Music of the 17th and 18th centuries

At the turn of the 16th-17th centuries, polyphony, which dominated the music of the Renaissance, began to give way to homophony (from the Greek "homos" - "one", "same" and "background" - "sound", "voice"). Unlike polyphony, where all voices are equal, in homophonic polyphony one stands out, performing main theme, and the rest play the role of accompaniment (accompaniment). The accompaniment is usually a system of chords (harmonies). Hence the name of the new way of composing music - homophonic harmonic.

Changed ideas about church music. Now the composers sought not so much to ensure that a person renounces earthly passions, but to reveal the complexity of his spiritual experiences. There were works written on religious texts or plots, but not intended for mandatory performance in the church. (Such compositions are called spiritual, since the word "spiritual" has a broader meaning than "ecclesiastical".) The main spiritual genres of the 17th-18th centuries. - cantata and oratorio. Increased value secular music: it sounded at court, in the salons of aristocrats, in public theaters (the first such theaters were opened in the 17th century). formed the new kind musical art - opera.

Instrumental music is also marked by the emergence of new genres, most notably instrumental concert. Violin, harpsichord, organ gradually turned into solo instruments. The music written for them made it possible to show talent not only for the composer, but also for the performer. First of all, virtuosity was valued (the ability to cope with technical difficulties), which gradually became an end in itself and artistic value for many musicians.

Composers of the 17th-18th centuries usually not only composed music, but also masterfully played instruments, studied pedagogical activity. The well-being of the artist largely depended on the specific customer. As a rule, every serious musician sought to get a place either at the court of a monarch or a wealthy aristocrat (many members of the nobility had their own orchestras or opera houses), or in a temple. Moreover, most composers easily combined church music-making with the service of a secular patron.

Oratorio and cantata

Like an independent musical genre the oratorio (it. oratorio, from late Latin oratorium - "chapel") began to take shape in Italy in the 16th century. Musicologists see the origins of the oratorio in the liturgical drama (see the article "The Theater of Medieval Europe") - theatrical performances that tell about biblical events.

Similar actions were played out in temples - hence the name of the genre. At first, oratorios were written on the texts of the Holy Scriptures, and they were intended for performance in the church. In the 17th century, composers began to compose oratorios on modern poetic texts of spiritual content. The structure of the oratorio is close to that of an opera. This is a major work for solo singers, choir and orchestra, with a dramatic plot. However, unlike the opera, there is no stage action in the oratorio: it tells about events, but does not show them.

in Italy in the 17th century. another genre was formed - cantata (it. cantata, from lat. canto- "sing"). Like the oratorio, the cantata is usually performed by soloists, choir and orchestra, but it is shorter than the oratorio. Cantatas were written on spiritual and secular texts.

Music of Italy

At the end of the 16th century, Italy developed art style baroque (from um. barocco - "strange", "bizarre"). This style is characterized by expressiveness, drama, spectacle, the desire for a synthesis (combination) of different types of art. These features were fully manifested in the opera that arose at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. One work combined music, poetry, dramaturgy and theatrical painting. Initially, the opera had a different name: "drama for music" (it. dramma per musica); the word "opera" (it. opera - "composition") appeared only in the middle of the 17th century. The idea of ​​"drama for music" was born in Florence, in the artistic circle Florentine Camerata. The meetings of the circle were held in a chamber (from the Italian camera - "room"), at home. From 1579 to 1592 enlightened music lovers, poets and scientists gathered in the house of Count Giovanni Bardi. It was also visited by professional musicians - singers and composers Jacopo Peri (1561 - 1633) and Giulio Caccini (circa 1550-1618), theorist and composer Vincenzo Galilei (circa 1520-1591), father of the famous scientist Galileo Galilei.

The participants of the Florentine Camerata were excited about the development of musical art. They saw its future in the combination of music and drama: the texts of such works (unlike the texts of complex choral polyphonic chants of the 16th century) would become understandable to the listener.

The members of the circle found the ideal combination of words and music in the ancient theater: verses were sung in a singsong voice, every word, every syllable sounded clear. So the Florentine camerata came up with the idea of ​​solo singing accompanied by an instrument - monody (from the Greek "monos" - "one" and "ode" - "song"). A new style singing began to be called recitative (from it. recitare - "to recite"): the music followed the text and the singing was a monotonous recitation. The musical intonations were unimpressive - the emphasis was on the clear pronunciation of words, and not on conveying the feelings of the characters.

Early Florentine operas were based on scenes from ancient mythology. The first works of the new genre that have come down to us are two operas under the same name "Eurydice" by the composers Peri (1600) and Caccini (1602). They were created on the plot of the myth of Orpheus. The singing was accompanied by an instrumental ensemble, which consisted of a cembalo (the forerunner of the piano), a lyre, a lute, a guitar, etc.

The heroes of the first operas were ruled by fate, and its will was proclaimed by messengers. The action opened with a prologue, in which the virtues and the power of art were sung. Further performance included vocal ensembles (opera numbers where several participants sing at the same time), a choir, and dance episodes. A musical composition was built on their alternation.

Opera began to develop rapidly, and above all as court music. The nobility patronized the arts, and such care was explained not only by love for the beautiful: the prosperity of the arts was considered an indispensable attribute of power and wealth. IN major cities Italy - Rome, Florence, Venice, Naples - developed their own opera schools.

Best Features different schools- attention to the poetic word (Florence), a serious spiritual subtext of the action (Rome), monumentality (Venice) - combined in his work Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643). The composer was born in the Italian city of Cremona in the family of a doctor. As a musician, Monteverdi developed in his youth. He wrote and performed madrigals; played the organ, viola and other instruments. Monteverdi studied music composition with well-known composers of that time. In 1590, as a singer and musician, he was invited to Mantua, to the court of Duke Vincenzo Gonzaga; later he led the court chapel. In 1612, Monteverdi left the service in Mantua and from 1613 settled in Venice. Largely thanks to Monteverdi in 1637, the world's first public Opera theatre. There, the composer led the chapel of the Cathedral of San Marco. Before his death, Claudio Monteverdi took holy orders.

Having studied the work of Peri and Caccini, Monteverdi created own works of this genre. Already in the first operas - "Orpheus" (1607) and "Ariadne" (1608) - the composer managed to convey deep and passionate feelings by musical means, to create a tense dramatic action. Monteverdi is the author of many operas, but only three have survived - "Orpheus", "Return of Ulysses to his homeland" (1640; based on the plot of the ancient Greek epic poem "Odyssey") and "Coronation of Poppea" (1642).

Monteverdi's works harmoniously combine music and text. The operas are based on a monologue in which every word sounds clearly, and the music flexibly and subtly conveys the shades of mood. Monologues, dialogues and choral episodes smoothly flow into each other, the action develops slowly (three-four acts in Monteverdi's operas), but dynamically. Important role the composer led the orchestra. In "Orpheus", for example, he used almost all the instruments known at that time. Orchestral music not only accompanies the singing, but itself tells about the events taking place on the stage and the experiences of the characters. In Orpheus, an overture first appeared (French ouverture, or Latin apertura - "opening", "beginning") - an instrumental introduction to a major piece of music. The operas of Claudio Monteverdi had a significant influence on Venetian composers, laid the foundations of the Venetian opera school.

Monteverdi wrote not only operas, but also sacred music, religious and secular madrigals. He became the first composer who did not oppose polyphonic and homophonic methods - the choral episodes of his operas include polyphonic techniques. In the work of Monteverdi, the new was combined with the old - the traditions of the Renaissance.

By the beginning of the XVIII century. an opera school was formed in Naples. Features of this school - increased attention to singing, the dominant role of music. It was in Naples that the bel canto vocal style (Italian bel canto - "beautiful singing") was created. Bel canto is famous for its extraordinary beauty of sound, melody and technical perfection. In the high register (the range of voice sounding), singing was distinguished by the lightness and transparency of the timbre, in the low register - by velvety softness and density. The performer had to be able to reproduce many shades of the timbre of the voice, as well as masterfully convey numerous fast sequences of sounds superimposed on the main melody - coloratura (it. coloratura - "decoration"). A special requirement was the evenness of the sound of the voice - in slow melodies, breathing should not be heard.

In the 18th century, opera became the main type of musical art in Italy, which was facilitated by the high professional level of singers who studied at conservatories (it. conservatorio, err lat. conserve - "I guard") - educational institutions that trained musicians. By that time, four conservatories had been created in the centers of Italian opera - Venice and Naples. The popularity of the genre was also served by the opera houses that opened in different cities of the country, accessible to all segments of society. Italian operas were staged in the theaters of major European capitals, and composers from Austria, Germany and other countries wrote operas based on Italian texts.

Significant achievements of the music of Italy XVII-XVIII centuries. and in the field of instrumental genres. The composer and organist Girolamo Frescobaldi (1583-1643) did a lot to develop organ creativity. "In church music, he laid the foundation for a new style. His compositions for organ are detailed compositions of a fantasy (free) warehouse. Frescobaldi became famous for his virtuoso playing and the art of improvisation on the organ and clavier. Violin art flourished. By that time, violin production traditions had developed in Italy. The hereditary masters of the Amati, Guarneri, Stradivari families from the city of Cremona developed the design of the violin, the methods of its manufacture, which were kept in deep secret and passed down from generation to generation.Instruments made by these masters have an amazingly beautiful, warm sound, similar to human voice. The violin has become popular as an ensemble and solo instrument.

The founder of the Roman violin school is Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713), one of the creators of the concerto grosso genre (um. concerto grosso - "great concert"). A concert usually features a solo instrument (or a group of instruments) and an orchestra. The "Grand Concerto" was built on the alternation of solo episodes and the sound of the entire orchestra, which in the 17th century was chamber and mostly strings. Corelli's soloists were mostly violin and cello. His concerts consisted of parts of different character; their number was arbitrary.

One of the outstanding masters of violin music is Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741). He became famous as a brilliant violin virtuoso.

Contemporaries were attracted by his dramatic style of performance, full of unexpected contrasts. Continuing the traditions of Corelli, the composer worked in the genre of "great concert". The number of works written by him is enormous - four hundred and sixty-five concertos, forty operas, cantatas and oratorios.

Creating concerts, Vivaldi strove for bright and unusual sounds. He mixed the timbres of different instruments, often included dissonances (sharp harmonies) in the music; he chose rare instruments at that time as soloists - bassoon, mandolin (it was considered a street instrument). Vivaldi's concertos consist of three parts, with the first and last performed at a fast pace, and the middle one is slow. Many Vivaldi concertos have a program - a title or even a literary dedication. The cycle "The Seasons" (1725) is one of the earliest examples of program orchestral music. Four concerts of this cycle - "Spring", "Summer", "Autumn", "Winter" - colorfully paint pictures of nature. Vivaldi managed to convey in music the singing of birds ("Spring", the first part), a thunderstorm ("Summer", the third part), rain ("Winter", the second part). Virtuosity, technical complexity did not distract the listener, but contributed to the creation of a memorable image. Vivaldi's concert work has become a vivid embodiment of the Baroque style in instrumental music.

Operaseria and operabuffa

In the XVIII century. opera genres such as opera seria (it. opera seria - "serious opera") and operabuffa (it. opera buffa - "comic opera") were formed. Operaseria established itself in the work of Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725) - the founder and the largest representative Neapolitan opera school. During his life he composed more than a hundred such works. For the opera series, a mythological or historical plot was usually chosen. It opened with an overture and consisted of completed numbers - arias, recitatives and choruses. The main role was played by large arias; usually they consisted of three parts, and the third was a repetition of the first. In arias, the characters expressed their attitude to the events.

There were several types of arias: heroic, pathetic (passionate), mournful, etc. A certain circle was used for each means of expression: in heroic arias - resolute, invocative intonations, peppy rhythm; in plaintive ones - short, intermittent musical phrases showing the excitement of the hero, etc. Recitatives, small fragments in size, served to unfold the dramatic narrative, as if moving it forward. The heroes discussed plans for further actions, told each other about the events that had happened. Recitatives were divided into two types: secco (from Italian secco - "dry") - a fast tongue twister to the mean chords of the harpsichord, and accompaniato (It. Assotraniato - "with accompaniment") - an expressive recitation to the sound of an orchestra. Secco was more often used to develop the action, accompaniato - to convey the thoughts and feelings of the hero. Choirs and vocal ensembles commented on what was happening, but did not take part in the events.

The number of active lias depended on the type of plot and was strictly defined; the same applies to the relationships of the characters. The types of solo vocal numbers and their place in stage action. Each character had his own voice timbre: lyrical heroes - soprano and tenor, noble father or villain - baritone or bass, fatal heroine - contralto.

TO mid-eighteenth V. the shortcomings of the opera series became apparent. The performance was often timed to coincide with court celebrations, so the work had to end happily, which sometimes looked implausible and unnatural. Often the texts were written in artificial, refined mannerisms. Composers sometimes neglected the content and wrote music that did not fit the character of the siena or the situation; there were many stamps, unnecessary external effects. The singers demonstrated their own virtuosity, without thinking about the role of the aria in the work as a whole. Operuseria began to be called "a concert in costumes". The audience did not show serious interest in the opera itself, but went to performances for the famous singer's "crown" aria; during the action, spectators entered and left the hall.

Operabuffa was also formed by the Neapolitan masters. The first classical example of such an opera is The Maid's Servant (1733) by the composer Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (1710-1736). If in the opera seria in the foreground - arias, then in the opera buffa - colloquial dialogues, alternating with vocal ensembles. In operebuffa, the main characters are completely different. These are, as a rule, ordinary people - servants, peasants. The plot was based on an entertaining intrigue with dressing up, fooling a stupid rich owner by servants, etc. From the music, elegant lightness was required, from the action - swiftness.

Operubuffa was greatly influenced by the Italian playwright, creator of the national comedy Carlo Goldoni. The most witty, lively and vibrant works of this genre were created by Neapolitan composers: Niccolo Piccinni (1728-1800) - "Chekkina, or the Good Daughter" (1760); Giovanni Paisiello (1740-1816) - " barber of seville"(1782), "The Miller" (1788); singer, violinist, harpsichordist and composer Domenico Cimarosa (1749-1801) - "Secret Marriage" (1792).

String instruments

The forerunners of modern stringed bowed instruments - violin, viola, cello and double bass - are violas. They appeared at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. and soon, thanks to their soft and gentle sound, they began to play a leading role in orchestras.

Gradually, the violas were replaced by new, more advanced stringed bowed instruments. IN XVI-XVII centuries Entire schools of craftsmen worked on their creation. The most famous of them are the dynasties violin makers that emerged in northern Italy - in the cities of Cremona and Brescia.

The founder of the Cremonese school is Andrea Amati (about 1520 - about 1580). Especially famous for his art Nicolo Amati(1596-1684), his grandson. He made the device of the violin almost perfect, strengthened the sound of the instrument; at the same time, the softness and warmth of the timbre were preserved. The Guarneri family worked in Cremona in the 17th-18th centuries. The founder of the dynasty is Andrea Guarneri (1626-1698), a student of Nicolò Amati. The outstanding master Azuseppe Guarneri (1698-1744) designed new model violin other than the Amati instrument.

The traditions of the Amati school were continued by Antonio Stradivari (1644-1737). He studied with Nicolò Amati and in 1667 opened his own business. Stradivari, more than other masters, managed to bring the sound of the violin closer to the timbre of the human voice.

The Magini family worked in Breche; the best violins were made by Giovanni Magini (1580-1630 or 1632).

Highest string string bowed instrument- violin. It is followed by viola, cello, contrabass in descending order of sound range. The shape of the body (or resonant box) of the violin resembles the outlines human body. The body has a top and bottom deck (German Decke - "lid"), with the first made of spruce and the second made of maple. Decks serve to reflect and amplify sound. On the top there are resonator holes (in the form of the Latin letter f; it is not by chance that they are called "efs"). A neck is attached to the body; usually it is made of ebony. It is a long narrow plate over which four strings are stretched. Pegs are used to tension and tune the strings; they are also on the fretboard.

Viola, cello and double bass are similar in structure to the violin, but larger than it. The viola is not very large, it is held at the shoulder. The cello is larger than the viola, and when playing, the musician sits on a chair, and puts the instrument on the floor, between the legs. The double bass is larger than the cello, so the performer has to stand or sit on a high stool, and place the instrument in front of him. During the game, the musician leads the strings with a bow, which is a wooden cane with horsehair stretched; the string vibrates and produces a melodious sound. The sound quality depends on the speed of the bow movement and the force with which it presses on the string. With the fingers of his left hand, the performer shortens the string, pressing it in various places to the fretboard - in this way he achieves various heights sound. On instruments of this type, the sound can also be extracted by plucking or striking the string with the wooden part of the bow. The sound of bowed strings is very expressive, the performer can give the music the finest nuances.

The evolution of music

In the first half of the 18th century, the evolution of music reaches a brilliant era. The forms that originated at the beginning of the 17th century reach the highest level of perfection. Four great masters working in four various countries, define with their work all the musical art of this period: Alexandro Scarlatti in Italy, Jean Philippe Rameau in France, Johann Georg Handel in England, and Johann Sebastian Bach in Germany.

Depending on the tastes and trends, one can evaluate their works in different ways. But that all four, each in his own field, fulfilled their mission with equal perfection, is beyond doubt. Two of them are Germans. The strength of their creativity concentrated around itself everything essential that had been achieved until then by European music.

In the first half of the 18th century, Italian music still dominated and, perhaps, never was more brilliant. In Germany, as early as the 17th century, the custom was spreading to write out Italians for positions in court chapels and for service in theaters, even to establish an entire Italian opera. The splendor and pomp of the performances surpassed anything that had been seen up to that time. Italians appear everywhere and take first place in England, Poland, Russia, and not just in Germany. France alone staunchly resists the onslaught of the Italian opera and casts aside both its bad and good sides.

Separated from Venice, Naples at the beginning of the 18th century takes over the leadership musical movement in the field of opera. Thanks to Francesco Provenzeale and Alexandro Scarlatti, Naples, which until then had not played a significant role in the development of music, gives its name to a school with a certain direction and is glorified through this.

Francesco Provenzeale is a composer of a number of operas: comic ("Slave of his wife") serious on ancient subjects (Cyrus, Krerks, Eritrea, etc.). Francesco Provenzeale was influenced by the Venetians, but as a result developed a style that soon became characteristic of the entire Neapolitan opera school, and then of the entire Italian opera of the 18th century.

Alexandro Scarlatti was born in 1659 in Sicily, died in Naples in the 17th century, a student of Carissimi, after staging his first opera Innocent Error in Rome in 1679, he became in 1680 bandmaster at the court of the Swedish Queen Christina, who lived in Rome. In 1694 Scarlatti became bandmaster of the Viceroy in Naples. From XVII 03 to XVII 08 he manages a metriza (music school) at one of the Roman churches, then returns to Naples again. The number of Scarlatti's works is colossal: there are 1 XVIII operas alone, 700 cantatas, etc.

