The ancient Japanese civilization did not have a significant impact on the ancient and medieval culture of other regions. Its significance for world culture lies elsewhere.
Having developed a unique art, literature, worldview on the basis of the most diverse and diverse elements, Japan was able to prove that its cultural values have sufficient potential both in time and space, even if they remained unknown to contemporaries in other countries due to the country's insular position. . The task of the historian of Japanese antiquity is, in particular, to understand how the foundations of what we now call Japanese culture were laid, which, after a centuries-old period of accumulation of the cultural heritage of other countries, is now making an ever-increasing contribution to the development of universal culture.
Japanese civilization is young. Young and the people who created it. It was formed as a result of complex and multi-temporal ethnic mergers of settlers who overcame a water barrier, separating
Clay figurines. drawing the Japanese Islands from the mainland.
Pertschjomon. The earliest inhabitants
VIlI-I millennium BC e. r, _
Japan were, in all likelihood, proto-Ainu tribes, as well as tribes of Malayo-Polynesian origin. In the middle of the 1st millennium BC e. from the southern part of the Korean Peninsula, there is an intensive migration of the proto-Japanese Wa tribes, who managed to largely assimilate the population of southern Japan (Japanese, according to the latest research by S. A. Starostin, shows the greatest relationship with Korean).
And although in that era all the tribes that inhabited the territory of Japan were at the level of the primitive communal system, even then, probably, one of the leading stereotypes of the worldview of the Japanese was laid, which can be seen throughout the history of this country - this is the ability to acquire skills and knowledge, coming from contacts with other peoples. It was after assimilation with local tribes at the turn of the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e. cultivation of irrigated rice and metal processing begins.
The period of six centuries (until the 3rd century AD) is called “yayoi” in Japanese historiography (according to the quarter in Tokyo, where
remains of this culture were discovered for the first time). The Yayoi culture is characterized by the creation of sustainable communities based on irrigated agriculture. Since bronze and iron penetrated into Japan almost simultaneously, bronze was used mainly for the manufacture of cult items: ritual mirrors, swords, bells, and iron for the production of tools.
The ability to assimilate foreign samples becomes especially noticeable along with the emergence of statehood, dating back to
III-IV centuries. n. e. At this time, an aggressive campaign of the union of tribes of Southern Kyushu to Central Japan takes place. As a result, the so-called state of Yamato begins to form, the culture of which is characterized by unprecedented homogeneity.
The period from the 4th to the beginning of the 7th century. It is called kurgan (“kofun jidai”) after the type of burials, the structure and inventory of which are distinguished by features of strong Korean and Chinese influences. Nevertheless, such large-scale construction - and more than IO thousand mounds have been discovered at present - could not have been successful if the very idea of mounds was alien to the population of Japan. The Yamato mounds are probably genetically related to the dolmens of Kyushu. Among the objects of the funeral cult special meaning has clay plastic khaniva. Among these brilliant examples of ancient ritual art are images of dwellings, temples, umbrellas, vessels, weapons, armor, boats, animals, birds, priests, warriors, etc. Many features of the material and spiritual life of the ancient Japanese are restored from these images. kurgan type was obviously associated with the cult of ancestors and the cult of the Sun, which was also reflected in the monuments of early Japanese writing that have come down to us (mythological and chronicle codes "Kojiki", "Nihon shoki").
The cult of ancestors is of particular importance to native Japanese rela
gii - Shintoism, and therefore for the entire culture of Japan. Along with the above-mentioned openness to foreign influences, the cult of ancestors is another powerful driving force in the development Japanese civilization, a force that ensured continuity in the course of historical evolution.
At the state level, the cult of ancestors was embodied in the cult of the sun goddess Amaterasu, who is considered the progenitor of the ruling family. Among the cycle of myths dedicated to Amaterasu, the central place is occupied by the narrative
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Detail of a clay figurine. III-
II millennium BC e.
Clay figurine. End of the Jomon period. 2nd century BC e.
about her hiding in a heavenly cave, when the world plunged into darkness and remained in it until the gods, using magical techniques, managed to lure the goddess out of her refuge.
The pantheon of early Shinto included the ancestral deities of the clans that occupied leading place in the social structure of Japanese society during the formation of mi fa as a category state ideology. The ancestral deities were considered polyfunctional protectors of the clans that derived their origin from them. In addition to tribal deities, the Japanese also worshiped numerous landscape deities, which, as a rule, had local significance.
By the middle of the VI century. in the state of Yamato, a certain political stability was achieved, although the softening of centrifugal tendencies was still one of the main concerns of the ruling family.
To overcome the ideological fragmentation sanctified by the clan and regional cults of Shinto, the Japanese rulers turned to the religion of a developed class society - Buddhism.
It is difficult to overestimate the role that Buddhism has played in the history of Japan. In addition to his contribution to the formation of a nationwide ideology, the teachings of Buddhism formed a new type of personality, devoid of tribal affection and therefore more suitable for functioning in the system of state relations. The process of Buddhist socialization was never fully completed, but nevertheless at this stage historical development Buddhism served as the cementing force that ensured the ideological homogeneity of the Japanese state. The humanizing role of Buddhism was also great, bringing positive ethical standards hostels that came to
Clay vessel. Jomon period.
VPI-I thousand before and. 3.
Dancer. Haniva. Kofun period. Middle III-mid VI century. n. e.
change of Shinto taboos.
