The concept of "architectonics" (from Greek - building art) in general, it includes the unity of the artistic expression of the patterns of structure, the ratio of load and support inherent in the structural system. In a broad sense, architectonics is the compositional structure of any work of art, which determines the ratio of its main and secondary elements. The quality of the architectonics of a thing depends on four main characteristics: the perfection of the content itself, the perfection of the form, the relationship between form and content, and the aesthetics of the form. The main pattern of architectonics is the comprehensive unity of form and content. Architectonics is revealed in the distribution of masses, in the rhythmic structure of forms, in proportions, and partly in the color structure of the work. The architectonic connection of the elements of the form is the main means of expression.

The reflection of the most significant aspects, stable elements of the system, their abstract essence is called the structure. Structure in in a certain sense static, it reflects morphology, i.e. the structure of the system. The structure of a work of art can be viewed in several interrelated aspects - tectonics, composition and expressiveness. Tectonics- artistic expression structural patterns inherent in the construction of a work, the composition of a round sculpture, three-dimensional works of decorative art; compositional structure of any work of art. Tectonics expresses the features of the mutual arrangement of parts of the whole, the ratio of shapes and proportions. Tectonics is a visible reflection in the form of a construction of the properties of a material, the logic of their work. Through the plasticity of the form, such structural properties as strength, stability, balance, direction of movement are expressed, the ratio of parts is revealed. A clear and logical tectonics ensures the veracity of the form, gives a correct idea of ​​the purpose of the object, the features of its manufacturing technology and the properties of the material. The tectonics of static objects or structures differs sharply from the tectonics of dynamic objects. Tectonic systems based on statics and the balance of rest and movement existed until the end of the 19th century. This is due to the fact that the technical capabilities of society did not go beyond the use of materials and structures that work in compression. The apotheosis of the possibilities of these materials and structures was the Gothic era. The tectonics of modern structures is based on a tense balance, on tension, as well as on a combination of tectonic principles, depending on the functional purpose of the object.

Depending on the structure of the material and the design of architectonic works, several tectonic systems are distinguished: monolithic, lattice, frame, shell. The concept of "system" implies the presence of elements and a certain structure - patterns, on the basis of which the elements are interconnected. different character functioning of the objects of the material environment determined the specifics of their volume-spatial organization and tectonics. Monolithic systems are formed from one, often plastic material, which allows you to adapt objects to human hand, such as stackable crockery sets. Lattice systems and shells are often used in combination with monolithic ones. Frame systems can be formed both as monolithic and prefabricated structures from various materials (wood, metal, plastic), they are the basis for organizing the volume.

In some cases, the structure and tectonics of industrial forms are more complex than architectural ones. This is due to the fact that industrial products often perform several dissimilar functions.

tions. In an architecture that has a decisive influence on the character built environment, there are three main tectonic systems: wall, frame, vaulted. In connection with the use of various materials, there can be much more such systems: a rack-and-beam system for the interaction of load-bearing and carried elements; cable-stayed - working in tension; shell - using the plastic properties of materials and allowing to obtain significant internal volumes.

The most general principles of shaping the tectonic systems of the suit are the same as those of other environmental objects. Shaping - structuring (partitioning and construction) of individual objects, the creation of functional, constructive, spatial-plastic, technological structures. The suit can be considered as a three-dimensional form, the internal space of which provides comfort for human life. The similarity of the general principles of costume shaping with architecture is expressed in the figurative-associative manifestation of the external form. The definitions “monumental”, “monolithic” costume are often used to emphasize the enlargement of forms, the conciseness of their solution, which is achieved by using heavy fabrics of soothing colors and simplicity of design. The nature of the tectonics of the suit is manifested in close connection with the tectonics of the solution of architecture and other objects of the material environment. At the same time, the suit has its own tectonic systems: frame, shell and intermediate, combining the properties of both systems.

The shape of the costume is a complex and multi-level concept. The very concept of "form" can be approached from different positions: it can be considered as a philosophical category, as a symbol, as an object, as a result of activity. In philosophy, the form of an object is considered as a way of existence of an object, the internal organization of the content, something that binds the elements of the content together and without which the existence of the content is impossible. Form is a morphological and volumetric-spatial structural organization of a thing, arising as a result of a meaningful transformation of the material, that is, shaping.

Volumetric-spatial structure is a category of composition that reflects the semantic connection, subordination and interaction of all elements of the form with each other and with space. In the volume-spatial composition, the elements are space, volume, surface. Structural links include patterns of construction of volumetric form, rhythm, symmetry and asymmetry, proportions, contrast, nuance. Depending on the nature of the relationship between volume and space, forms are distinguished: with a hidden, partially hidden and open structure. Many vehicles have a hidden structure: airplanes, locomotives, submarines, etc. For example, a bicycle, a chair, a ship's cargo boom have an open three-dimensional structure. The crane has a partially hidden structure, where a small enclosed operator's cabin is combined with an open truss structure designed to absorb the forces from the load being lifted.

A well-organized three-dimensional structure and a pronounced tectonics of the product create the prerequisites for the integrity and harmony of the form. Harmony is understood here as an organic relationship, consistency and proportionality of all components of the composition, which has a favorable aesthetic effect on a person. The harmony of the product is due to the aesthetics of the composition in close relationship with functional, technical and economic issues. The unity of the composition is an indispensable condition for the integrity of the form. It is based on emphasizing the main idea in the composition, to which the entire layout of a product or structure is subject. The unity of the composition is considered as a means of creating comfortable and aesthetic products with a minimum expenditure of material and artistic means. The unity of the composition is manifested in the regular structure of the volume-spatial structure and clearly expressed tectonics.

The harmonious organization of real material material in three-dimensional space is expressed in the formation of its design, structure and tectonics, in the relationship separate parts plastic form, in the integrity of the composition. Form and construction are inseparable: construction is the bearer of aesthetic information. The form must correspond to the purpose of the product, the design scheme that determines its structure, correspond to the material from which the product is made. Ease of use and beauty of form are the most important criteria for the composition of the product. The shape and design of the product depends on the material. The design follows the logic of the material, its shaping and plastic properties. Many design schemes are directly related to specific materials. At the same time, there are quite universal design schemes that can be made in various materials. However, with the same design scheme, the appearance of the product, its shape will differ significantly depending on the material and its plastic properties.

Achieving a harmonious relationship between the components "function - structure - material - construction - form" allows us to qualify the form as tectonic. In the architectonic form, structural elements are subject to the logic of production technology. Structural elements not only are not masked, but are accentuated and used as constructive and decorative elements of the form, emphasizing its expediency and persuasiveness. Tectonics is a visible reflection in the form of a construction of the properties of a material, the logic of their work. Through the plasticity of the form, such structural properties as strength, stability, balance, direction of movement are expressed, the ratio of parts is revealed. A clear and logical tectonics ensures the veracity of the form, gives a correct idea of ​​the purpose of the object, the features of its manufacturing technology and the properties of the material. The tectonics of static objects or structures differs sharply from the tectonics of dynamic objects.

The design performs several functions at once, simultaneously providing the necessary stability, rigidity and strength of the product as a whole and its individual elements. In architecture, structures are divided into load-bearing, reflective, stiffening diaphragms, etc. Each of these groups, performing a certain constructive function, has its own typology and is made of appropriate building materials. At the same time, there is a certain autonomy of structural elements: for the same structural core of a building, an outer shell is selected from various materials, a variety of decor and a constructive solution of details are used. Or, on the contrary, having retained the shape and design of the outer shell of the building, they completely change its internal spatial structure and design. This technique is actively used in the reconstruction of valuable historical facades.

The design today is understood not just as technical means organization of the form, but, above all, as a functionally and aesthetically working component of the form. The original logically constructed construction with carefully executed knots has its own artistic value and forms the expressiveness of the work. Emphatically exposed load-bearing metal structures become peculiar decorative element, giving originality to the appearance of the object. So, for example, in the Eiffel Tower, for the first time, it was possible to achieve the interpenetration of internal and external space. Gustave Eiffel finalized the project of his employees and won the state competition organized in 1886 for the construction of a monument for world exhibition in Paris. The Eiffel Tower, built in 1889, turned out to be sensationally light, despite its considerable height - 300 meters. The openwork of the lattice structure of the tower is clearly visible (Fig. 1) and is enhanced in the evening due to illumination by 300 sodium spotlights attached to its structure. The tower was used for military purposes during the First World War, and in 1954 television interceptors were installed on it, in connection with which it grew to 320.75 m.

Thus, aesthetic means are considered as a component of architectonics. These include all means of artistic and compositional harmonization, plastic, color, decor.
op, texture, representing in their totality a specific sign system. Among the most important elements of informativity, meaningfulness of the form are: figurativeness of subject forms (as typological characteristic the appearance of the object and as the associativity of the visible appearance); the compositional-scale structure of the form (a certain way of dividing the whole, the dimensions and plasticity of individual parts and details); plastic and color; decor elements. Specific methods of expressiveness of architectonics: visual-emotional exaggeration and emphasis on the main, typical, signally most valuable; generalization of many particulars into a visual integrity; leveling, restrained aesthetic development in the presentation of the insignificant, secondary, private [Bozhko, 1991].

The suit is a multilayer spatial system (the inner layer is hygienic, the outer layer is informational). The maximum saturation of a multilayer system with elements leads it to an ensemble solution. Filling the system with elements, its modification occurs up to a certain limit. Further change leads to destruction or replacement by another system. The process of developing a costume form belongs to the field of artistic creativity and is inextricably linked with the laws of visual perception, sensory knowledge of the world. In the modern theory of visual perception, great importance is attached to the visual structure of the perceived object with its most characteristic features, which are the most accessible to our organs of vision. Under the characteristic features of the structure understand such properties as directions, angles, distances between elements, sharply pronounced features plastic solution and rhythmic organization of elements. Shaping is the harmonization of form elements, step-by-step verification and adjustment of the structure to achieve the ideal option.

The structure of the suit reflects more stable, stable (the geometrical form of the form is the idea, the basic form underlying the series of models) and mobile (constructive and decorative lines, decoration, details that change under the influence of fashion) elements. Structure is a reflection of the most significant links between the elements of a given system. A special role in the perception of the composition is played by architectonics, namely tectonics, i.e. artistically revealed constructive construction of any object. In the perfect sense, it is used much more widely, extending to all objects of technology, architecture and art, as well as to natural objects.

The tectonics of a suit as a system is an artistic expression in the form of material and construction work. The tectonics of the costume is revealed in the interconnection and interposition of all its structural elements, main and secondary, in their rhythmic structure, in proportions, color scheme and, of course, the plasticity of the form, due to the natural properties of the materials from which the suit is made. The tectonically perfect form of the suit is a harmonious ratio of form, construction, material, the full implementation of the function, the direct purpose of the suit.

When it comes to the architectonics of clothing, it must be remembered that it is determined by the tectonics of the human figure. The costume, with all the variety of forms, is a shell that, to one degree or another, follows the figure. Thus, clothing becomes meaningful only when the interconnected system "suit - figure" works as a single volumetric-spatial structure.

The tectonics of clothing also largely depends on the tectonics of sewing materials. The tectonics of a tissue refers to its plastic properties. The form of the costume contains certain interconnections of all its elements between themselves and space. The form is a three-dimensional structure, which can be both extremely simple and very complex.

Regardless of the complexity of the costume, the system of connections of all tuj structural elements and the nature of their work, that is, architectonics, is crucial to achieve true harmony, which should be the main task when creating clothes.