The style of the Neapolitan school is strikingly different pronounced features. First of all, it is a melodic style, based entirely on our modal and tonal major-minor system. Melody is the main element of Neapolitan music, a melody richly overgrown, passionate and sultry, expressive of a powerful immediate feeling. This feeling, common to all, is immediately, from the first sounds, understandable. Thus, the melody in the Neapolitan school is the strongest generalizing and unifying social factor. Melodiousness (vocal) is an essential quality of this lyrical-dramatic music. From here come its forms, from here - the expressive melodic recitatives of Neapolitan operas with rich instrumental accompaniment, from here - the whole peculiar construction of these operas: a sequence of arias connected by recitatives.

Jean Philippe Rameau (1683-XVII 64) is one of the brightest representatives of the opera art of the 18th century in France. Rameau first showed his musical activity as an organist - theorist and as a composer of harpsichord and cult music. Only in XVII 33 he managed to draw attention to himself as a theatrical composer with his opera Hippolyte.

From beginning to end, this is an original, typical French work: everything is in moderation, everything is clear, everything is balanced, the feeling is moderated by reason, taste and the usual discipline of a person, restrained by the framework of social politeness, gallantry and irony. Rameau's music is in complete contrast with the sensual nakedness of Italian lyrics and with the German "immersion in oneself", in one's personal mental life. True, in the work of Rameau - a rare case - merged great composer and great theoretician. The temperament of the composer is cooled by the rationality of the researcher, and, conversely, speculative conclusions are supported by composer's insight and feeling, because the theoretical works of Rameau are still more the work of a practical musician coming from experience than a true thinker.

Rameau's music is pictorial, plastic and theatrical. The theater until the end of the 19th century was one of the most important organs of French intellectual life. Most, if not all, French music of the 17th and 18th centuries and beyond, including Berlioz, is figurative and plastic, and is the music of the theater and ballet. All concert and chamber music France from the suites of Couperin to the orchestral works of Debussy, and in the center of the symphony and oratorio of Berlioz is associated with theatricality. Here are some more operas by Rameau: The Gallant Indians (XVII 35), Castor and Pollux (XVII 37) The Celebrations of Hebe (XVII 39) Dardanus (XVII 39).

Gluck's reform was very important for the history of musical drama. Its point of departure was the Neapolitan opera, but the reform itself took place on French territory. In his music, Gluck expressed the new ideals of his era and created a work that still resists time. ancient myth came to life in a sincere and sincere, crystal pure music and in uncomplicated action: no intrigue, no interludes, no minor characters(one miserable cupid appears as a concession to old operatic tastes). The choir and ballet form organic links in action, not random insertions. The famous "no" - the harsh answer of the shadows of hell to the prayers of Orpheus - one of the strongest dramatic effects, dancing and singing in the Champs Elysees - one of the most touching moments in all theatrical Western European music.

"Orpheus" was composed in Italian text, and the main role was still intended for the viola. But the Italians, accustomed to the full-blooded sensual melody and the richness of the color of culture, did not understand the simplicity of the dramatic expressive music of Orpheus. Gluck continued his own and offered the Venetian public "Alceste", and after it another opera "Paris and Helena".

In the first half of the XVIII century, with the work of Handel (1685-XVII 59) and Bach, German music put forward two gigantic, unattainable peaks. Early in his career, Handel experienced Neapolitan influences. Since it was dominant, such a powerful talent as the talent of Handel could not pass by him without overcoming him and thereby enriching his technique. His early works in the Italian style are not without expressive beauty, but they do not yet give the whole of Handel. What was best and original in him could not be fully manifested in forms alien to him. Like Gluck (and later Mozart), he had to create his own art. England, with its age-old, tightly organized choral cult music, gave him the right means of influence. For him personally, it was hard to endure the failure of his operas and all his struggle for the opera business, but for music, Handel's failure in this area must be considered an unconditionally good outcome: failures opened Handel's eyes and directed him on the right path, perhaps against his will. Handel wrote oratorios - in essence - musical dramas. Here are all the most significant works of Handel in this kind: the Messiah (XVII 42) Aciss and Galatea, Esther - XVII 32, Deborah - XVII 33, Alexander's Feast or the Triumph of Music - XVII 36, Saul - XVII 38, Israel in Egypt - XVII 39, Samson - XVII 43, Belshazzar - XVII 44, Judas Maccabee - XVII 46, Joseph - XVII 48, Susanna, Solomon, Theodora, Jephta - XVII 48-XVII 51

Johann Sebastian Bach (1685 - XVII 50) - the end point of a long chain of evolution. Bach's compositions are the mighty vaults of the building and the dome crowning a huge monument. The influence of Bach began to be felt more strongly not during his lifetime, but from the beginning of the 90th century. And if one cannot agree with the opinion of contemporary admirers of his art, that Bach is the creator of all European music, then it can be considered his father contemporary music. Bach did not have a chance to visit Italy. Therefore, his compositions retained a purely German tartness. Therefore, the majority of connoisseurs of the music of his time, already accustomed to the soft rhythms, accents and catilenes of the Neapolitan school, did not understand his brilliant work and did not give him due attention: his compositions seemed pompous. Outside of a small circle of students and a few German organists, Bach's influence on his era was extremely limited. His works were engraved very rarely. Most of them remained in manuscripts and were copied by the composer himself.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (XVII 56-XVII 91) was a student of his father Leopold Mozart, outstanding violinist and a teacher who guessed the genius of his son and devoted his life to his formation. In Munich, during the carnival of XVII 75, he composed the opera "The Court Gardener", in the same year - "The Shepherd King". In XVII 81, his serious classical Italian opera Idomeneo is performed in Munich. In XVII 82, the "Abduction from the Seraglio" is performed! In XVII 86 they stage the "Marriage of Figaro" in Venin. in XVII 87 "Don Juan" is playing in Prague. XVII 88 composed three great symphonies in g-moll, Es-dur and c-dur. In the 1790s he wrote the opera "That's what everyone does". In XVII 91 the last operas "Titus", "Magic Flute" and "Requiem" were composed.

Musical culture of the late XVII– early XVIII century is significantly different from previous ones. She rises to the heights and not only in Russia, but also in other countries. Changes in the social and cultural spheres of Europe are encouraging the involvement of new non-European musical phenomena, and the consumption of music products on audio media is changing attitudes towards music. It begins to be comprehended as a global phenomenon, its consumer-entertainment function is enhanced. Increasing role mass culture and popular musical genres, they are separated from the culture of the elite, Western European musical classics and professional-academic composer activity.

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Introduction

XVII century - the beginning new era in music freeing itself from the domination of the church, acquiring an ever-increasing variety of genres, forms, colors, and means of expression. The most important step along this path was the emergence of opera, a secular art that inherited the ideas of the Renaissance, bringing to the fore the beauty and expressiveness of melody, solo singing, and the richness of human feelings. From the princely palaces of Florence and Rome, opera in 1637 came to the first opera house in Venice. The pinnacle of Italian opera of that period is the work of Claudio Monteverdi, the creator of musical drama, where music developed in close connection with dramatic action, drew complex and truthful characters of the characters.

Jean-Baptiste Lully, the founder of the French opera school, relied on the experience of the dramatic theater.

Incomparable in subtlety and depth of lyrical expression, an example of operatic art was left by the English composer Henry Purcell.

Next to the vocal genre, instrumental ones are developing. Following the organ, the king of baroque art, the harpsichord advanced. For these instruments, the Italian D. Frescobaldi, the Germans D. Buxtehude, Handel and the greatest of all - J.S. Bach wrote. In Italy in full voice the violin sounded. Violin sonatas by Arcangelo Corelli, violin concertos by Antonio Vivaldi, their orchestral concertos served as models for many composers. Instrumental music reached its peak in the second half of the 18th century.

Musical culture also developed in Rus'. In the middle of the 17th century, new trends clearly made themselves felt in Russian musical culture, the attitude towards music, its place in life, changed, new genres, forms and style principles appeared.

The fact that Russian music lagged behind Western European music in the Middle Ages is indisputable. Music, like other forms of artistic creativity, developed in Ancient Rus' not only slower than in countries Western Europe but also in other ways. She created her own unique values, distinguished by their bright originality and originality.

Music in France in the 17th - early 18th centuries

French music survived its mighty and brilliant, truly classical and richest post-Renaissance period for a little less than one century. In France, a whole cultural-historical era was fading into the past.

In the history of French music, the 17th century was marked by an impressive climax. This brilliant streak had a significant impact on the subsequent development of art not only in France, but also far beyond its borders.

Hard way historical development was thorny for the people. bloody wars cost him enormous hardships, innumerable human casualties. The masses languished under the yoke royalty, under the burden of unbearable taxes and requisitions, while the feudal nobility, bureaucratic bureaucracy and the top of the clergy were drowning in unspeakable luxury. Through these contradictions of light and darkness and in spite of them France XVII century created the great art of classicism, under its shadow, French music matured and matured.

In an era of national upsurge and even greater national hardships, the people of France, freedom-loving and cheerful, in their work in the fields and vineyards, in the forest, in city workshops and manufactories, in fierce battles, and finally, in the family circle hearth continued to compose and sing his songs, still, as in the Renaissance, temperamental, witty, mocking, tragic. They, as before, once again reflected the life of the country in a new phase of its history, the images of its people with their work, peaceful and warlike, with their needs, passions and worries, joys and sorrows.

Few songs have been preserved whose authenticity has been accurately established. In the collections of that time that have come down to us, published in Paris, Lyon, Rouen and other cities by publishers and amateur folklorists Bayards, Christophes, Leroy, melodies actually folk origin mixed with the works of composers and professional singers - table, dance, playful, love. These songs, skillfully recreating the intonational structure of genuine folklore, often gained very wide popularity and distribution among the people. As a result, a kind of "song amalgam" was formed, in which it is difficult to find grains of authentic folklore. Sometimes literary sources come to the rescue. So, the popular lyric "Mon pere m" a donne un mari "(" My father gave me a husband ") is mentioned in Paul Scarron's Comic Novel, and the everyday "Si le Roi m" avait donne "(" If only the king would grant me " ) is named after Molière. In a greater originality, rural round dance songs have been preserved, dating back as a genre to the early Middle Ages. As for urban folklore, which at one time was represented in the repertoire of Pont Neuf singers, this repertoire was also extremely colorful: it consisted of courtly arias, re-toned in a plebeian manner, opera excerpts (especially from the time of Lully) and only partially from genuine "songs artisans". These latter include popular ronda melodies: "En revenant des noces" ("Come back to the wedding") or "Jl nous faut des tondeurs" ("We would need to shear the sheep") and some others, including peasant ones (widely the famous "Song of the Sower" - "Chanson de 1" aveine, usually performed in the form of a small dramatization).

The three greatest French composers, Lully, François Couperin Jr. and Rameau, wrote airs de cour and even considered it an honor to submit their instrumental pieces for such adaptation, especially since verbal texts were commissioned from the best poets. Some of Couperin's rondos were also subtexted, including his well-known harpsichord piece "The most tender marshmallow reigns in these places" - a piece that is distinguished by an exceptionally fine and elegant ornamentation of melodic voices.
With the beginning of the 18th century, the air de cour genre enters a period of amazingly rapid decline and, quite synchronously with early classicism, comes to naught.

French social thought of that century was rich and varied. It vividly reflected the class struggle and itself acted as a sharp ideological weapon in this struggle.

The brilliant philosopher, mathematician and naturalist Rene Descartes, who professed a dualistic worldview, was nevertheless a brave thinker and fighter against theological scholasticism. He asserted the primacy and cognitive power of the human mind, the criteria for clarity and distinctness of knowledge.

Descartes' thoughts on music, expressed in his correspondence with Huygens, Mersenne, and previously systematically presented in the famous treatise Compendium musicae (1650), were insightful and fruitful. They, like a drop of water, reflected the dualism of the great thinker, his militant ardor of an uncompromising rationalist, persistent, though not infallible, search for truth.

As early as the first half of the 17th century, French musicians took very bold and important steps in the field of theory. In 1636-1637, the outstanding researcher of the Minorite monk Maren Mersenne published a treatise "Universal Harmony", in which this Latin mind, a contemporary of Leibniz and Johannes Kepler, for the first time after Boethius and Eirigen, tried to outline the place of music in the universe and in human life.

Rousseau is a historian, political thinker who wrote a whole scientific justification for the revolution of 1789 - the treatise "Social Contract", and at the same time he is the founder of the French comic opera. This breadth and fruitfulness of literary and philosophical connections is one of characteristic features French music of the 17th-18th centuries.

Music sounded and developed, putting forward new genres, figurative spheres, creative manners - only in live communication with other areas and types of art. At that time, French dramatic theatre, poetry, painting, and architecture were experiencing a period of brilliant upsurge, which, in its significance and artistic merit, can be compared not only with medieval Gothic, but even with the Renaissance, the successor of which he, in a sense, was.

A new genre appears - classicism - a powerful and deep art, loved by the French people and expressing their genius.The brainchild of classicism was French opera XVII century. Her birth was an important event in the history of the national culture of the country, which until the second half of the 17th century almost did not know any other operatic art, except for imported Italian. However, the soil of French artistic culture was not at all alien and barren for her.

There was also French ballet in two kinds: dramatic and comic. The latter was especially popular.

Development musical theater by no means followed an elementary scheme: first - ballet, then - opera. There was a merger of genres.

Lully the composer made his debut in these genres in his early period. In his "lyrical tragedies" (as his operas were called), Lully introduced elements of declamation, paid great attention to choirs and dances.

In the 18th century, with the growing influence of the bourgeoisie, new forms of musical and social life were taking shape. Gradually, the concerts go beyond the palace halls and aristocratic salons. INA. Philidor (Danikan) organized in parisregular public "Spirit Concerts", inF. J. Gossec founded the Amateur Concerts Society. The evenings of the academic society "Friends of Apollo" (founded in), annual cycles of concerts were organized by the Royal Academy of Music.

In the 20-30s of the 18th century. the harpsichord suite reaches its peak. Among the French harpsichordists, the leading role belongs toF. Couperin, the author of free cycles based on the principles of similarity and contrast of plays. Along with Couperin, a great contribution to the development of the program-characteristic harpsichord suite was also made by J.F.J. F. Rameau.

IN 1733the successful premiere of Rameau's opera "Hippolite et Arica" ​​provided this composer with a leading position in the court opera - the "Royal Academy of Music". In the work of Rameau, the genre of lyrical tragedy reached its culmination. His vocal-declamatory style was enriched with melodic-harmonic expression. His two-part overtures are distinguished by a great variety, however, three-part overtures, close to the Italian opera "sinphonia", are also presented in his work. In a number of operas, Rameau anticipated many of the later achievements in the field of musical drama, paving the way for operatic reform.K. V. Gluka. Rameau owns a scientific system, a number of provisions of which served as the basis for the modern doctrine ofharmony(“Treatise on Harmony”, 1722; “The Origin of Harmony”, 1750, etc.).

By the middle of the 18th century, the heroic-mythological operas of Lully, Rameau and other authors no longer met the aesthetic demands of the bourgeois audience. In their popularity, they are inferior to the sharply satirical fair performances known since the end of the 17th century. These performances are aimed at ridiculing the morals of the "higher" strata of society, and also parody the court opera. The first authors of such comic operas were the playwrights A. R. Lesage and C. S. Favara. In the bowels of the fair theater, a new French operatic genre has matured - the opera comedian. Strengthening its position was facilitated by the arrival in Paris in1752Italian opera troupe, which staged a seriesopera buff, including " Mistress Maid»Pergolesi, and the controversy on issues of opera art that flared up between supporters (bourgeois-democratic circles) and opponents (representatives of the aristocracy) of the Italian buff opera - the so-called. "War Buffon".

In the tense atmosphere of Paris, this controversy acquired particular urgency and received a huge public outcry. French figures took an active part in it.Enlightenment, who supported the democratic art of the "bufonists", and Rousseau's pastoral "The Village Sorcerer" () formed the basis of the first French comic opera. The slogan proclaimed by them "imitation of nature" had a great influence on the formation of the French operatic style of the 18th century. The works of the encyclopedists also contain valuable aesthetic and musical-theoretical generalizations.

The 17th and early 18th centuries are one of the significant and brilliant periods in the history of French music. A whole period of development of musical art.

musical culture Russia XVII– 18th century

Not a single previous century in Russian culture was distinguished by such diversity, an abundance of contradictions, and the complexity of the relationship between tendencies that differ in their orientation, as the 17th century. Being at the turn of two great eras, he completes the period of Ancient Rus' and at the same time prepares the onset of a new period in Russian history.

New trends gradually shook the foundations of the medieval religious worldview, penetrating into various areas of culture and knowledge. At the same time, the old still retained strong positions. In literature and art, the traditions of Ancient Rus' continued to develop and produce valuable results.

The struggle between the old and the new is also reflected in the art of the 17th century. IN artistic creativity the role realistic start. Purely secular genres emerge in literature. One of the most important sources of renewal of literature and art was folk art. The art of church singing did not remain aloof from the struggle of trends. Since the 50s in Russian church singing the style of partesnoy polyphony is being affirmed, gradually pushing aside the old monophonic singing tradition. The transition from znamenny monophony to polyphonic partes singing cannot be timed to a strictly defined date. This process was long and gradual. Throughout the second half of the 17th century, both styles continued to "coexist" with each other, remaining equal. Only by the end of the century the style of partes singing becomes dominant.

Profound changes in the entire structure of Russian art culture XVII centuries were associated with a new attitude to art, a new understanding of its meaning and place in human life.

One of the most remarkable monuments of advanced musical and aesthetic thought of the 17th century is the treatise of the deacon of the Moscow Sretensky Cathedral in the Kremlin, Ioanikiy Korenev, “On Divine Singing”.

Secular musical art in the 17th century could not yet completely triumph over church art and acquire a dominant role in the cultural life of Russian society. But its role is growing significantly, new genres and types of musical art are emerging.

Folk musical creativity also comes first. The wedding ceremony was widespread. But the most widely reflected in folk art social processes and the events of the Russian reality of the 17th century, saturated with sharp collisions.

Along with traditional views song folklore new genres emerged. These include, first of all, songs of social protest that are diverse in subject matter and character - comic-satirical, epic, "remote" songs about popular uprisings, about heroes of the liberation struggle loved by the people. An extensive range of songs was composed about Stepan Razin. Recordings of these songs were made no earlier than the second half of the 18th century.

In the 17th century, the penetration of new European forms of music-making into the life of Russian society intensified. A number of lovers of "German" music appear, who kept their own home chapels; musicians from Poland, Germany, Holland are invited to serve court ceremonies and entertainment purposes.

One of the obligatory accessories of European court etiquette in the 17th century was the theater. The desire not to lag behind the Western feudal monarchies in this regard was the creation of the first theater in Russia. The ballet "Orpheus", the play "Judith", the play "Comedy about prodigal son" and much more.