Together with Buddhism, the material complex that serves the needs of this religion also penetrates into Japan. The construction of temples, the production of sculptural images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas, and other objects of worship began. Syntonism at that time did not yet have a developed tradition of building covered places of worship for worship.
The layout of the first Japanese Buddhist temple complexes, with their orientation from south to north, generally corresponds to Korean and Chinese prototypes. However, many design features construction, for example, the anti-seismicity of structures, indicate that temples and monasteries were built with the direct participation of local craftsmen. An important property many of the first Buddhist temples in Japan was also the lack of room for prayer in them - a feature inherited from compositional construction Shinto temples. The interior was intended not for prayers, but for the preservation of temple shrines.
The most grandiose Buddhist religious building was the Todaiji temple, the complex of which occupied more than 90 hectares (erected in the middle of the 8th century). The temple symbolized the power of the state. In addition to purely religious needs, it was also used for secular ceremonies of national importance, for example, for conferring official ranks. The Golden Pavilion (condo) of Todaiji has been repeatedly rebuilt after devastating fires. It is currently the largest wooden structure in the world. Its height is 49, width is 57. length-50 m. It houses a giant statue
the cosmic buddha of Vairochana, 18 m high. However, the “giant mania syndrome” was overcome rather quickly, and nothing like the Todaiji temple complex was built in the future. Characteristic is the desire for miniaturization in the 7th-8th centuries. continental Buddhist sculpture almost completely suppresses the local iconographic tradition.
Bronze Buddhist statues were either imported from Korea and China, or made by visiting craftsmen. Along with bronze sculpture from the second half of the eighth century. the production of lacquer, clay and wooden Buddhist images is becoming more and more common, in the form of which the influence of the local iconographic canon is noticeable. Compared with sculpture, monumental temple painting occupied a much smaller place in the pictorial canon.
The sculpture depicted not only buddhas and bodhisattvas. Since Buddhism brought with it a concept of personality that was more individualized than the one that Shinto had managed to develop by this time, it is no coincidence that from the middle of the 8th century. there is an interest in the portrait image of prominent figures of Japanese Buddhism (Gyoshin. Gien, Ganjin, etc.). However, these portraits are still devoid of personal traits of a person and tend to be typified.
By 710, the construction of the permanent capital of Napa was completed, which was a typical official-bureaucratic city with a certain layout, similar to the capital of Tang China, Chang'an. From south to north, the city was divided by nine streets, and from west to east by eight. Intersecting at right angles, they formed a rectangle measuring 4.8 by 4.3 km, in 72 blocks of which, together with the nearest suburbs, up to 200 thousand people could live, according to modern estimates. Hapa was then the only city: the level of development of agriculture, crafts and social relations has not yet reached the stage when the emergence of cities would become a universal necessity. Nevertheless, the colossal concentration of the population in the capital at that time contributed to the development of product exchange and commodity-money relations. B VIII c. Japan already minted its own coin.
The construction of the capital on the continental model was one of the important measures to transform Japan from a semi-barbarian kingdom into an “empire”, which should have been facilitated by numerous reforms that began to be actively carried out from the middle
we are in the 7th century. In 646, a decree was promulgated, consisting of four articles. According to Article 1, the former hereditary system of ownership of slaves and land was abolished; instead, state ownership of the land was proclaimed and fixed feedings were allocated in accordance with official ranks. Article 2 prescribed a new territorial division of the country into provinces and counties; determined the status of the capital. Article 3 announced the census of households and the compilation of registers
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for redistribution of land. Article 4th Statement canceled the former arbitrary border. V-
labor conscription and established the size of the in-kind household taxation of agricultural products and handicrafts.
The entire second half of the 7th c. marked by increased activity of the state in the field of legislation. Subsequently, separate decrees were brought together, and on their basis, in 701, the drafting of the first universal legislation "Taihoryo" was completed, serving
Wall painting of the sheh with additions and modifications
groGchshtsy Tokamatsu-ts IYA mi the base of the feudal law
zuka. Vj V.H.E.
government throughout the Middle Ages. According to "Taihoryo" and "Eroryo" (757 r.), the administrative and bureaucratic apparatus of the Japanese
The state was a complex and branched hierarchical system with strict subordination from top to bottom. The economic basis of the country was the state monopoly on land.
During the VII-VIII centuries. The Japanese state is trying to ideologically substantiate the established and newly created management institutions. First of all, the mythological and chronicle collections “Kojiki” (712) and “Nihon shoki” (720 r.) should have served for this. Myths, records of historical and semi-legendary events have undergone significant processing in both monuments. The main goal of the compilers was the creation of a state ideology, in other words, the docking of "myth" and "history": the narrative of "Kojiki" and "Nihon shoki" is divided into "era of gods" and "era of emperors". Consequently, the then position of the royal family, as well as other most powerful families from among the tribal aristocracy, was justified in the role played by the primordial deities during the “era of the gods”.
The compilation of the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki marks an important stage in the creation of a national ideology based on the Shinto myth. This attempt must be considered very successful. The myth was brought into line with the realities of history, and the system of sacred genealogies until the 20th century played an outstanding role in the events of Japanese history.
Simultaneously with the active involvement of Shinto in state building, Buddhism is losing its position in this area. This becomes especially noticeable after the failed coup undertaken by the Buddhist monk Dokyo in 771. To avoid the pressure of the Buddhist clergy, who settled in the temples and monasteries of Hapa, in 784 r. the capital is transferred to Nagaoka, and in 794 to Heian. