, parade (“Walk, Russia!”, “Dance, Russia!”) reality, which in fact it could not be; imposes the philosophy of wise leaders. By all aesthetic and ideological indicators, this "bloody wheel" is a literary movement. In the history of the forced introduction of social realism, there are echoes with Classicism XVII century, however, the kings did not allow themselves to destroy so many figures of literature and art. Objectively, socialist realism exhausted itself already in the 80s of the XX century, regardless of the "perestroika" ideology. The gambit was a violation of the truth of life and artistic truth.
Modernism as a literary movement. The term "modernism" (French - modern, new) began to take root in art and literature in the 20th century. At first, this direction aroused strong opposition in almost all countries, so it is difficult to talk about a serious approach to the study of modernism. Then critical passions began to gradually subside, and at the end of the 20th century, the science of literature begins to tolerate modernism and postmodernism. This is a complex phenomenon, it is large-scale in the sense that it includes both literary movements (naturalism, symbolism, socialist realism) and literary movements (tachisme, dadaism, abstractionism, imaginism, futurism ...). As an educational material on this problem, we can recommend the two-volume book by S.E. Mozhnyagun "On Modernism", which answers the question: "What is modernism?" in the following chapters: "Modernism as a creative method", "Modernism as a worldview", "Theory of empathy", "Stream of consciousness", "Words and things", "Eternal truths of idealism ...".
LITERARY TRENDS
Futurism, Imagism, Tachisme, Dadaism, Surrealism, Acmeism…
Literary trends develop only on an aesthetic basis, excluding the “truth of life” and the philosophical platform from their program, therefore they remain short-lived in the system of the artistic process, and one should not wage a “decisive struggle” with them, they function and leave literary process according to the law of art. Literary currents form small active acting groups writers related by type of creativity, who are adherents of their own aesthetic concepts and promote their programs in articles, manifestos, charters. However, this energy of personalities does not stand the test for a long time.
Literary currents are born and formed in the 20th century. A prerequisite for the emergence of certain currents is the rejection of ideological and philosophical instructions. When studying the polyphony of currents, it is necessary to take into account the fact that the intellectual nature develops dynamically in different eras manifests itself in various forms. Literary theorists should abandon their aggressive and extremely negative attitude towards currents and trends. Guilty verdicts reduce the value of the world artistic process. The literary critic is obliged to investigate, understand and explain why, next to “good” realism, “bad” literary movements appear, and for what reason in a place alien to realism. creative environment so many bright and talented artists.
Literary trends and currents also reproduce reality, but their vision of the “truth of life” is refracted through the prism of similarities and differences that are observed in the very technique of writing, in experimental types of generalization, style, and genre experiments.
Imagism (eng. Imajo - image) as a trend arose at the beginning of the twentieth century. Its theorists were the English critic T.E. Hume, who created the School of Imaginism in 1909, as well as prominent writers - R. Aldington, T.S. Eliot, D.G. Lawrence, J. Joyce. The method of the Imagists was distinguished by the technique of combining metaphors and images. Having created a "catalogue of images", the Imagists opened up freedom for verse as a synthesis of rhythms and colors, with which one can express the secret of the "chaotic world" (KLE, vol. 3, column 107).
Surrealism (French - super-realism) belongs to the avant-garde movement that arose in France in the 10s of the twentieth century. The term "surrealism" was created by the poet G. Apollinaire in the play "Pipples of Tiresias" (1918). He believed that the first surrealist was the man who invented the wheel. “Leading its lineage from the Marquis de Sade, J. Nerval and further through A. Rimbaud, ... to P. Reverdy, surrealism relied on the tradition of romantic-anarchist rebellion in artistic thinking ...” In 1924, the writer A. Breton published the “Manifesto of Surrealism” , which claims that artistic creation refers to "death revelation", "tragic prophecy" and the total loneliness of man. Surrealism gives recommendations on how an "ordinary person" can "turn into a clairvoyant, and a number of writing techniques that allow fixing subconscious points." For the surrealists, the category of beauty consists in a combination of “stupefying” combinations of incompatible (but quite specific) things and concepts” of the following still life: “Beautiful, like a chance meeting on an autopsy table of an umbrella and a sewing machine.” Such amalgams "create an atmosphere of magical arbitrariness." It should be noted that similar techniques were previously discovered by oriental poets in the ghazal genre (“ bloody rivers tears" flow from the eyes of a lover. See: Mikhailichenko B.S. Techniques of abstractionism and surrealism in the gazelle-sonnet portrait / Masulakhoi philology. - Samarkand.: SamGU, 2003. - S. 134-139). Surrealists use "automatic writing", quick recording of the first words that come to mind, impressions, snippets of speech. “Automatic texts” appeared in the new poetry (KLE, vol. 7. - Pillar. 313-317). In painting, Salvador Dali achieved world fame.
Dadaism (French - "horse", on children's language"horse", more precisely, incoherent baby talk) is ranked as a modernist literary movement. It originated in Switzerland in 1916. Its creator is considered French poet, Romanian by origin, T. Tzara. Dadaists gathered in one of the Zurich cabarets, and teased the public with their scandalous performances. They believed that "art is dead", because the human instinct is not a creator, but a destroyer. The reason for this is civilization, which, with its rationality, has created tragic prerequisites. Therefore, the Dadaists called for a return to primitive society, which corresponded to the philosophy of "eternal return". The Dadaists killed "good taste" with vulgar sonnets and onomatopoeic poems ("Gadi beri bimba..."). This is a kind of rebellion against monumental classical literature, where all the places are already occupied, and their inaccessible model fetters the creative energy of young artists. Perhaps this circumstance explains L. Tolstoy's denial of geniuses in art and literature (see: KLE, vol. 2, column 498; Mozhnyagun S. “On Modernism”. - M .: Art, 1974. - P. 51- 53).
Futurism (lat - future) originates in Italy in 1909. Its recognized leader is F. Marinetti, who is reproached for cooperating with the ruling elite. In their manifesto, the futurists proclaimed the birth of a new art, consonant with the "skyscraper-industrial-automobile" culture. Artists of the word idealized highly developed technology, industry and the image of the "mechanical man". The objects of art for the futurists were world and local wars, they were interpreted in the light of "the only hygiene of the world." Futurists denied language norms and created their own "abstruse" poetic speech.
We offer a diagram that illustrates the pictures of the artistic method, literary trends and trends
The literary process (lat. processus - moving forward) denotes the transition of artistic creativity from the past qualitative state to a new qualitative state in a particular historical era. The literary process includes almost all aesthetic categories studied by the science of literature: types, methods, directions, currents, genres, systems of versification, styles, ... contradictory and natural questions posed by reality. It takes into account national literary traditions, social and cultural-historical features of the world spiritual heritage, the degree of consciousness, enlightenment, culture. See: the theories of I. Taine and F. Brunetier.
Forward movement occurs on the basis of the achievement and deepening of the works of predecessors, the evolutionary and "accelerated" development of verbal art.
Complex goal
know
- the concept of the artistic method as a set of principles of artistic representation;
- the category of the literary trend as the leading ideological and aesthetic trend of creativity;
- literary currents and schools;
- information about the artistic style as a set sustainable elements artistic form and content of creativity, style-forming factors, style of language and speech, historical development style theory;
be able to
Analyze literature both at the level of the writer's work as a whole and individual works;
own
- terminology and conceptual apparatus of this issue;
- the skills of determining the stylistic, figurative and methodological specifics of the work of an individual author.
artistic method
It should be clearly understood in what proportions and relationships are such categories of the literary process as the artistic method, literary direction and trend, artistic style.
The concept of the literary process is the most general, initial for the definition of all categories that characterize different sides literature relating to its various aspects.
artistic method is a way of mastering and displaying the world, a set of basic creative principles of figurative reflection of life. One can speak of the method as the structure of the writer's artistic thinking, which determines his approach to reality and its reconstruction in the light of a certain aesthetic ideal.
The method is embodied in the content of a literary work. Through the method, we comprehend those creative principles, thanks to which the writer reproduces reality: selection, evaluation, typification (generalization), artistic embodiment of characters, phenomena of life in historical refraction.
The method manifests itself in the structure of thoughts and feelings of the heroes of a literary work, in the motivations for their behavior, actions, in the correlation of characters and events, in accordance with the life path, the fate of the characters, and the socio-historical circumstances of the era.
The artistic method is a system of principles for selecting life material, its evaluation, principles and prevailing forms of artistic generalization and rethinking. It characterizes a complex of factors: a holistic ideological, evaluative, individually unique, social attitude artist to reality, to consciously or spontaneously reflected needs, ideological and artistic traditions. The artistic method largely determines the specifics of the artistic image.
The concept of "artistic style" is closely related to the concept of "artistic method". The method is implemented in the style, i.e. the general properties of the method receive their national-historical concreteness in the style of the writer.
The concept of "method" (from the Greek - the path of research) is denoted by " general principle the creative attitude of the artist to cognizable reality, i.e. its re-creation". These are a kind of ways of knowing life that have changed in different historical and literary epochs. According to some scholars, the method lies at the basis of currents and directions, represents the way of aesthetic exploration of reality, which is inherent in the works of a certain direction. Method is an aesthetic and deeply meaningful category. "It is embodied both in the ideological structure of the work, and in the principle of constructing an image, plot, composition, language. The method is the understanding and reproduction of reality in accordance with the peculiarities of artistic thinking and the aesthetic ideal."
The problem of the method of depicting reality was first recognized in antiquity and was fully embodied in Aristotle's work "Poetics" under the name of "theory of imitation". Imitation, but Aristotle, is the basis of poetry and its goal is to recreate the world like the real one, or, more precisely, how it could be. The authority of this theory remained until the end of the 18th century, when the Romantics proposed a different approach (also having its roots in antiquity, more precisely in Hellenism) - the re-creation of reality in accordance with the will of the author, and not with the laws of the "universe". These two concepts, according to domestic literary criticism the middle of the last century, underlie two "types of creativity" - "realistic" and "romantic", within which the "methods" of classicism, romanticism, various types of realism, modernism fit. It should be said that the concept of "method" was used by many literary theorists and writers: A. Watteau, D. Diderot, G. E. Lessing, J. W. Goethe, S. T. Coleridge, who wrote the treatise "On Method" (1818) .
The theory of imitation served as the basis for the development of naturalism. "While working on Teresa Raquin," E. Zola wrote, "I forgot about everything in the world, I delved into the painstaking copying of life, devoting myself entirely to the study of the human body ...". Often a feature of this way of reflecting reality is the complete dependence of the creator of the work on the subject of the image, artistic knowledge becomes a copy. Another model can lead to the arbitrariness of subjectivity. For example, F. Schiller argued that the artist, recreating reality ("material"), "... stops short of violence against him ... He respects the material that he processes as little as the mechanic; he only will try to deceive with seeming compliance the eye that guards the freedom of this material. In a number of works, scientists propose to supplement the concept of method with the concept of the type of creativity, the type of artistic thinking. At the same time, two types of creativity - recreating and recreating - cover all the richness of the principles of artistic reflection.
Concerning the problem of the relationship between method and direction, it must be taken into account that the method as a general principle of figurative reflection of life differs from the direction as a historically specific phenomenon. Consequently, if this or that direction is historically unique, then the same method, as a broad category of the literary process, can be repeated in the work of writers of different times and peoples, which means different directions and currents. For example, we already meet elements of the realistic principle of reflecting reality in the directions of classicism, sentimentalism, i.e. even before the emergence of the realist method proper, just as the established realism later penetrates into the works of modernism.
- Gulyaev N. A. Theory of Literature. M., 1985. S. 174.
- Literary manifestos of the French realists. L., 1935. S. 98.
- Schiller F. Collected works: in 8 τ. T. 6. M.; L., 1950. S. 296.
artistic method is a way of mastering and displaying the world, a set of basic creative principles of figurative reflection of life. One can speak of the method as the structure of the writer's artistic thinking, which determines his approach to reality and its reconstruction in the light of a certain aesthetic ideal. Through the method, we comprehend those creative principles, thanks to which the writer reproduces reality: selection, evaluation, typification (generalization), artistic embodiment of characters, phenomena of life in historical refraction. The method manifests itself in the structure of thoughts and feelings of the heroes of a literary work, in the motivations for their behavior, actions, in the correlation of characters and events, in accordance with the life path, the fate of the characters, and the socio-historical circumstances of the era.
The artistic method is a system of principles for selecting life material, its evaluation, principles and prevailing forms of artistic generalization and rethinking. It characterizes a complex of factors: a holistic ideological, evaluative, individually unique, social attitude of the artist to reality, to consciously or spontaneously reflected needs, ideological and artistic traditions. The artistic method largely determines the specifics of the artistic image.
Art style- System language tools and ideas characteristic of a particular literary work, genre, author or literary movement (Gogol Style. Romantic style). In this style, it affects the imagination and feelings of the reader, conveys the thoughts and feelings of the author, uses all the richness of vocabulary, possibilities different styles, characterized by figurativeness, emotionality of speech. work of art the word not only carries certain information, but also serves to aesthetically influence the reader with the help of artistic images. The brighter and more truthful the image, the stronger it affects the reader. In their works, writers use, when necessary, not only words and forms literary language, but also outdated dialect and vernacular words. The means of artistic expression are varied and numerous. These are tropes: comparisons, personifications, allegory, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, etc. And stylistic figures: epithet, hyperbole, litote, anaphora, epiphora, gradation, parallelism, rhetorical question, omission, etc. Trope(from other Greek τρόπος - turnover) - in a work of art, words and expressions used in a figurative sense in order to enhance the figurativeness of the language, artistic expressiveness speech.
Literary direction is a set of fundamental spiritual and aesthetic principles of many writers, as well as a number of groups and schools. There are following literary directions:
1. Baroque(port. perola barrocco - pearl of irregular shape).
Appears from ser. 16 - 17 centuries in the art of many European countries (especially in Italy and Spain). Most of all it is manifested in the manner of writing or pictorial image. The following important features of the Baroque stand out:
ornate,
Pomposity,
decorative,
tendency to allegorism, allegory,
complex metaphor,
Combination of comic and tragic
The abundance of stylistic ornaments in artistic speech.
P. Calderon was a prominent representative of the Baroque. In Russia, the features of this style appeared in the poetry of S. Polotsky, S. Medvedev, K. Istomin. The main baroque works: E. Tesauro "Aristotle's spyglass", B. Grasian "Wit, or the Art of a sophisticated mind".
2.Classicism- (lat. classicus - exemplary) literary trend that has developed in European literature XVII century, based on (according to S.P. Belokurova (3)):
1. Recognition of ancient art as the highest model, ideal, and the works of antiquity - the artistic norm.
2. The principle of rationalism and "imitation of nature".
3. The cult of reason.
4. Active appeal to public, civil issues.
5. Emphasized objectivity of the narrative.
6. Strict hierarchy of genres
3.Sentimentalism- (from French sentiment - feeling, sensitivity) - the literary direction of the second half of the 18th century. - early 19th century (3). The main genres are a sentimental novel, a story, a diary, a journey, a letter, an elegy, a message.
In the works of this trend, the human personality was interpreted as responsive, capable of compassion, humane, kind, possessing high moral principles. The largest representatives in European literature are L. Stern ("Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy"), J.-J. Rousseau ("Julia, or New Eloise"), S. Richardson ("Ppamela, or Rewarded Virtue", "Clarissa, or the Story of a Young Lady"), J.-W. Goethe ("The Suffering of Young Werther"), etc.; in Russian literature of the second half of the 18th century. - M. N. Muravyov, N. M. Karamzin, V. V. Kapnist, N. A. Lvov, A. N. Radishchev, early V. A. Zhukovsky.
His syllable in an important way of mood, Sometimes, a fiery creator Showed us his hero As a model of perfection.
("Eugene Onegin" Ch.3 Stanza 11)
4. Romanticism(from the French roman - a work on Romance languages). Romanticism refers to the first third of the 19th century. Germany became the birthplace of romanticism (brothers F. and A. Schlegel, L. Tieck, Novalis). Romanticism is characterized by "attention to the individual as a spiritual being with a sovereign inner world, independent of the conditions of existence and historical circumstances" (1).
5. Realism- "(from lat. realis - material) - an artistic method in literature and art, following which the writer depicts life in accordance with objective reality" (3). The focus of realism is facts, events, people and things, patterns that operate in life, the relationship between man and the environment, the hero and the time in which he lives. The writer does not break away from reality, selects the features inherent in life with the greatest accuracy and thereby enriches the reader with knowledge of life.