The flowering of the concert style in Russian music at the end of the 17th century is associated with the activities of Nikolai Diletsky as a composer, theorist and teacher. A highly qualified and educated musician with a broad outlook, Diletsky opened up new perspectives for Russian music. This period in Russian music gave a great impetus to the development of musical culture.

Conclusion

The musical culture of the late 17th - early 18th centuries differs significantly from the previous ones. She rises to the heights and not only in Russia, but also in other countries. Changes in the social and cultural spheres of Europe are encouraging the involvement of new non-European musical phenomena, and the consumption of music products on audio media is changing attitudes towards music. It begins to be comprehended as a global phenomenon, its consumer-entertainment function is enhanced. The role of mass culture and popular musical genres is growing, they are separated from the culture of the elite, Western European musical classics and professional academic composer activity.

At the end of the 17-18 centuries. new musical canons begin to appear, which composers and musicians will follow for a long time. This century gave the world music, which made an invaluable contribution to the world cultural heritage. Composers of the 18th century are famous for such personalities as:

This is one of the greatest German composers, whose interest in personality and creativity does not fade over time, but, on the contrary, is increasing. But, unfortunately, during his lifetime he did not receive recognition. Johann had no other choice but to pursue a career in music, because his ancestors were renowned for their musicality.

Was born future genius in 1685 in the town of Eisenach. He owes his first steps in music to his father, who taught him to play the violin. Bach had a wonderful voice and sang in the city school choir. The people around had no doubt that the boy would become an excellent musician.

Early becoming an orphan, at the age of 15, Johann began independent life. Despite the fact that the young composer lived in cramped circumstances and frequent moves, Bach's interest in music never waned, he constantly expanded his knowledge of music through self-education.

Unlike his fellow composers, who tried to imitate foreign musicians in everything, Bach actively used German folk songs and dances in his works. But Johann was not only a talented composer, but also an excellent performer on the organ and harpsichord. If he was not known as a composer, then everyone recognized his mastery of playing these instruments.

But the court society did not like the composer's music: it was considered too bright, emotional, humane. But despite the public's rejection of his works, he never adjusted to their tastes. Your very best musical works Bach wrote in Leipzig, where he moved with his family and remained until the end of his life. There he created most cantatas, "Passion according to John", "Passion according to Matthew", Mass in B minor.

The greatest joy, support and support of the composer was his family. The sons also became gifted musicians and gained fame during Bach's lifetime. His second wife and eldest daughter were very beautiful voice. Therefore, Johann continued to write musical works for his family.

In the last years of his life, Bach began to have serious vision problems, and after an unsuccessful operation, he became blind. But despite this, he did not leave his work and continued to create compositions, dictating them for recording. His death went largely unnoticed in the musical community, and he was soon forgotten. Interest in his music appeared only 100 years later, when under the direction of Mendelssohn one of his most beautiful creations, the St. Matthew Passion, was performed, and at the same time a collection of his musical compositions was released.

This genius of music was not appreciated by his contemporaries, who could not realize the full strength and depth of his talent, disliked him for his strong and independent character, but centuries later, his work is interested and admired by his talent. Wolfgang was born on January 27, 1756. His father was a court musician and, having noticed early musical abilities in Mozart's sister, began to teach her music.

This marked the beginning of the work of Wolfgang. At an early age, the boy showed exceptional abilities for music: at the age of 5-6, he already created his first musical works, while possessing a unique ear for music and an amazing memory. The father, seeing that his son has rare musical talents, decides to start a concert tour so that Wolfgang gains fame and does not become a court musician.

But despite the fact that everyone admired the boy and at the age of 12 his works became famous, society could not fully appreciate the full potential young musician. Therefore, returning from the tour, Wolfgang became a court musician and suffered greatly from the position in which he found himself. But not wanting to put up with the fact that he was not respected and treated inappropriately, he left Salzburg for Vienna.

It was during his stay in Vienna that his talent reached its peak. He soon married beautiful girl named Constanta Weber, and even the disapproval of their parents could not interfere with their happiness. The years he spent in Vienna cannot be called easy, rather, on the contrary. In need, Mozart had to work very hard, which affected his health. Despite the fact that his operas "The Marriage of Figaro", "Don Giovanni" are successful, society is still unable to understand the whole genius of Wolfgang.

Shortly before his death, Mozart writes his greatest work- Opera "Magic Flute". Simultaneously with it, he creates "Requiem", but does not have time to complete it. On the night of December 4-5, 1791, the brilliant composer died. The circumstances of his death are still unknown, which gives rise to many disputes among specialists. Only after his death musical society and the whole world recognized the genius of Mozart, and his works are still considered masterpieces in music.

His "Seasons" for several centuries have been on a par with other brilliant works. A virtuoso violinist who received recognition during his lifetime, traveled a lot, an excellent teacher - all this is about the famous Italian composer Antonio Vivaldi.

Antonio was born on March 4, 1678 and became the only child in the family who chose the musical field. His musical talent manifested itself very early, and his first teacher was Giovanni Batista, who by that time had won the fame of a virtuoso. The study of his manner of performance suggests that the boy took lessons from other famous musicians.

Young Antonio decides to choose a career as a priest and on December 18, 1693, he receives a lower church title. Later, he received three more "lower" and two "higher" church titles, necessary for obtaining the priesthood. But despite the spiritual career, Vivaldi continued to make music very successfully.

And his intense studies brought results: Antonio was appointed teacher in one of the best "conservatories" in Venice. His extensive and versatile musical activity has made the "conservatory" one of the most prominent in the city. At the beginning of his work, the composer pays great attention to the instrumental direction, which can be explained by the fact that the northern part of Italy and Venice were considered the center of the best instrumentalists.

Antonio Vivaldi gained fame outside of Italy, his works were a success, and it was considered a high honor to study with him. In Mantua, the composer meets Anna Giraud and her sister Paolina. Soon both girls became permanent residents of the Vivaldi house, which caused dissatisfaction with the church leadership, who did not like that Antonio was on frequent trips.

On November 16, 1737, on behalf of the cardinal, the composer was banned from entering Ferrara, which in those days was considered a disgrace. This meant that now the entire spiritual career of Vivaldi was destroyed and caused quite significant material damage. His relations with the leadership of the "conservatory" worsened more and more. And it was not only his frequent travels - Vivaldi's music had already begun to be considered old-fashioned.