Costume tectonics is an artistic expression in the form of the work of material and construction, due to the functional purpose of the costume. The first stage in the design of the formation of a suit is to determine the function of the suit. A clear understanding of the purpose, condition and nature of the functioning of the suit determines the main type of volumetric-spatial organization of its form. The second step is to determine the nature of the materials and search for a constructive form solution. Knowledge of the plastic and other properties of materials, the nature of their manifestation in operation, to a large extent affects the choice of design. Revealing the aesthetic value of the form, its constructive solution, the logical expression of the design and the nature of the material contribute to the harmonious integrity of the costume.

The general democratization of life in the 20th century, social conquests, and the establishment of a new way of life made it natural in costume to turn to the best historical examples of its solution. The task of the all-round development of the personality on new social foundations required such a structural organization of the costume that would correspond to a free personality, perfection and physical development of a person as a socially significant person. These requirements are met by the shell system of the costume, which has various specific manifestations: wrapping, falling, draping and fitting the human figure.

XX century costume solved mainly in the shell system. Frame constructions in their vivid manifestation have disappeared, but in various periods of fashion, the costume is created in forms that are different from the natural forms of the figure. Evidence of this is the existence along with the plastic type of geometrized costume (20s, 40s, 60s). Both types are shell systems, i.e. products are formed due to the cut and plastic properties of materials. The general simplification of the suit, its industrial production is compensated by other possibilities for creating a suit of clear forms. New materials of stable structures appeared (taffeta, wool with lavsan), materials began to be used in the costume, which had not been used for a long time (leather, split leather, suede). They are quite dimensionally stable. To give stability to materials, duplication (with adhesive materials) has become widely used.

The history of the costume has various tectonic systems in its arsenal. Some demonstrate their power over a person, subordinating his figure to a given form through frame devices - frame systems. Others, submitting to the human figure, follow its forms - the shell system. Intermediate systems are built on a combination of features and properties of frame and shell systems.

Skeleton systems for organizing a suit are based on internal rigid structures that give a certain shape to the suit and are the skeleton on which the top layer of the suit itself rests. The frame tectonic systems of the suit model and deform the human figure, subordinate it to a given form: zone, corset, crinoline, swivel, pannier, bustle.

The corset was invented before our era: the famous faience goddess of the Minoan culture was pulled into a real corset. One of the first depictions of a medieval corset was found by historians in a 12th-century manuscript, on the pages of which there is a Demon in a corset laced up in front. The word "corset" can be found in medieval texts, but then it meant women's or men's outerwear, or armor. This item of clothing was sewn from two or more layers of dense quilted linen lined with cotton wool or tow. Early forms corsets had an extremely simple design, consisting of four parts fitted in the side seams. Since the early Middle Ages, men have worn a corsage base called a westcoat (from the English. Waistcoat - vest) under outerwear or armor. The female version of the Westcoat was called “pair of bodys”, “pair of stays”, “body” (English) or “corps” (French) - corsage, two-piece bodice, corset. In the heyday of Gothic (XIV century), when clothes began to be cut exactly according to the figure, lacing became one of the attributes of the female bodice. Ladies, seeking to give their figure the perfect shape, wore a wide tight belt made of dense material under the top dress. The fashionable silhouette of the Renaissance era required a tight bodice tied at the waist: for this, a rigid inner base was used.

The women's corset, like the men's Westcoat, had a peplum along the waist line, divided into several tasset plastrons (from the French tassettes - peplum of the bodice, cut out with scallops) with holes for lacing, with which petticoats were fastened. Tassets could be soft, made of several layers of tissue, or they could be compacted with bones. There were two types of corsets: closed (laced at the back) and open (laced at the front). In the first case, the so-called busk was inserted into the inner drawstring in the center of the front of the corset (from the English busk - a plank made from the core of oak, whalebone, metal, ivory or horn). Often the busk was decorated with engraving, inlay, love dedications and drawings. Its main function was to give additional rigidity to the front of the corset. In the second case, the central lacing was covered by a stoma, identical to the male one. It was reinforced with metal plates, whalebone, etc. and served as a busk. Sometimes a stomak was placed under the lacing. The corset was laced with a single lace along the oblique, from the waist up.

The corset was made of two or three layers of linen or canvas (sometimes glued) quilted together. A whalebone, horn and metal plates, as well as split willow twigs soaked in a special composition, were inserted into the vertical drawstrings formed by stitching in the center of the front and back.

Corsets were divided into baleine (French - bone) and demi-baleine (French - half-bone), that is, fully or partially reinforced with bones. Corsets were also divided into upper and inner ones. The inner corsets, which were worn under the upper soft bodice, were covered with simple linen, leather or smooth silk, while the upper corsets-bodices were covered with brocade, velvet, patterned silk (Damask) and richly decorated with embroidery, pearls, gold and silver lace, precious stones. The upper and lower corsets sometimes had holes along the armhole line, through which sleeves were attached to them with a cord or ribbons.

Metal corsets, which were shells with many figured holes to lighten the weight, could have articulated fasteners in the center of the front, back and side parts. The famous French physician Ambroise Pare (1510–1590) in his writings describes them as orthopedic structures used in the treatment of patients with spinal defects. The manufacture of such corsets required serious knowledge in the field of anatomy from the master. Unlike the Italian matrons, who did not bother to wear a tight corset, the Spanish aristocrats preferred a strong draw in the waist and a completely flat chest, prescribed by the Holy Inquisition. The French and English corsets were similar in silhouette: strongly tightened at the waist, they expanded upward, sometimes exposing the chest to the maximum.

In the first half of the 18th century, four types of corsets were developed: French, English, Italian and the corset of the Romanesque village. The French corset, the most "merciless", was in the form of a straight rigid funnel, continuing the tradition of the 16th century corset. The English corset was more adapted to the features of the female figure, having a smooth undercut from the sides, front and back. The Italian corset, along with a completely flat front, had a strong bulge from the sides. The corset of the Romanesque village, or, more correctly, the peasant one, consisted of only two parts: the front one formed a strongly concave planchette, the top and bottom of which protruded forward, actively emphasizing the chest and stomach; the back detail, rather narrow, was connected to the front detail with straps; on the sides, the details were connected by lacing. The last type of corset was an absolute rudiment, exactly repeating the design of the simplest corset of the 16th century, especially common in Italy and Germany.

Corsets for pregnant and lactating women are also allocated. The first had an indispensable lacing on the sides, which unraveled as the fetus developed, as well as a smooth cut, taking into account the protrusion on the stomach along the central front seam, and a reduced number of bones. Pregnancy was not only indecent, but even shameful, so the ladies hid their so “awkward” position until the last moment, dragging themselves to the extreme and hiding the “shame” under lush figs, and in the last month of pregnancy they simply sat at home. The corsets of nursing mothers had special flaps in the chest area, which were unfastened or unlaced if necessary. In the home circle, ladies could afford to take a break from the daily oppression of the corset: the women's home wardrobe often included soft jackets with sleeves and few bones, or even without them at all. Such corsage jackets could simply be quilted; the winter version of the corset was placed on a warm lining of eider down, fur or cotton wool.

The cut of the corset became noticeably more complicated from the middle of the 17th century. The pretentious baroque fashion of the era of absolutism requires from the women's costume strict and at the same time refined graphics, repeating the elongated, upward lines of classicism architecture. The slightly low waist of the bodice, the elongated front and back visually stretch the figure, making it flatter. The elegance of the silhouette is emphasized by a large number of vertically oblique cut details converging to the center of the front and back and often fully reinforced with bones. The not very deep neckline is slightly rounded due to the bones located horizontally along the edge of the neckline. Along the back in the area of ​​the shoulder blades, over the vertical bones, additional bones were laid horizontally or at an angle, which made the back seem more straight and flat. The straps, sometimes equipped with bones, are sewn to the back of the corset or, as in the front, are laced up. To prevent tissue ruptures by bones, all open sections of the corset were edged with dense braid or thin leather (such as a husky). Rigid tassets were lined from the inside with the same leather.

By the end of the 17th century, the corset was already cut from 12 or more parts, which indicates a qualitatively new round in the development of corset production. Such a cut contributed to the tight fit of the corset to the body, and therefore the achievement of the most successful result in the formation of the silhouette. Corsets were made mainly by men. They worked with whalebone and metal, which required considerable physical effort. Women were engaged in quilting and grinding the details of the cut, finishing the corset. The production of corsets often became a family affair.

The heyday of the corset was the eighteenth century. The French corset was in the form of a straight, rigid funnel, tapering downwards with a cape (shnipom), without a bend in the waist area; a wide, hard plank of the Italian corset supported the chest (such corsets were often worn by peasant women); an English softer corset curved smoothly at the waist. In the upper part of the corset, a special pocket was sewn on from the inside for storing love notes, a handkerchief, fragrances and other small things. Below, a vertical pocket was sewn into the lining, where the busk was inserted.

In the first half of the 18th century, the so-called ceremonial type of corset spread (it remained throughout the 18th century), the straps of which ran along the outer edge of the shoulder. Such a corset was worn with a heavily decollete bodice of a ceremonial and ball gown, completely exposing the shoulders. Figure 9 shows a female corset. Girls from noble families were taught to wear a corset from the age of two, deforming an unformed figure, but at the same time achieving the necessary fashionable silhouette.

In the second half of the 18th century, London became the trendsetter in the field of fashion. Beginning in the 1780s, the sparing English corset became widespread. Corsets become lightweight, with a minimum number of seams and bones. The tassets are gradually disappearing. On the lower edge of the corset, to add volume to the skirt, rollers or linen balls, tightly stuffed with cotton wool or down, were sometimes sewn on. The direction of the shaping lines of the corset emphasizes to the maximum the fashionable "pigeon" chest, actively protruding forward.

At the turn of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, "naked fashion" appeared. The corset disappears for a while, only to reappear around 1805. Now he only supports the chest, practically without tightening the waist. During this period, they wear short corsets ending under the bust with or without bones; soft quilted corsets to the waist, reminiscent of corsets of the late 18th century, with elastic inserts (instead of rubber that does not yet exist, elastic steel springs are inserted into the horizontal drawstrings of the corset parts); elongated corsets that go to the hips.

Rice. 9. Intermediate tectonic system of the costume: bodice - frame system (corset), skirt - shell system (drape)

Throughout the 19th century, the corset was constantly undergoing structural changes. Unlike the autonomous rigid construction of the corset of previous centuries, all the natural curves of the female body are now softly defined by wedge inserts and curved shaped seams. The corset is lengthened, significantly going to the hips. It is sewn from one or two layers of fabric. The top layer is dense smooth or patterned silk, or kutil (from the English coutil - dense cotton twill weave); the bottom layer (lining) is kanaus (thin silk). The main decoration of the corset was lace or embroidery along the upper edge, ribbon protrusions and bows, decorative stitching and embroidered bone tacks.

Invent a new, more convenient way lacing on the back crosswise from top to bottom, while not pulling the corset to the end. Then the lacing is tied at the bottom with a knot, after which the corset is finally pulled together, releasing the loops of the cord in the waist area. One more thing should be mentioned important detail: from the 1860s, a corset impregnated with wet starch began to be molded on a metal mannequin of the proper silhouette, then placing it in a special drying chamber. By the middle of the 19th century, the busk had turned into a two-part clasp. In the 1870s, a new model of the front clasp appeared in the form of an inverted convex shoulder blade (English spoon-busk - spoon-shaped busk), naturally fitting the stomach. As the least traumatic to the internal organs, it found support among physicians, but by the end of the 1890s, the clasp straightened again, forming a flat stomach, characteristic of the S-shaped silhouette of the Art Nouveau era. The upper edge of the corset of the early twentieth century passed under the chest.

In the 1920s, emancipation began its victorious march across Europe. Rubberized semi-corsets-grace are in fashion, flexible and mobile. Similar graces with various changes have survived to this day. Only in the 90s of the last century, modern fashion designers such as Thierry Mugler, Vivienne Westwood, Jean-Paul Gaultier, began to turn to the forgotten corset in their collections.