6. Symbolism"- (fr. symbolisme< от греч. symbolon - знак, опознавательная примета) - явление художественной культуры последней трети XIX - нач. ХХ вв., противопоставившее себя реализму и сделавшее основой своей art system philosophical concept of the fundamental unknowability of the world and man by means of scientific experience, logical analysis and realistic image"(3). As D.S. Merezhkovsky noted, the three main elements of symbolism are mystical content, symbols, and the expansion of artistic impressionability.
7. Modernism- (from French moderne - modern, latest). Modernism is characterized by "anti-historicism of thinking (history is replaced by a certain model of the world in which nothing changes, the mythologization of the past, present and future), interest in man in general, and not in man as a product of his era (the concrete historical situation in the works of modernism does not have meanings, because "a man, like a horse, always walks with his eyes closed in the same circles" (D. Joyce)), the absence of social typification ".
8. Postmodernism(from French post - after and moderne - modern, latest) - a direction in the literature of the 20th century. This direction is characterized by the perception of the world as chaos, the display of the unconscious, random in the behavior of the characters, the abundance of irony (Irony) and parody. A feature of the works of postmodernism is that they often consist of words, situations that the author presents to the reader in a parody. So, for example, these include the works of V. Pelevin, D. Prigov.
A literary trend is a set of creative personalities, which are characterized by ideological and artistic closeness and programmatic and aesthetic unity. Simply put, a literary movement is a type of literary movement. For example, in Russian romanticism there are such currents as “philosophical”, “psychological” and “civil”, and in Russian realism some distinguish between “psychological” and “sociological” currents, etc. etc...
From the point of view of literary criticism“Style is an individually delineated and closed purposeful system of means of verbal and aesthetic expression and embodiment artistic reality. wide literary definition style of the artist as "the main ideological and artistic features inherent in his work (ideological positions, the range of characters and plots, the originality of the language). According to the views of G.N. Pospelov, the style includes three main elements: language, composition, details of subject representation. Language - the most obvious, tangible element of style.This includes rhythm, intonation, vocabulary and tropes . In terms of linguistic understanding: Style is a kind of language, fixed in a given society by tradition for one of the most common areas of social life and partially different from other varieties of the same language in all basic parameters - vocabulary, grammar, phonetics;
Similar information.
(Symbol - from the Greek. Symbolon - a conventional sign)
- The central place is given to the symbol *
- The striving for the highest ideal prevails
- The poetic image is intended to express the essence of a phenomenon.
- Characteristic reflection of the world in two plans: real and mystical
- Elegance and musicality of the verse
Acmeism
(From the Greek "acme" - a point, the highest point). The literary current of acmeism arose in the early 1910s and was genetically associated with symbolism. (N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky, O. Mandelstam, M. Zenkevich and V. Narbut.) M. Kuzmin's article "On Fine Clarity", published in 1910, had an influence on the formation. In the programmatic article of 1913, “The Legacy of Acmeism and Symbolism,” N. Gumilyov called symbolism “a worthy father,” but emphasized that the new generation had developed a “courageously firm and clear outlook on life”- Orientation towards classical poetry of the 19th century
- Acceptance of the earthly world in its diversity, visible concreteness
- Objectivity and clarity of images, sharpness of details
- In rhythm, acmeists used dolnik (Dolnik is a violation of the traditional regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. The lines coincide in the number of stresses, but stressed and unstressed syllables are freely located in the line.), which brought the poem closer to live colloquial speech
Futurism
Futurism - from lat. futurum, the future. Genetically, literary futurism is closely connected with the avant-garde groups of artists of the 1910s - primarily with the groups "Jack of Diamonds", " donkey tail”, “Union of Youth”. In 1909, in Italy, the poet F. Marinetti published the article "Manifesto of Futurism." In 1912, the manifesto “Slapping the Face of Public Taste” was created by Russian futurists: V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh, V. Khlebnikov: “Pushkin is more incomprehensible than hieroglyphs.” Futurism began to disintegrate already in 1915-1916.- Rebelliousness, anarchic worldview
- Rejection of cultural traditions
- Experiments in the field of rhythm and rhyme, figured arrangement of stanzas and lines
- Active word creation