At the end of 1740, Antonio parted ways with the "conservatory", which owed him many years of fame. Going on a long trip and experiencing financial difficulties, Vivaldi arranges a sale of his concerts at a low price. At the age of 62, the composer decides to leave Italy and find happiness in other countries. But, despite the fact that he was once accepted by everyone, his works were admired, at the end of his life Antonio Vivaldi was forgotten and abandoned by everyone. The famous Italian virtuoso died on July 28, 1741 in Vienna. He is one of the brightest representatives of the composers of that time, and his instrumental compositions occupy a worthy place in the world musical heritage.

Composers of the 18th century had a huge impact on the future development of music, although they did not always receive recognition during their lifetime and become famous. It's just that the society of that era could not appreciate the full strength of their talent, their beauty and depth. The framework imposed on them was too narrow for their talent, for them music was the meaning of life. But the descendants were able to appreciate their work, and so far they continue to perform their brilliant works at all concerts.

1. A Brief History of English Music
2. Listen to music
3. Outstanding representatives of English music
4. About the author of this article

A Brief History of English Music

origins
  Origins English music- in the musical culture of the Celts (the people who lived in the first millennium on the territory of modern England and France), the carriers of which, in particular, were bards (singers-narrators of ancient Celtic tribes). Among the instrumental genres are dances: giga, country dance, hornpipe.

6th - 7th centuries
  At the end of the 6th century. - early 7th c. church choral music is developing, with which the formation of professional art is associated.

11th - 14th centuries
  In 11-14c. Spread musical and poetic minstrelsy. Minstrel - in the Middle Ages, a professional musician and poet, sometimes a storyteller who served with a feudal lord. In the second half of the 14th century. secular musical art develops, vocal and instrumental court chapels are created. In the first half of the 15th century the English school of polyphonists, headed by John Dunstable, is promoted

16th century
  Composers of the 16th century
K. Tai
D. Taverner
T. Tallis
D. Dowland
D. Bull
The royal court became the center of secular music.

17th century
 Early 17th century English musical theater is being formed, leading its origin from the mysteries (musical and dramatic genre of the Middle Ages).

18-19 centuries
  18-19th century - a crisis in English national music.
 Foreign influences penetrate into the national musical culture, Italian opera conquers the English audience.
Prominent foreign musicians worked in England: G.F. Handel, I.K. Bach, J. Haydn (visited 2 times).
  In the 19th century, London became one of the centers of European musical life. Here toured: F. Chopin, F. Liszt, N. Paganini, G. Berlioz, G. Wagner, J. Verdi, A. Dvorak, P. I. Tchaikovsky, A. K. Glazunov and others. Garden" (1732), Royal Academy of Music (1822), Academy of Ancient Music (1770, the first concert society in London)

The turn of the 19th - 20th centuries.
  There is a so-called English musical revival, that is, a movement for the revival of national musical traditions, manifested in the appeal to English musical folklore and the achievements of the masters of the 17th century. These tendencies characterize the work of the new English school of composition; its prominent representatives are composers E. Elgar, H. Parry, F. Dilius, G. Holst, R. Vaughan-Williams, J. Ireland, F. Bridge.

You can listen to music

Outstanding representatives of English music

  G. Purcell - the largest composer of the seventeenth century.
  At the age of 11, Purcell wrote the first ode dedicated to Charles II. From 1675, Purcell's vocal works were regularly published in various English music collections.
  Since the end of the 1670s. Purcell is the court musician of the Stuarts. 1680s - the heyday of Purcell's work. He worked equally well in all genres: fantasy for string instruments, music for the theater, odes - welcome songs, Purcell's songbook "British Orpheus". Many of the melodies of his songs, close to folk melodies, gained popularity and were sung during Purcell's lifetime.
  In 1683 and 1687 trio collections were published - sonatas for violins and bass. The use of violin compositions was an innovation that enriched English instrumental music.
  The pinnacle of Purcell's work is the opera Dido and Aeneas (1689), the first national English opera (based on Virgil's Aeneid). This is the largest phenomenon in the history of English music. Its plot is reworked in the spirit of English folk poetry - the opera is distinguished by a close unity of music and text. The rich world of Purcell's images and feelings finds a variety of expressions - from the psychologically profound to the rudely perky, from the tragic to the humorous. However, the dominant mood of his music is penetrating lyricism.
 Most of his writings were soon forgotten, and Purcell's writings gained notoriety only in the last third of the 19th century. In 1876 The Purcell Society was organized. Interest in his work increased in the UK thanks to the activities of B. Britten.

B.E. Britten (1913 - 1976)

  One of the greatest masters of English music of the 20th century - Benjamin Britten - composer, pianist and conductor. Started composing music at the age of 8. Since 1929 he has been studying at the Royal College of Music in London. Already in his youthful works, his original melodic gift, fantasy, and humor appeared. In the early years, an important place in the work of Britten is occupied by solo vocal and choral compositions. Britten's individual style is associated with the national English tradition(studying creative heritage Purcell and others English composers 16th - 17th centuries). Among the best works of Britten, which received recognition in England and other countries, are the operas "Peter Grimes", "Dream in midsummer night" and others. In them, Britten appears as a subtle musical playwright - an innovator. "War Requiem" (1962) - a tragic and courageous work dedicated to acute contemporary issues condemning militarism and calling for peace. Britten toured the USSR in 1963, 1964, 1971.

Music bands 20th century
"Rolling Stones"

  In the spring of 1962, guitarist Brian Jones formed a band called the Rolling Stones. The Rolling Stones included Mick Jagger (vocals), Brian Jones and Keith Richards (guitars), Bill Wyman (bass) and Charlie Watts (drums).
  This band brought to the British scene hard and energetic music, aggressive style of performance and uninhibited behavior. They neglected stage costumes, wore long hair.
 Unlike the Beatles (who evoked sympathy), the Rolling Stones became the embodiment of the enemies of society, which made it possible to gain enduring popularity among young people.

The Beatles

  In 1956 a vocal-instrumental quartet was created in Liverpool. The band consisted of John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison (guitars), Ringo Starr (drums).
  The team gained wild popularity by performing songs in the style of "big - beat", and since the mid-60s, the songs of the Beatles have become more complex.
  They were honored to perform in the palace in front of the queen.

About the author of this article

In my work, I used the following literature:
- Music encyclopedic dictionary. Ch. ed. R.V. Keldysh. 1990
- Magazine "Student meridian", 1991 Special issue
- Music Encyclopedia, Ch. Ed. Yu.V.Keldysh. 1978
- Modern Encyclopedia"Avanta plus" and "Music of our days", 2002 Ch. ed. V.Volodin.