Vertyugad (Fr.), Verdugos (Spanish) - a funnel-shaped frame for a women's skirt of the 16th century, is a system of intricately fastened rods that gave the skirt an elliptical shape in a horizontal section. The frame of the swivel was made of horsehair, metal and felt.

Pannier (French basket) in 1715–59 consisted of two parts, fastened on the sides at the waist, gave the skirt significant volumes of rounded shapes. The frame of the pannier consisted of whalebone or willow twigs. Varieties of pannier: pannier with elbows, oval; round - letters. - "round table on one leg"; in the form of a dome. The largest panniers were worn by aristocratic women. In 1776–78 pannier expands in the lateral parts, acquiring a rigid, almost angular or elliptical shape. In the 1780s in France, the back pannier or "flux - cul" appears.

Crinoline (crin - horsehair, lin - linen, fr.). Figure 10 shows bell-shaped and pulled back crinolines. The frame was made in the form of a system of fastened hoops made of metal, reed, whalebone, horsehair and linen. Crinolines for walking were made of hoops made of steel wire and connected with a wide braid; the lower hoops of the crinoline were lifted by "holds"; in the center there was a lock securing the "withholdings". In the 1950s crinolines were in the form of petticoats with multi-tiered frills made of elastic synthetic materials.

Tournure (tournure - rotate, fr.) - thickness, "cushion", strengthened at the back at the waist; gave the skirt extra volume. Tournament first appeared at the court of Louis XIV.

There were also different thicknesses, with the help of which they changed the silhouette of the suit: thicknesses at the base of the neck under the collar gave the men's suit abi in 1715–50. softness, slope of the shoulder line; at the same time, false calves were in fashion for men; thicknesses on the shoulder at the armhole - shoulder pads are used to straighten the shoulder.

Rice. 10. Frame system of the suit. 19th century crinolines

With the help of frame structures, costume forms were given the opportunity to develop in space in all directions, but within the limits of the aesthetic ideals and technical capabilities of their time.

The shell systems of the suit repeat the shape of the human body and are based on the plastic properties of the material, as well as the features of the cut of the suit. The shell systems of the suit are formed on two supporting belts of the human figure (shoulder and waist). In addition, at present, in the design of the suit, the chest, chest, chest, waist, femoral, patella, knee, popliteal, calf, and ankle support belts are subdivided. The shell systems of the suit are subdivided into four subsystems:

1. Wrapping - the system is characterized by a simple wrapping, wrapping a person's figure with a piece of material or fabric. The material is held by the belt; the shape of the product depends entirely on the width of the material and its plastic properties. This way of organizing a costume has been known since the earliest stages of human development.

2. Drop - free fall of the material depending on its own mass and under the influence of gravity; characteristic of the simplest types of cut clothes - waist and shoulder. Dense heavy fabrics with an effective surface give interesting monumental solutions to the forms of the costume of Byzantium, Medieval Europe, and the East.

3. Drapery of clothes on a human figure characterizes a high degree costume culture requires an individual solution, the culture of the movement of a person in a suit. Appearing in Greece, this system enriched the entire subsequent history of the costume with a variety of methods for organizing draperies and folds. They can be divided into main groups: tubular, cascade, radial, axillary, radial folds. The figurative content of the historical costume of Europe consists of variations of various combinations of folds on the figure using an infinite variety of fabric properties.

4. Fitting - a system that arose on the basis of a fairly high skill in cutting clothes in Medieval Europe. From this period, parts of the costume are formed not only on the basis of the plastic properties of materials, but the cut becomes an equally important and active means. This was clearly manifested in the Empire era in the 19th century. Free fit of the figure while maintaining maximum freedom of movement became possible with the development of the production of knitwear. The structure of the knitted fabric, having mobility in each cell, provides any movement, allowing you to do without a complex cut of products.

The shell systems of the costume are widespread in the shaping of the modern costume. The names and descriptions of the figurative themes of the early 20th century emphasize the comfort of fashionable clothes, the relationship between the costume and the human figure: “cocoon”, “nest”, “relaxation”, “warmth of the earth”, “safe haven”. Various styles of knitted fabrics are popular.

"Web" - weaves repeat the transparency and delicacy of the structure of the web, creating the feeling that knitwear is glued to the body. The finest viscose and silk yarns in textures and chaotic drop stitch patterns are the perfect weaves for evening wear. Rusted and oxidized metallic yarns create the feel of a carcass, a structure that exists as if separate from the body and creates three-dimensional, sculptural silhouettes. The “nest” is the most unusual things (as in a magpie's nest), including metal and plastic bags carefully torn into strips, the structure of fleecy knitwear, along with yarn, includes ephemeral and precious elements. The main attention is paid to woolen yarn (knotted, including garlands of ribbons, strips of thin paper or plastic, as well as yarn with the effects of boiled and washed. The main elements of cozy silhouettes are voluminous shoulders and collars. bands as if tied or braided around the body.On the one hand, it protects, and on the other hand it restricts mobility.Soft, but thin lines of high numbers, as well as blends of cashmere and woolen yarns create a feeling of security and comfort.Plastic lines of the neck and exaggeratedly long sleeves emphasize the streamlining of silhouette forms (International Textiles. 2003. April-May No. 1. - P. 66).

The degree of fit of the suit to the human figure in the “fitting” shell system depends on the curvilinearity of the cut, the plastic properties of the material, on the location of the warp thread (cut along the oblique gives a tighter plastic fit of the shape), on the type, thickness and fibrous composition of the material (thin woolen knitted fabrics give a tighter fit).

Drapeability, stiffness and flexibility are the main physical and mechanical properties of the material that allow you to create the shape of a suit in a shell system. Drapability is characterized by the ability of a fabric to form soft, rounded folds. Drapability is directly related to the weight and stiffness of the fabric. Rigidity is the ability of a fabric to resist shape change. Fabrics that can be easily reshaped are considered flexible. Rigid fabrics do not drape well, flexible ones have good drapeability. The rigidity and flexibility of a fabric depend on the nature, thickness, length and flexibility of the fibers that form it, the thickness, design and twist of the yarn (threads), the structure and finish of the fabric [Maltseva, 1989].

The use of monofilaments, metal threads, highly twisted yarns and threads, increasing the density of the fabric, sizing, varnishing, film coating increase the stiffness of the fabric and, therefore, reduce its drape. Brocade, taffeta, dense fabrics made of twisted yarn, hard fabrics made of wool with lavsan, raincoat and jacket fabrics with water-repellent impregnations, fabrics made of complex nylon threads, artificial leather and suede do not drape well.

Massive pile weave fabrics, soft heavy curtain fabrics with little stiffness, low-density fabrics made of flexible thin threads and low-twisted yarn, plastic fabrics with fleece, woolen fabrics of crepe weaves and soft coat woolen fabrics are well draped.

Volumetric-pragmatic division takes into account, firstly, the volume of the work, and secondly, the peculiarities of the reader's perception (it is this that organizes his attention). The main units in this case are volume, book, part, chapter (act), chapter (subchapter), phenomenon in the drama, beat, paragraph. Volumetric-pragmatic division interacts with context-variable division, as a result of which, firstly, the contexts organized by the author's speech (the narrator's speech) and the contexts containing "alien" speech - the speech of the characters (their individual remarks, monologues, dialogues) are distinguished ; secondly, description, narration and reasoning. These compositional forms are singled out, as we see, already taking into account the subject of speech. Both types of division are interdependent and consistently reveal the content-conceptual information of the text. Volumetric-pragmatic division can be used as a way to highlight the character's point of view, see,. for example, highlighting by means of paragraphs the perceptual point of view of the hero and his inner speech in the stories of B. Zaitsev. Wed:

a) At dawn, returning home, Father Kronid hears the first quail. It crackles softly and portends a sultry June and nights of suhoros ("Priest Kronid").

b) “My God,” Misha thinks, “it’s good to lie in an open field, with cobwebs, in the waves of the wind. How it melts there, how wonderful it is to melt the soul in the light and cry, pray ”(“ Myth ”).

The volumetric-pragmatic division of the text can also perform other textual functions: to emphasize the dynamics of the narrative, to convey the features of the passage of time, to express emotional tension, to highlight the depicted reality (a person, a component of a situation, etc.) in close-up, see the segmentation of one of the chapters of the novel by Yu. Tynyanov "Death of Vazir-Mukhtar":

Something was missing in the room. It robbed him of courage and confidence.

Something was missing. He moved his short-sighted eyes around the room.

It was cold, Nina's dress turned yellow in a lump.

The piano was missing in the room.

“Each new juxtaposition in the text, seen by the reader, modifies the semantic perspectives of the juxtaposed components and thereby opens up opportunities for new juxtapositions, which, in turn, create new semantic turns, new configurations of semantic plans.” Widespread in Russian literature of the late XX century. montage and collage techniques, on the one hand, led to increased fragmentation of the text, on the other hand, opened up the possibility of new combinations of "semantic planes".

In the features of the architectonics of the text, such its most important feature is manifested as connectivity. The segments (parts) of the text selected as a result of segmentation correlate with each other, “link” on the basis of common elements. There are two types of connectivity: cohesion and coherence (terms proposed by W. Dressler).

cohesion(from lat. cohaesi- “to be connected”), or local connection, is a connection of a linear type, expressed formally, mainly by linguistic means. It is based on pronominal substitution, lexical repetitions, the presence of conjunctions, correlation of grammatical forms, etc. See, for example:

in winter Levitsky spent all his free time in a Moscow apartment Danilevsky, started coming in the summer to them to the cottage in pine forests along the Kazan road.

He moved to the fifth year to him was twenty-four years old, but Danilevsky... everyone... called his Georges and Georges.

(I.A. Bunin)

Cohesion determines the continuity of the semantic continuum in the text.

coherence(from lat. cohaerentia-“linkage”), or global connectivity, is a connection of a non-linear type that combines elements of different levels of the text (for example, the title, epigraph, “text in the text” and the main text, etc.). The most important means of creating coherence are repetitions (primarily words with common semantic components) and parallelism.

In a literary text, semantic chains arise - rows of words with common semes, the interaction of which gives rise to new semantic connections and relationships, as well as "mean increments".

Deployment of semantic series (chains), their location and correlation can be considered as semantic composition text, the consideration of which is significant for its interpretation. For example, V story by I.A. Bunin "In one familiar street" series of lexical units interact with the semes "youth", "memory", "cold", "heat", "old age", "passion", "light", "darkness", "oblivion", " existence / non-existence. In the text they form the semantic oppositions "youth - old age", "memory - oblivion", "heat - cold", "light - darkness", "existence - non-existence". These oppositions are already formed at the beginning of the story, cf.:

spring Parisian at night walking down the boulevard at dusk from thick fresh greenery, under which metallic flashing lanterns, felt easy young and thought:

In a familiar street

I remember the old house

High dark ladder,

In units included in rows opposed to each other, peripheral and associative semes are actualized, their semantics gradually become more complicated and enriched. The finale of the story is dominated by words with the semes "oblivion" (I don't remember anything else) and "non-existence" ( There was nothing more.) Placed in a strong position of the text, they characterize the narrator's life as a duration, contrasted with individual moments-dating "in the old house" in his youth. This opposition corresponds to the key spatial opposition of the story - Paris - Moscow. In the narrator's memoirs, on the contrary, lexical units with the semes "warmth", "light", "passion", "happiness" are concentrated. It is memories, in contrast to the “present”, that are endowed by the narrator with reality, only moments of the past are recognized as true existence.

Any literary text is permeated with semantic roll calls, or repetitions. Words related on this basis may take different position: located at the beginning and at the end of the text (ring semantic composition), symmetrically, form a gradation series, etc. Let us read, for example, the first and last paragraphs of the “short”, outwardly plotless story “In the Alps” by I.A. Bunin (1949 ):

a) wet, warm dark night late autumn. Late hour. Village in the Hautes-Alps dead, sleeping for a long time.

b) Square, fountain, sad lantern, as if the only one in the whole world and it is not known why luminous all long autumn night. Facade of a stone church. Old naked tree near the fountain, heap fallen, blackened wet foliage under it ... Beyond the square again darkness, the road past a wretched cemetery, the crosses of which seem to catch the running light strips of a car with outstretched arms.

The selected compositional parts of the story converge on the basis of common sense, which express words with semes "darkness" (dark, night, darkness, blackened)"death" (dead, cemetery, fallen),"autumn" (autumn, autumn). These semantic rows frame the text, which is characterized by a ring composition, and are opposed to the semantic complex "light". The use of “personifying” epithets in the text (sad lantern, naked tree, running light streaks) establishes a parallelism between the depicted realities and the life of a person lost in a world where light is transient, and the destiny of the individual is loneliness (a number of words with this seme dominate in the central compositional part, omitted by us, and partially vary in the last paragraph of the text).

Consideration of the semantic composition is a necessary stage of philological analysis. It is especially important for the analysis of "plotless" texts, texts with weakened cause-and-effect relationships of components, texts saturated with complex images. The identification of semantic chains in them and the establishment of their connections is the key to the interpretation of the work.

So, the composition of a literary work is based on such an important category of text as coherence. At the same time, repetition actualizes the relationship of comparison and opposition: in similarity, contrast is manifested, and in opposition, similarity. Repetitions and oppositions (oppositions) determine the semantic structure of a literary text and are the most important compositional techniques.

The concept of composition is used in modern linguistic stylistics in relation to different levels of the text: for example, researchers distinguish metric composition (in poetic texts), semantic composition, already mentioned above, grammatical composition (most often syntactic). These types of composition are based on the idea of ​​combining in a certain sequence and interaction within the text of different metrical forms, meanings (semantic composition), grammatical forms, syntactic constructions (grammatical composition), etc. In this case, the focus is primarily on speech means , organizing the text as a particular dynamic system.

The term “composition” in modern philology turns out to be ambiguous as a result, which makes it difficult to use, see, for example, the opinion of V. Tyupa: “In the most familiar sense, “building” something whole from any parts - from “composition of a phrase” to "composition of character" - this is a completely empty term, painlessly, but also ineffectively applied to any level of organization of a literary work. However, this is a basic literary concept in the event that it is used to denote the construction of a text or its elements as systems interrelated units can be effective at two stages of philological analysis: firstly, at the stage of acquaintance with the text, when it is necessary to clearly imagine its architectonics as an expression of the author’s intentions (“We find the author outside the work as a person living his biographical life, but we meet with him as a creator and in the work itself ... We meet him (that is, his activity) especially in the composition of the work: he divides the work into parts"); secondly, at the final stage of the analysis: the content of the compositional form is determined on the basis of considering the intratextual connections of different elements of the work, its subjective and spatio-temporal organization, on the basis of identifying the leading methods of constructing the text (repetitions, leitmotif, contrast, parallelism up to "mirror" reflection situations, ellipsis, montage, etc.).

To analyze the composition of a literary text, you need to be able to:

To single out repetitions in its structure that are significant for the interpretation of the work, serving as the basis of cohesion and coherence;

Detect semantic overlaps in parts of the text;

Highlight the language signals that mark the compositional parts of the work;

Correlate the features of the division of the text with its content and determine the role of discrete compositional units in the whole;

Establish a connection between the narrative structure of the text as its “deep compositional structure” (B.A. Uspensky) and its external composition.

We will sequentially consider the novel by M.A. Bulgakov's "The Master and Margarita" (its material will show the functions of repetitions in the organization of the text) and "Solitary" by V.V. its figurative structure.

Repetitions in the structure of the text: M. Bulgakov's novel "The Master and Margarita"

Any text is characterized by the presence of repetitions that determine its coherence. The concept of connectivity "in the very general plan can be defined through repetition; some consistent signs on the grounds are regarded as coherent, which takes place, the repetition of various signs, their forms, as well as meanings; repeating, they fasten, "sew" such a sequence; into one separate whole ”(cf.“ text ”- lat. textum-"textile"). Od-; However, the creation of coherence is not limited to the functions of repetition. It plays an equally important role in creating the integrity of the text.

In addition, repetition performs in the text amplifying-excretory And compositional function. Repetition serves to create end-to-end characteristics of a character or a depicted reality (remember, for example, such repetitive details as Oblomov’s “robe”, “short sponge” of a little princess in the novel “War and Peace”, etc.), correlates different subject-speech planes of the text , brings together or contrasts the heroes of the work, highlights the leading motives of the work.

On the basis of repetition, the figurative fields of the text are deployed, the repetition connects various spatial spheres and temporal plans of the work, actualizes the meanings that are significant for its interpretation, while each repeating unit, as a rule, is characterized by an “increment of meaning”.

In the prose of the XX century. the number of repetitions increases sharply, and the distance between them noticeably decreases. The texts of this period are characterized by the repetition of not only individual words and phrases, but also sentences, complex syntactic integers. And their associations (text blocks). The repeat functions are also becoming more complex.

For the composition of many works of the XX century. the principle of leitmotif is characteristic, associated with the intensified interaction of prose and poetry during this period. This principle underlies, for example, M. Bulgakov's first novel The White Guard, the entire text of which is riddled with deep repetitions. It interacts through repetitions characteristic of the novel as a whole (repeating images of a blizzard, fog, chaos, apocalyptic images, etc.), repetitions associated with its particular themes, repetitions-leitmotifs that consistently characterize characters.

The significance of repetitions - the basis of the semantic and figurative composition of the text - is also preserved in the novel The Master and Margarita, although the number of deep contact repetitions in it is noticeably reduced. Let's take a closer look at the repeat functions in this text.

Repetitions form a complex, fairly branched system in the text of the novel. It uses:

I. Semantic repetition(repetition of words containing the same semes, including associative ones, which are updated in the context):

I dreamed of an area unknown to Margarita - hopeless, despondent, under cloudy early spring sky. I dreamed of this ragged running greyish the sky, and below it a silent flock of rooks. Kind of a crooked bridge. Under him muddy spring river, joyless, miserable half bare trees, lonely aspen, and then- between: trees, behind some kind of garden, - a log building, not that it- a separate kitchen, or a bathhouse, or the devil knows what. Inanimate everything around some kind of before sad, what makes me want to hang myself on this aspen near the bridge... here infernal a place for a living person .

The types of semantic repetition are:

1) exact lexical repetition:

- Burn, burn old life!

- burn, suffering! shouted Margarita;

2) synonymous repetition: - Listen soundlessness, - Margarita said to the master, and the sand rustled under her bare feet,- listen and enjoy what you were not given in life,- silence; Particularly interesting in the text of the novel are cases where the use of members of the synonymous series simultaneously creates a contrast: ... What are you saying like this: lit up in the face? After all, it is not known what exactly a person has, a muzzle or a face. And, perhaps, after all, the face;

3) root repetition (repetition in the text or its fragment of single-root words): In all this mess, I remember one completely drunk female face With senseless but also in meaninglessness pleading eyes; In his head... buzzed, like in a chimney, and in this hum one could hear scraps of ushers' stories about yesterday's cat; cross-cutting repetitions of this type, organizing the entire text of the novel, include word-forming pairs the moon is lunar, hell is hellish. On the basis of the root repetition, textual word-forming nests with vertices arise and develop. fire, light, darkness, through to the work as a whole;

4) the repetition of tropes (primarily metaphors) that have common semantic components: in the text of the novel, for example, the metaphors of a river converge: dimly gleaming sabers lying in open black cases And dull blades of rivers; this image is motivated by a special spatial point of view of the observer and is associated with the theme of flight; in the novel, the repetition of metonymic designations is also common, including adjectives and substantives denoting a person, see, for example: A short, perfectly square man..., in a lilac coat and red kid gloves, stood at the counter and mumbled something commandingly. The salesman in a clean white coat and a blue hat was serving a lilac client... The lilac one lacked something in his face, but on the contrary, it was rather superfluous - drooping cheeks and shifty eyes; this technique that identifies a person and his external attributes, is generally characteristic of Bulgakov's prose;

5) the repetition of tropes that go back to the same model and characterize different characters, such as, for example, the use of the figurative parallel “pain (emotion) - needle” in the descriptions of the state of Berlioz, Nikanor Ivanovich, Likhodeev, Pilate, Margarita, the Master, cf .: his heart[Berlioz] it hit and for a moment fell somewhere, but with a blunt needle stuck in it; And yet, somewhere, some kind of needle in the very depths of his soul tingled the chairman. It was a needle of unease; Then, instantly, as if a needle had been pulled out of the brain, the temple subsided.(about Margarita); And the memory of the Master, a restless memory punctured by needles, began to fade;

6) derivational repetition, or repetition of words constructed according to the same word-formation model (its cases in this novel by Bulgakov are few): Neither whiffs no breeze movements clouds; Here again swayed And jumped up and down candle tongues, rattled dishes on the table.

II. Repetition of syntactic constructions of one structure or their parts, having the same structure (often in interaction with semantic or lexical repetition): The rooms in the basement were silent, the whole little builder's house was silent, and it was quiet in the back alley; How sad is the evening earth! How mysterious are the mists over the swamps. Who wandered in these fogs, who suffered a lot before death, who flew over this land, carrying an unbearable load, knows this.

Of the noted types of repetitions in the text of the novel, the most common are the actual lexical (mainly distant) repetition and the repetition of certain figurative means based on it.

Bulgakov's style is characterized by a special type of lexical repetition - the technique of repeating the same word or a combination of words in its different meanings. Thus, in the fifth chapter of the novel “There was a case in Griboedov”, the repetition of the word “face”, associated with metonymic transfer, creates a comic effect. Wed:

Someone's affectionate, fleshy face, shaven and well-fed, wearing horn-rimmed glasses, appeared before Ivan.

Comrade Bezdomny," this face spoke in a jubilee voice, "calm down!...

You,” Ivan interrupted, grinning, “do you understand that you need to catch the professor? And you climb to me with your nonsense! Cretin!

Comrade Bezdomny, have mercy on me,” the face answered, blushing, backing away and already repenting that it had got involved in this matter.

Word repetition hell in the same chapter (when characterizing "Griboyedov") is associated with the movement from figurative meaning lexical unit to the actualization of the direct nominative meaning and translates the everyday description into a different essential plan. The same function is performed by the repetition of the adjective hellish (hellish pain, hellish heat, hellish explosions of laughter, hot hellish furnaces) throughout the entire novel. The last repetition is especially significant, bringing together the heat in Moscow and the flames of hell.

Regularly repeating units, therefore, consistently expand their semantics, implement in the text the derivational and syntagmatic connections inherent in them. They serve not only as a factor of connectivity, but also as a means of creating wholeness text as its content property, which manifests itself in semantic non-additivity: the text as a whole is not equal to the sum of the meanings of its elements, it is always “greater” than the sum of the meanings of those parts from which it is built. Repeating units, for example, in addition to updating the components of their own semantics, receive additional increments of meaning based on the traditional symbolic halos of words, allusions, and the entire range of meanings attached to the word (image) in literature. For example, the phrase that serves as an element of the portrait description of Andrey Fomich's "skared" - small man, then repeated as a nomination in Gella's speech, it acquires a generalizing meaning. “The hidden irony of Gella, who announces the arrival of the barman Sokov, is brilliant: “Knight, here came small man...", for it includes all the richness of meanings acquired by the words "little man" in the history of the language and Russian culture.

Repeating units can be subject to semantic transformation. In the context of the entire novel, repetitive phraseological units with the component “devil” (and its derivatives) are transformed. In the figurative structure of the novel as a holistic unity, their inner form is revived, as a result, dephraseologizing, they acquire the character of free combinations: in the scenes in which they are used, evil spirits appear in response to the call of the characters; see for example:

a) Oh no! - Margarita exclaimed, startling the passers-by, - I agree to everything, I agree to do this comedy with rubbing with ointment, I agree to go to hell in the middle of nowhere ...

Ba, - Azazello suddenly yelled and, bulging his eyes at the trellis of the garden, began to point his finger somewhere.

b) [Master] raised his hands to the sky and shouted:

Here, the devil knows what it is, damn, damn, damn! Margarita became serious.

You just angrily told the truth, - she spoke, - the devil knows what it is, and the devil, believe me, everything will work out! Her eyes suddenly lit up...

See also: To him[Steppe] it seemed that the cat near the bed had gone somewhere and that this very minute he would fly head down to hell in the underworld.

Repetitions of various types serve as the basis for the development of end-to-end semantic series of text. In the novel figurative fields interact with dominants thunderstorm, fire, moon, sun. Note, for example, the recurring image of the sun, which melts: (breaks, breaks) in the windows of houses (the image of glass in this case performs a function similar to the image of a mirror, and serves as a signal of the border of two worlds - the other world and this world), see, for example, descriptions of Moscow: He fixed his gaze on the upper floors, dazzlingly reflecting in the glass brokenly and forever leaving Mikhail Alexandrovich Sun...; Countless sun melted glass across the river; In the upper floors of the masses lit up broken dazzling Sun;... weaved into ... a recently abandoned city with monastic gingerbread towers, with shattered by the sun in glass."A city with a shattered sun is a dying city".

Particularly varied in the text are the tropes that characterize the moon and magical moonlight ( moon ribbon, moon road, moon river, moon carpets etc.): The lunar path boils up, the lunar river begins to whip out of it and spills in all directions. The moon rules and plays, the moon dances and plays pranks. As E.A. Yablokov, “in the aspect of the problem of Truth, which runs through all of Bulgakov’s work ... the “solar path of extraversion, rational knowledge” is preferred here to the “lunar path of introversion, contemplation, intuition” (Jung). It is characteristic that the truth is revealed to the heroine of The Master and Margarita precisely in the moonlight ... All the phenomena of the Master are connected with the moon.

With the help of repetitions, the main essential coordinates of the “department” are distinguished and opposed to each other: “light” and “darkness”, the real and unreal world, and the images of “light” and “darkness” are of a cross-cutting nature in Bulgakov’s work in general. At the same time, through repetitions, the boundaries between different worlds are blurred.

Repeating lexical units are associated with the opposition of real and illusory plans in the text: “deception”, “seem”, “imagination”, “haze”, “hallucination”, “fog” (see stable figurative parallel fog - deception). At the same time, words and phrases are regularly repeated, varying the motifs of a mirror, a dream, a “damaged phone”, which serve as a metaphor for the ambiguous relationship of a word to reality, to other “possible worlds”, “a paradoxical combination in the word of the function of reflecting reality and expressing imaginary ... heroes novels are on the borderline between the real world and the world of fairy tales. Thus, repetitions emphasize the multiplicity of worlds presented in the text of the novel, the mobility of the boundaries between them, the ambiguity of the expressed meanings.

For the ethical issues of the novel, the repetition of the words of the semantic field "vices / virtues" is significant. (envy, cowardice, greed, mercy, sting and etc.). The noted repetitions are supplemented by repetitions of units of a special thematic group that is formed in the text of the novel and is associated with the motive of creativity as a search for truth: it includes nouns records, novel, chronicle, theme, vision, dream, Verbs write, describe, guess, see etc. This group is opposed by lexical units denoting the exact (or inaccurate) transmission, establishment or external fixation of “facts”: consequence, clarification, rumors, whisper, explanation etc., see for example: ... for a long time throughout the capital there was a heavy hum of the most incredible rumors ... The whisper of "evil spirits" ... was heard in the queues standing at the dairy, in trams, in shops, in apartments, in kitchens, in trains. .. The concentration of these units in the epilogue of the novel creates a comic effect: Again and again, justice must be done to the investigation. Everything was done not only to catch the criminals, but also to explain everything that they had done. And all this was explained, and these explanations cannot but be recognized as sensible and irrefutable.

The motive of creativity through repetitions connects several characters of the novel: Levi Matvey keeps "records" that) seem unreliable to others, the Master creates a novel, the "reliability" of which is confirmed by Woland's story (see the words of the Master: Oh how I guessed! Oh, how I guessed everything!).“Having “guessed” the truth and speaking in one voice with Woland (who actually quotes the novel), the hero approached the limit of knowledge, breaking ties with the earthly world... The fact that the hero “guessed” the truth paradoxically reduces him to the role of a copyist of a certain "pratext"". The dream of Ivan, who once wrote an anti-religious poem, is transformed into a text about the execution of Yeshua, cf. end; 15 and beginning of 16 chapters: He began to dream that the sun was already descending over Bald Mountain, and this mountain was cordoned off by a double cordon(Ch. 15). The sun was already descending over Bald Mountain, and this mountain was cordoned off by a double cordon(beginning of chapter 16). Separate motifs of the Master's novel about Pilate are then repeated in Ivan's "visions": In a drowsiness, in front of Ivan, a man motionless in an armchair, shaven, with a torn yellow face, a man in a white robe with red padding, looks hatefully into a lush and alien garden. Ivan also sees a treeless yellow hill with empty pillars and crossbeams. Ivan's dream is continued by the chapters of the Master's novel (Ch. 25, 26). The completion of the novel about Pilate is already given in the author's narration. Thus, the complex subjective organization of the novel is reflected in a number of distant repetitions that single out different authors of the “text within the text”.

The plurality of subjects (authors of the text and metatext) corresponds to the plurality of addressees, among which there are internal addressees (Berlioz, Ivan, Margarita) and external, primarily an abstract addressee - the reader, to whom the author repeatedly refers; cf .: Follow me, my reader, and only me, and I will show you such love!

Such characters of the novel as Ivan and Margarita draw closer together on the basis of their common semantic attribute "activity". creative perception". Ivan's dreams associated with his "awakening" historical memory, continue the “novel”, Margarita rereads its surviving fragments, it is with her reading (memory) that the through repetition of the fragment about darkness is connected, her appeal to the text motivates the transition to the last two chapters of the Master’s novel.

Thus, the series of repetitions of different types perform a text-forming function at different levels of the work and are significant for the organization of the narrative.

The repetition of different lexical units reflects the multiplicity of points of view presented in the narrative structure of the novel, cf., for example, the use of words with the same root cat - kitten And sparrow - sparrow in chapter 18, motivated by a change in point of view: There was no one in the hall except for a huge black cat sitting on a chair.(point of view of Poplavsky); ... in front of the fireplace on a tiger skin sat, complacently squinting at the fire, a black cat(point of view of the barman Sokov).

Repetitions in the text of the novel connect the speech of the narrator and the speech of different characters. So, the elements of the inner speech of Pontius Pilate (ch. 2): And then the procurator thought: “Oh, my gods! I ask him about something unnecessary at the trial ... My mind does not serve me anymore ... ”And again he imagined a bowl with a dark liquid. "I'm poisoning me, I'm poisoning!" - correlate with the emotional speech of the narrator, cf .: And the ice in the vase melts and you can see someone’s bull’s eyes filled with blood at the next table, and it’s scary, scary ... Oh gods, my gods, poison me, poison! ..». The appeal-refrain "Oh gods ..." is repeated in the speech of Pilate, the Master and Ivan Nikolaevich (after Ivan Bezdomny recognizes himself as a student of the Master), cf .: [Master] ... addressing the distant moon, shuddering, he began to mutter: - And at night with the moon I have no rest why bother me? Oh gods, gods...; He lies, he lies! Oh gods, how he lies! mutters Ivan Nikolayevich, walking away from the grating, it is not the air that draws him into the garden...

No less important is repetition for the semantic composition of the novel. Especially significant for her is repetition, reflecting different points view of the correlation of such a vice as cowardice with other moral qualities. Thus, Aphranius relates the last words of Yeshua: The only thing he said is that among human vices, he considers cowardice to be one of the most important. Pontius Pilate disputes this opinion: ... cowardice is undoubtedly one of the worst vices. This is what Yeshua Ha-Nozri said. No, philosopher, I object to you: This the worst vice. Pilate's opinion is expressed in his internal monologue, transmitted in the form of improperly direct speech, against the background of which the pronoun "I" suddenly appears. As a result, the boundaries between the narrator’s speech and the character’s improperly direct speech turn out to be extremely blurred, and the narrative segment is characterized by diffuse points of view: the definition of cowardice, respectively, can refer both to Pilate’s subject-speech plan and to the narrator’s plan (cf. with the description of “Griboyedov” ).

Levi's "notes" echo Yeshua's point of view: ... in the fragments of parchment after them, he made out the words: "greater vice ... cowardice." Finally, in chapter 32, "Farewell and Eternal Refuge", Pilate's point of view refers to Woland: If it's true that cowardice the worst vice maybe it's not the dog's fault. Repetitive components, as we see, are characterized by a variable lexical composition, the variation of which reflects different points of view on the place of cowardice in the hierarchy of human vices. Repetitions are included in different modal frames and turn out to be polemical in relation to each other. This fourfold repetition highlights one of the most important ethical problems of the novel - the problem of cowardice, which turns out to be significant both in the “novel about Pilate” and in “modern” chapters.

Repetition not only highlights the main semantic lines of the text, but also performs the most important compositional functions in the novel - the function stable characteristics of characters function convergence (opposition) of different space-time plans, situations, images. The first function is traditional for Russian prose. It is associated with the use of repeated designations of details of the appearance, clothing or behavior of the character throughout the work. Thus, the dominant description of Levi is the definitions black-bearded, tattered, gloomy, Azazello's appearances are accompanied by the repetition of adjectives reddish, reddish and details protruding and mouth fang; descriptions of the Master are based on the repetition of speech means with the semes "anxiety", "fear" (alarmed eyes, restless eyes" and etc.); Pilate's descriptions consistently repeat the combination white cloak with bloody lining(with partial replacement of components, e.g. scarlet-lined cloak).

The peculiarity of Bulgakov's novel, however, is that his characters are given in different guises, are associated with different spatio-temporal dimensions, and a stable characteristic based on a number of repetitions, for some of them you change then another, reflecting their transformation in one of the depicted worlds ; see for example:

The night also tore off the fluffy tail of the Behemoth, tore off its wool, scattered its shreds across the swamps. The one who was the cat that entertained the prince of darkness, now turned out to be a thin young man, a page demon, the best rogue that ever existed in the world ...

On the side of everyone, Azazello flew, shining with the steel of armor. The moon changed his face too. The ridiculous, ugly fang disappeared without a trace, and the squint turned out to be false. Both Azazello's eyes were the same, empty black, and his face was white and cold. Now Azazello was flying in his real form, like a demon of a waterless desert, a demon-killer.

The repetitions of speech means and situations consistently correlate different images of the novel. Their active use is associated with the principle of duality of characters, which underlies the system of intersecting images: Levi Matvey - Margarita, Levi Matvey - Ivan, Judas - Aloisy Magarych, Pilate - Frida. In the text of the novel, the Master approaches both Yeshua and Pilate (this is emphasized by the repetition of lexical means common to the spheres of these characters with the semes "fear", "longing", "anxiety"). The echoes between the images can be implicit, but they can also be motivated in the text, explicated in it by direct comparisons, see, for example, the words of Margarita: I returned the next day, honestly, as promised, but it was too late. Yes, I'm back like the unfortunate Levi Matthew, too late!

Comparison of situations through partial repetitions may be accompanied by a comic reduction of one of them, see, for example, the parallels Ivanushka - Yeshua, Stravinsky - Pilate: He[Ivan Homeless] was in a torn whitish sweatshirt, to which a paper icon was pinned on the chest with a safety pin ... and striped white underpants. Ivan Nikolayevich's right cheek was freshly torn; A carefully shaven man of about forty-five, with pleasant, but very piercing eyes, walked ahead of everyone ... The whole retinue showed him signs of attention and respect, and therefore his entrance turned out to be very solemn. "Like Pontius Pilate!" Ivan thought...

Repetition brings together many situations in the novel. Thus, the "Moscow" scenes are consistently correlated with Woland's ball, cf., for example, the polonaise that he performs at the ball ubiquitous orchestra and the raucous roar of a polonaise that breaks out from all windows, from all doors, from all gates, from roofs and attics, from cellars and yards. Muscovites are among the guests of Woland, their destiny, therefore, is the impossibility of a true resurrection: The crowds of guests began to lose their appearance. And tailcoats and women disintegrated into dust.

Three times in the text of the novel, the description of the “devilish” dance is repeated - the foxtrot “Hallelujah” (jazz in Griboedov, the dance of a sparrow - one of the embodiments of evil spirits, finally, a ball at Woland), cf .:

a) And immediately thin male voice desperately shouted to the music "Hallelujah!!". It hit the famous Griboedov jazz. The sweat-covered faces seemed to glow, it seemed that the painted horses on the ceiling came to life, it was as if they added light to the lamps, and suddenly, as if breaking the chain, both halls danced ... In a word, hell;

b) On the stage ... monkey jazz was now raging. A huge gorilla in shaggy whiskers, with a trumpet in his hand, danced heavily, conducting ... On the mirrored floor, an uncountable number of couples, as if, having merged, spinning in one direction, walked like a wall, threatening to sweep away everything in its path.

The foxtrot "Hallelujah" is depicted in the novel as "a grotesque transformation of prayer into a dance", as an element of the black mass. The repetition of this image emphasizes the diabolical beginning in Moscow life and is complemented by other repetitions that develop the motif of the “hellish” concert unfolding in the city, see, for example:

The orchestra did not play, and did not even burst out, and did not even suffice, namely, in a disgusting expression, it cut down some incredible march, unlike anything else in its swagger...

Curious people climbed onto the barrier, hellish bursts of laughter were heard, frantic screams drowned out by the golden clatter of cymbals from the orchestra.

Homeless' pursuit of Woland is accompanied by the "roar of the polonaise", and then Gremin's aria, Margarita's flight - by the sounds of waltzes and marches. A variety of sounds, merging into "noise", "roar", "roar", are opposed to the Master's dream of silence:

You know, I can't stand noise, fuss, violence and all sorts of things like that. I especially hate the human cry, whether it be the cry of suffering, rage, or any other cry.

This opposition makes especially significant the fourfold repetition of situations in which the main characters of the novel scream “terribly (piercingly)”, and their very sequence. In the second chapter, "with such a terrible voice that Yeshua recoiled," Pilate cries out that the kingdom of truth will never come. Chapter 31 swept over the mountains like a trumpet voice, scary voice Woland:- It's time!! In chapter 32, demanding mercy on Pilate (a repetition of the situation with Frida), Margarita screamed piercingly- and from this cry a stone broke off in the mountains and flew along the ledges into the abyss. Finally, the cry of the Master turns into thunder, destroying mountains: - Free! Free! He is waiting for you!

The end of the novel about Pilate by the Master turns out to be the last moment of historical time, giving way to eternity. This is also the triumph of mercy, one of the manifestations of divine truth.

Repetitions are the basis for the convergence of the "Yershalaim" and "Moscow" chapters of the novel, the echoes between which are numerous. Thus, the descriptions of thunderstorms in Moscow and Yershalaim related to the reversibility of the path correlate, cf.: The administrator rubbed his eyes and saw that a yellow-bellied cat was crawling low over Moscow. thundercloud. There was a loud growl in the distance. - A storm cloud was rising menacingly and steadily across the sky from the west. Its edges were already seething with white foam, its black smoky belly was glowing yellow. The cloud grumbled, and from time to time fiery threads fell out of it.

“The Moscow-Yershalaim parallel is one of the most obvious in the novel... Let us mention other details of the entourage: the crooked narrow lanes of the Arbat - the Lower City, sweatshirts - chitons, two five-candle lights over the Yershalaim Temple on Easter night - ten lights in the windows of the "institution "that same night. Even Annushka's sunflower oil, which played such a fatal role in the fate of Berlioz, corresponds to Pilate's rose oil. The theater "Variety", associated with the motifs of a booth and at the same time a demonic sabbath, correlates with the image of Bald Mountain - the place of Yeshua's execution - and the traditional place of the sabbath, forming an ambivalent unity.

Both in the "Moscow" and in the "Yershalaim" chapters, speech means are repeated, denoting heat, "ruthless sunshine." The through image of the novel - the image of darkness falling on the Great City - is associated with both Moscow and Yershalaim, cf .: The darkness that came from the Mediterranean covered the city hated by the procurator. The suspension bridges connecting the temple with the terrible Anthony Tower disappeared, the abyss descended from the sky and flooded ... The palace with loopholes, bazaars, caravanserais, lanes, ponds ... Yershalaim disappeared- the great city, as if it did not exist in the world; This darkness, which came from the west, covered the vast city[Moscow]. Bridges and palaces have disappeared.

Image " pitch darkness devouring everything”, is preceded by an eschatological image of a cloud coming from the west, which is repeated in the finale already in Ivan’s visions (“a cloud ... boils and leans on the ground, as it happens only during world catastrophes”). If in the finale of the novel "The White Guard" the world "shrouds the veil of God", then in "The Master and Margarita" the sky over Moscow is covered by Woland's black cloak.

The imagery associated with the motif of darkness includes in the finale the repeated designations of natural phenomena: [Margarita] I thought that perhaps ... and the very horse- only a block of darkness, and the mane of this horse is a cloud, and the spurs of the rider- white spots of stars.

The repetitions, finally, bring together the image of the inhabitants of the two cities, such is, for example, the image of the “wave” of voices in the scene of the execution of Yeshua and in the scene in Griboyedov. At the end of the novel, the images of the two cities are combined in one of the contexts.

Thus, repetitions permeate the entire text of the novel. Some of them are also characteristic of Bulgakov's other works, see, for example, the image of the "hellish concert" in "Zoyka's apartment", "darkness" and "needles" in the drama "Running".

Repetitions mark the transition from one chapter of the novel to another. They are used at the junctions of thirteen chapters of the text, the structure of which is characterized by a pickup technique - the use of the last words of the previous chapter at the beginning of the next one, compare, for example, the end of the first chapter and the beginning of the second: Everything is simple: in white, raincoat ...(Ch. 1) - In a white cloak with a bloody lining...(Ch. 2).

At the junctions of the first and second parts of the novel, repeated elements of metatext are used - the author's appeal to readers: Follow me, reader!(end of ch. 18 and beginning of ch. 19). This repetition destroys the isolation of the inner world of the text and connects the depicted with extra-textual reality.

The concentration of repetitions, reflecting the main storylines of the novel and highlighting its through images, characterizes the epilogue, see, for example:

Wakes up a scientist and brings him to a miserable cry on a full moon night is the same thing. He sees the unnaturalness of the noseless executioner, who, jumping up and somehow hooting in his voice, stabs with a spear in the heart of Gestos, who is tied to a post and has lost his mind ...

A wide lunar road stretches from the bed to the window, and a man in a white cloak with bloody lining rises onto this road and begins to walk towards the moon. Next to him is a young man in a ruined bath tunic and with a disfigured face.

In the epilogue, “the force that generated and shaped the novel about Pilate and whose earthly existence itself gave what was happening the features of an event, a drama of history, a length ... Instead of comprehending (by guessing or seeing) and incarnation - an endless reproduction of some and the same pictures.

Thus, in the novel "The Master and Margarita" a system of repetitions is presented, the configuration and position of which in the text determine the features of the composition and figurative system of the work. These are repetitions of language means, motives, situations, images. The main technique that determines the structure of the text is the reception of the leitmotif. This is such a principle of constructing a text in which "a certain motive, once it has arisen, is then repeated many times, each time appearing in a new version of new outlines and in ever new combinations with other motives" . The repetitions are supplemented by numerous historical, cultural and literary reminiscences. Repetitive speech means intersect, unite in rows and fields, enter into generic (darkness - cloud), synonymous and antonymic relations (sun - moon; night - light, etc.). Repetitions correlate various spatial and temporal plans of the text, connect the "Yershalaim" and "Moscow" chapters, projecting history onto the present, open the eternal in the temporal, they actualize the meanings that are important for the semantic composition of the novel, and determine the "homogeneity" of the fantastic and real depicted in it. -domestic worlds.

Questions and tasks

1. Read the story of E. Zamyatin "The Cave". Highlight repeating elements in its text. Define the types of repetitions. What positions do repetitions occupy in the text?

2. What series of repetitions is associated with the title of the story - "The Cave"? Determine the meaning of the title.

3. Highlight the through images of the story. Show how they interact with each other in the text. Determine how the variability and stability of these images is manifested.

4. Highlight the key oppositions of the text of the story, in which repetitions are involved.

5. Determine the main functions of repetitions in the text of the story. What is the originality of the composition and speech organization of E. Zamyatin's story?

Comment on the writer's statement: “If I firmly believe in an image, it will inevitably give birth to a whole system of derivative images, it will grow roots through paragraphs, pages. In a short story, the image can become integral- extend to the whole thing from beginning to end. Give examples of integral images.

"Solitary" V.V. Rozanova: text structure

Syntactic contrasts are complemented in "Solitary" by lexical-semantic contrasts. The maximum dissection of the text turns into its internal integrity and harmony, auto-communication is combined with an active dialogue with internal and external addressees, the subjectivity of private records - with generalizations of various types, colloquial syntactic means interact with book constructions, rhythmic fragments with a strophic form, lyrical expression is complemented by rhetorical, high is combined with low, everyday and "home". This is how a text of a completely new form arises, which V.V. Rozanov himself defined as “the form of Adam”: “This is a form both full of egoism and without egoism ... limit of eternity... And it consists simply in the fact that "the river flows as it flows", so that "everything was like There is". No inventions. But "man is always inventing." And here is the peculiarity that even "fictions" do not destroy the truth of the fact: every dream, wish, cobweb of thought will enter. This is not at all a "Diary" and not "memoirs" and not a "repentant confession": precisely and precisely - only "sheets ..." /

The discreteness of the structure of the text, the weakening of the links between its fragments correlate with the cross-cutting images of the work - images of solitude and loneliness, closely related to each other:

terrible loneliness for the whole life. Since childhood. lonely souls are hidden souls.

to one better - because when one,- I'm with God.

If solitude is a conscious choice of the narrator, then loneliness is his constant internal state, which manifests itself not only in breaking ties with others, but also "in the desire I to infinity from I" .

"Solitary", opening autobiographical trilogy Rozanov, reflects a new approach to self-expression and self-interpretation in literature. Image I is created not through a consistent biography, not by characterizing actions, but by fixing individual thoughts, by conveying "individuality of mindset." The history of life is replaced by a detailed auto-reflection, revealing the fluidity, multidimensionality and inexhaustibility of the "I". The identity of the individual is emphasized by self-assessments, often figurative:

No interest in the realization of oneself, the absence of any external energy, the "will to be." I am the most unfulfilled person.

A wanderer, an eternal wanderer, and everywhere only a wanderer (Luga - Petersburg, wagon; about himself).

Rozanov rejects the traditionally given coherence of the description of the life path - it is opposed by discontinuity And the mobility of separate "records", including memories, reflections and assessments. The syntactic organization, which Rozanov first addressed in "Solitary", determined the freedom of form and the associative "looseness" of the text and opened up new expressive possibilities for fiction and non-fiction. The structure of this work anticipates the development of fragmentary discourse in the literature of the 20th century. with its inherent signs of discontinuity, semantic inconsistency, non-normativeness and permutation (possible interchangeability of parts).

Questions and tasks

I. 1. Read the story of F.M. Dostoevsky "The Gentle One". Explain the author's definition of the genre of the work - "fantastic story".

2. Describe the compositional division of the text.

3. Determine the principles for highlighting chapters and subchapters in the structure of the text.

4. Analyze their titles. Do they form a system?

5. Highlight the through images of the text that determine its integrity.

II. 1. Read L. Petrushevskaya's story "The Meaning of Life", which is part of the Requiem cycle. What is the peculiarity of its architectonics?

2. Highlight the semantic parts in the text of the story. Explain the lack of compositional-syntactic division of the text (dividing it into paragraphs).

3. Describe the cohesion and coherence of the text.

4. Analyze the semantic composition of the story. What are its features?

5. Consider the contextually variable division of the text. How are the contexts containing the narrator's speech and "alien" speech combined? How do volumetric-pragmatic and conceptual-variative articulation of the text relate?

Notes:

Emphasis in quotations that will occur in the future belong to the author study guide,

Gadamer X.G. Truth and method. - M., 1988. - S. 527.

Tyupa V.I. Artistic analytics. - M., 2001. - S. 54.

Bakhtin M.M. Questions of literature and aesthetics. - M., 1975. - S. 403.

Lukin V.A. Literary text: Fundamentals of linguistic theory and elements of analysis. - M., 1999. - S. 22.

Cm.: Kozhevnikova N.A.“On the methods of text organization in M. Bulgakov's novel The White Guard” and “Word and plot in M. Bulgakov's novel The White Guard” // Uch. app. Azerbaijan Pedagogical Institute, Russian. lang. and literature to them. M.Akhundova. - Baku, 1973.-№3; 1974. - No. 3.

All quotations from The Master and Margarita are from the following edition: Bulgakov M. Favorites. - M., 1988. We note in this fragment of the text a hidden reminiscence, the source of which is “Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky (see the words of Svidrigailov: “We all see eternity as an idea that cannot be understood, something "huge! But why must it be huge? And suddenly, instead, imagine, there will be one room, something like a village bath, smoky, and spiders in all corners, and that's all eternity" ( Dostoevsky F.M. Poly. coll. cit.: In 30 volumes - L., 1973. - V. 6 - S. 221).

Lukin V.A. Literary text: Fundamentals of linguistic theory and elements of analysis. - M., 1999.

Yablokov E.A."I am part of that power..." ( Ethical issues novel by M. Bulgakov "The Master and Margarita") // Russian Literature. - 1988. - No. 2. - S. 28.

Gasparov B.M. Literary leitmotifs. - M., 1994. - S. 45.

Yablokov E.A. Artistic world of Mikhail Bulgakov. - M., 2001. - S. 389.

Vinogradova E.M. The truth about the word and the truth of the word in the novel by M. Bulgakov "The Master and Margarita" // Man. Language. Art. - M., 2001. - S. 34 - 35.

Yablokov E.A. Artistic world of Mikhail Bulgakov. - M., 2001. - S. 241 - 243. See in the same place: “Presenting himself as a brilliant historian, “restoring” historical reality in its living primevalness, the Master as a “cultural hero” and as an artist ... turned out to be lower than Levi Matthew, blindly believing in his own truth ... ".

Zamyatin E. Op. - M., 1988. - S. 470.

All quotes from V. V. Rozanov's "Solitary" are given according to the edition: Rozanov V.V. secluded. - M., 1990.

Nosov S. V.V. Rozanov. Aesthetics of Freedom. - St. Petersburg, 1993. - S. 90.

Filat T.V. On the genre polygenesis of the work of V.V. Rozanov "Solitary" // Rozanov Readings. - Yelets, 1993. - P.9.

Orlitsky Yu.B. Verse beginning in V. Rozanov's prose // Rozanov readings. - Yelets, 1993. - S. 5.

Cit. by book: Hollerbach E. Encounters and experiences. - St. Petersburg, 1998. - S. 74-75.

Rozanov V.V. Legend of the Grand Inquisitor. - M., 1996. - S. 578.

Composition is the sequential arrangement of parts in a work.

Parts of the composition are distinguished on the basis of:

Ideological and thematic community

・Story completeness

Composition types:

lyrical

· Narrative

Dramatic

Composition structure:

block (sequential)

¾ Monoblock (single test)

¾ Two-piece

¾ Three-piece

¾ Polycomponent

¾ Cyclic

¾ Mirror

centripetal

¾ A story within a story

¾ Roman in letters

¾ A story within a story

¾ mounting

Depending on the genre of the work, it is dominated by specific ways of depicting it. Each piece has its own unique composition. Some traditional genres have compositional canons.

Composition types:

· Free (nothing limited). common topic, you can insert or remove cycles (cyclic composition)

Rigid (block, centripetal)

Relationship between composition and content.

There are 2 main points of view:

Composition and plot are not related. A composition is a frozen structure, and any content can be embedded in it (for example, an ode, where the structure is fixed, and the content can be anything)

Composition and plot are closely related. The very structure of the work is meaningful, carries a certain intention of the author (for example, the Hero of our time)

Composition was treated differently in different eras:

Antiquity, the Middle Ages - a rigid canon is important

Baroque - free form, broken composition

Classicism, sentimentalism - a strict form

Modernism, symbolism, early 20th century – free form, complex construction

Structure levels:

Macrostructure - rigid parts (blocks)

Midistructure - consideration of 1 blocks in detail

Microstructure - the specifics of the construction of individual parts

Types of compositional links:

1. Ideological and thematic

2. Figurative

3. Storyline

4. Space-time

5. Styling

Plot-compositional links:

Motivated - a plot detail mentioned in the previous part and helping to develop the action in the next part

· Unmotivated (mechanical) - a plot detail that has little to do with the content, formally serving to connect the parts of the work.

Ring

Additional composite components:

Lyrical digressions

・Introductory episodes

Architectonics - this is the construction of a work of art, its general external form and the relationship of individual parts.

The concept of architectonics is close to the concept of composition in literature, but there is a difference between these concepts. The “compositional” study of a work is reduced to the study of its individual details in order to establish the character of the whole from them and vice versa.

Architectonics requires the strictest attention, first of all, to the ratio of parts (even regardless of their internal meaning), otherwise the construction will be unsteady.

So, despite the seeming "unwieldy", the best creations of Dostoevsky from the side of architectonics are impeccable. Numerous characters in his novels are "established" so firmly that individual moments are strongly connected and mutually necessary.

One of the external manifestations of the architectonics of a work can be considered the division of a work into chapters, actions, etc. The architectonic connection between chapters is usually established by the fact that a new chapter introduces some new member of the plot setting.

But sometimes the division into chapters of a work reveals its architectonic meaning in a different way. So, for example, Gogol's "Sorochinsky Fair" consists of 13 chapters; there is no doubt, of course, that the strength of their subordination and the architectonics of the work as a whole, along with other points, is explained by the value of 13, as a "devil's number", i.e. due to the general setting of the work on the intervention of an imaginary devil.

Detail in literature

Material culture as a set of objects, man-made, enters the world of the work. However, to designate objects depicted in literature, mat. culture there is no single term. According to the creation of "bygone days" it is possible to reconstruct the mat. life.

Changes in the relationship between man and thing in real life:

1. At the dawn of civilization, a thing is the crown of human creation, evidence of wisdom and skill ("white stone chambers" and their decoration; fabrics with a "sly pattern"; magnificent banquet bowls).

2. Attitude to objects mat. culture as an achievement of the human mind - the Age of Enlightenment ("Robinson Crusoe" - a hymn to labor and civilization).

3. Lit-ra 19-20 centuries - a) a man-master is still revered, manufactured skillful hands items. b) Mat. the value of a thing can obscure a person, he is evaluated by society by how expensive things possesses.

4.In the 20th century. - the struggle against materialism - the slavish dependence of people on the surrounding things. With the development of technology, the range of things depicted in literature expands (giant factories, an infernal punishing machine - "correct. colony").

Functions of things in literature:

1. Culturological (travel novel; historical novel) - various worlds (national, estate, geographical, etc.) are presented in a synchronous cut.

2.Characterological function: in "Dead Souls" the "intimate connection of things" with their owners is shown).

3. Plot-compositional: a scarf in the tragedy "Othello". the world has its own composition (active in detective genres).

Things act as signs of this or that way of life mainly in everyday writing. works, in particular in "physiological essays", in science fiction.

Artistic detail- the smallest unit of the objective world of the work (French detail - “small composition part of the part”). The artistic (objective, figurative) world of a work is a meta-verbal (abstracted, generalized) dimension of a literary project. The most important category of thin. world - an image (i.e., reproduction of objects in their integrity, individuality). To thin. details include: everyday life, landscape, portrait. Paths, tricks, figures of speech do NOT belong to e. (Putnin)

Detailing the objective world is inevitable (this is not decorated, but the essence of the image). The detail replaces the whole in the text, evokes the necessary associations in the reader (concretization by the reader). Selecting, inventing details, writing. "turns" the object. to chit. def. side (in the "Legend about the regiment of I." nature is a participant in the campaign, patronage. non-Russians). Taste for e. united. all the artists Homer resorts to described. barely noticeable little things. Deliberate delay in action. - retardation.

The degree of detail of the image can be. Motivated spaces. and/or time point. zren. narratives (A. Fet: “Only in the world there is that shady / Dormant maple tent. / Only in the world there is that radiant / Childishly thoughtful look. / Only in the world there is that fragrant / Sweet head dress. / Only in world is this pure/left running parting.” An elegant female portrait was created with the help of several D., the sequence, gradation depending on the direction of the lyrical subject’s gaze).

Classic d. rep. subject structure. world: events., actions of characters., their portraits, psychological. and speech. characteristics, landscape, interior, etc. Some kind of D. may be absent, which is an underline. convention of the world.

A. B. Yesin singled out three groups of D.: plot, descriptive, psychological. (typological style). Dominance to-l type of breeds. corresponding property, or dominant: “plot” (“Taras Bulba”), “descriptiveness” (“Dead Souls”), psychologism (“Crime and Punishment”). These St. Islands can not be excluded. each other. Detail issue. St. funkt. completely only in metawords. text (where a row, sequence, roll call D.). Co- and / or opposition of details. For example, a childish, stupid smile of Pierre Bezukhov and an intelligent, observant look - for Tolst. Pierre's smile ("mind of the heart") is more important than his opinions ("mind of the mind"), which will change. The dynamics of the portrait: gestures, facial expressions, change. skin color, trembling, etc. (which is not always subject to consciousness) - can. diverge sharply from the letters. the meaning of the speeches. "Dispute" plot. and psychologist. detailed – to captivate the novels of Ven. "Ensemble" of details created. holistic impressed ("cabinet/Philosopher at eighteen" - "E.O.").

E.S. Dobin - typologies. D. according to the criterion. singularity/many: "details" - impact. in many, extensive, “details” - gravitate towards unity, replace a number of details, intense (Karenin’s ears, curls of hair on Anna’s neck, short upper lip with the mustaches of the little princess Bolkonskaya, the radiant eyes of Princess Maria, etc.). Not just characteristic features are singled out, but something that hints at a certain contradiction in the subject. And it is expressive, that is, if it is read correctly, the reader joins the author's system of values ​​(for example, a short sponge with a mustache of Liza Bolkonskaya, at first character. as "her special, her own beauty", soon evokes in the stories. (and A Bolkonsky) unfavorable for the heroine of zoological associations: “... the sponge rose, giving the face not a joyful, but a brutal, squirrel expression”).

Detail (Dobin):

A. contributing into dissonance. ("Strange" d. - term. Shklovsky), them. cognizant. significant. (let me take a closer look at the item): two Manilov chairs, wrapped in “just matting” and outstanding. there is a non-owner in it - “Do not sit down<…>they're not ready yet." When using such a thing is a hyperbole: a bicycle from "The Man in a Case" (Chekhov), on which Varenka famously swept, frightening Belikov. Violation of the norm, an element of surprise, hyperbolization of birth. sens. "intensity" of such D., increased. "burden" on her, about which Dobin writes.

b. visibility d., contrasting. with total background, conducive composition techniques: repetitions, "close-up", "montage", retardation, etc. Repeating and acquiring additional. meanings, D. becomes a motive (leitmotif), often grows into a symbol, stands. explained. har-ra (in "The Idiot" Myshkin's strange ability to imitate handwriting reproduction of writing styles - a hint of main talent Myshkina: understanding of different characters, diff. behavior styles.

V. symbolic D. m. b. delivered. in the title of the project: "Gooseberry" by Chekhov, " Easy breath» Bunin (the unity of the artistic whole, the presence of the author in the composition).

Detail (according to Dobin) is closer to a sign than to a symbol (evoking the joy of recognition, exciting the chain of associations - one can judge of Onegin's passion. Based on the decoration of his office, several strokes-signs replacing the length. Described: "... and a portrait of Lord Byron, / And a column with a cast-iron doll / Under a hat, with a cloudy brow, / With hands clenched in a cross."

Details help with reconstruction. life, everyday life, tastes of society, far from us.

Architecture (lat. architectura, gr. archi - chief and tektos - build, build) - architecture, the art of designing and building. Architecture creates a materially organized environment that people need for their life, in accordance with the purpose, modern technical capabilities and aesthetic views of society. As a form of art, architecture enters the sphere of spiritual culture, aesthetically shaping the environment of a person, expresses public ideas in artistic images: a person’s ideas about the world, time, greatness, joy, triumph, loneliness and many other feelings. This is probably why they say that architecture is frozen music. The architect cares about the beauty, usefulness and strength of the structures being created, in other words, the aesthetic, constructive and functional qualities in architecture are interconnected. The historical development of society determines the functions and types of structures, technical structural systems, and the artistic structure of architectural structures. In different historical periods, a variety of building materials and technologies were used, which significantly affect the creation of architectural structures. The modern level of development of technology, the use of reinforced concrete, glass, plastics and other new materials make it possible to create unusual forms of buildings in the form of a ball, spiral, flower, shell, ear, etc.

In architecture, functional, technical, aesthetic principles are interconnected: utility, strength, beauty. The main expressive means used in architecture are composition, tectonics, plasticity of volumes, scale, rhythm, proportionality, as well as the texture and color of the surfaces of materials, the synthesis of arts, etc. Architectural structures reflect the artistic style of the era, like works of any other art form. Architecture differs from simple construction in its artistic and imaginative side. Architects create an artistically organized space for human life, which is a possible environment for the synthesis of arts. World-famous architectural structures and ensembles are remembered as symbols of countries and cities (the pyramids in Egypt, the Acropolis in Athens, the Colosseum in Rome, the Eiffel Tower in Paris, skyscrapers in Chicago, the Kremlin and Red Square in Moscow, etc.).

Architecture and fashion not only feed on the same ideas, they even use the same professional terms: texture, ornament, sketch, size, image. Issues of a unified approach in the formulation creative task and interrelations of design activities of architects and fashion designers are of interest to art historians of the world and are constantly reviewed on the pages of various publications. So, for example, in the article "The structure of the body" Alessandra Paudice / Alessandra Paudice ( Vogue No. 3, March 2002, pp. 292-294) quotes Tom Ford: “Both clothes and buildings are the shell in which a person lives.” Architecture is seen as a macrocosm, a living space. Fashion is a microcosm, a second skin that a person can choose for himself. An architectural structure protects a person from the outside world. Clothing helps to preserve our inner world. The first to compare architecture with clothing was the Roman architect Vitruvius, who lived during the time of Emperor Augustus. In his treatise On Architecture, he wrote: “From the beauty of the naked body, we move on to columns one eighth thick; where a person has legs, the base is at the column. The capital looks like a human head with curls, it is decorated with an ornate ornament, like a wreath of fruits adorns a hairdo. The flutes that trace the body of the column are like falling folds of fabric.

The dialogue between fashion and architecture reached its peak at the end XIX - early XX centuries, during the Art Nouveau, and then Art Deco. The architects of the time - Peter Behrens, Henri van de Velde and Frank Lloyd Wright - experimented with the design of women's clothing. It was an era of simple forms, devoid of building decor, with open plans and fluid spaces. This style was reflected in fashion thanks to Paul Poiret. He freed women from the corset, and later dressed in trousers and empire dresses, which gave freedom of movement.

One of the first architects in fashion was Charles James (1906-1978), who introduced quilted satin coats into fashion - the prototype of modern puffy things. Yves Saint Laurent, Thierry Mugler and Azzedine Alaya admitted that it was from him that they learned the architectural approach to clothing. An architect by education, one of the key designers of the 60s, Paco Rabanne is known for his experiments with materials that are atypical for fashion - paper, plastic and metal. Instead of scissors, needles and thread, he used pliers, screwdrivers and hammers. He is more of a builder than a tailor. However, all these non-plastic materials, like fabrics, followed the lines of the body. A graduate of the Politecnico di Milano, Gianfranco Ferre is often compared to the preeminent architect of the early XX century by Frank Lloyd Wright. He has always been famous for his precise volumes and perfect forms, and his famous shirts seem not sewn, but mock-ups from crisp white paper. The architectural past sometimes helps to create not monumental, but very practical and comfortable clothes. The designer of Yugoslav origin Zoran, who dressed Isabella Rossellini, with his minimalism taken to the extreme, resembles the founder of this movement in architecture, John Pawson. He hides from the eyes even such necessary details as buttons, seams and zippers. In the great works of sartorial art, the solemnity of an architectural structure coexists with the evanescence and lightness of fashion. The architects' passion for fashion has been brought to its logical conclusion, clothing design is becoming the main business of their lives, architectural education allows specialists to lead the production of clothing and boldly experiment with new materials (Elena Serebryakova, Irkutsk).

Nowadays, the union of fashion and architecture has grown stronger. Calvin Klein chose the famous minimalist John Pawson to create his boutique in New York. Miuccia Prada entrusted her New York boutique to Rem Koolhaas. Jan Kaplicki and Amanda Livet from Future Systems made a Marni boutique.

In the 90s XX century Jan Kaplicki, who then lived in Prague, tried to design clothes. But the best “clothing” he has created is a streamlined metal case that adorns the new building of the department store. Selfridge's in Birmingham. “We faced the same problem as Paco Rabanne in the 60s,” Kaplicki said. - We had to create a sufficiently flexible coating, because the shape of the building was quite complex. We had to make a case out of small pieces. Many architects are afraid to be influenced by fashion, but unconsciously absorb it. Fashion is too powerful. She is always on the lookout for new forms and materials. This is exactly what traditional architectural approaches lack.” This is a great example of how the experience of a fashion designer can be translated into architectural language. Kaplicky's buildings are always recognizable for their organic architectural forms. For him, living space is not geometric rigidity, but the plasticity of the human body with all its curves.

On fig. 2 pleated peplums and trains of women's dresses in the collection GFF their sinuous outlines looked like balconies Casa Battlo , the famous creation of Antonio Gaudí, whose flowing lines are reminiscent of the soft forms of wildlife.

Rice. 2. Flowing lines of balconies Casa Battlo (1905–1907) architect Antonio Gaudí
reminiscent of the soft forms of wildlife, they are echoed by pleated peplums and trains
in women's dresses from the collection GFF

Embroidery on crinolines from the collection Yohji Yamamoto as if borrowed from the facade of the Renaissance cathedral (Florence, ser. XV century) (Fig. 3). Yohji Yamamoto in the spring-summer 2002 collection almost copies the light and festive design of the facade of the Cathedral of Santa Maria Novella by the Italian architect Leon Battista Alberti. Fine details in the latest collection Gucci similar to the round windows typical of the Italian Middle Ages.

Rice. 3. Embroidery on crinolines from the spring-summer 2002 collection Yohji Yamamoto
as if copied from the facade of the Renaissance Cathedral of Santa Maria Novella architect
Leon Battista Alberti

Many images and rigid geometry of the fashion of the 60s XX centuries echo the well-known architectural structures. The mini dress, created by André Courrège in 1968, is very similar to Villa Savoye in Poissy, France (1928-1929) - a one-story building on stilt legs, built by Le Corbusier. Stitched, geometrically shaped pockets on the Courrège dress model, shown in fig. 4, resemble windows, and hats resemble roofs.

Rice. 4. The rigid geometry of the mini dress designed by André Courrège (1968),
recalls Villa Savoye - a one-story building on stilts, built by Le Corbusier
in Poissy, France (1928–1929)

The architect and the costume designer use the same shapes, inspire each other, exchange ideas. On fig. 5 you can compare man-made forms in fashion and architecture. It is not surprising that Pierre Cardin's balaclava (1967) is so similar to the terminal of John F. Kennedy Airport in New York, built in 1956-62 by the American architect Ero Saarinen.

Rice. 5. Man-made forms in fashion and architecture: Pierre Cardin's balaclava (1967)
and New York John F. Kennedy Airport Terminal (1962) by architect Ero Saarinen

The analogy in the decorative-spot articulations of the costume and architectural structures is manifested to a lesser extent. An example is shown in Fig. 6 patchwork kaleidoscope on the dress Christian Lacroix from the autumn-winter collection 2001–2002. and facade of a house in Vienna (1983–1986) by the architect Hundertwasser.

Rice. 6. Patchwork kaleidoscope on the dress Christian Lacroix from the collection
autumn-winter 2001-2002 and on the facade of a house in Vienna (1983-1986) by the architect Hundertwasser

In the Viktor & Rolf collection spring-summer 2002 numerous bows and draperies are reminiscent of the rich and exuberant rococo style. On fig. 7 compares the gigantic perforation and vaulting of the palm greenhouse in the London Botanic Gardens (1870s), architects Desimau Burton and Richard Turner.

Rice. 7. Perforation in the model Viktor & Rolf and vaults of the palm greenhouse in London
Botanical Garden (1870s), architects Desimau Burton and Richard Turner

The connection between clothing and architecture also has deeper roots: both architecture and costume are functionally determined by man. Like a suit, an architectural structure serves as a means of covering a person, his hearth, and family from the effects of bad weather. The principles of organization of architectural masses, lines, form, proportionality of divisions of the building, the manifestation of the properties of materials - not only tectonic, but also textural - are direct carriers of the figurative content, which are then refracted in the lines and divisions of the volumes of the costume, its rhythmic construction, the nature of the use of the material.

So the dome of a cathedral or the roof of a pagoda resembles a headdress; the arch line - a symbol of the stability of an opening or ceiling - can be refracted in the lines of a wide waist or shoulder clothing of an oval or trapezoid silhouette shape. There is a stylistic connection between costume and architecture, which is expressed in the generality, unity of the figurative solution, the similarity of the silhouette, and the concept of internal divisions.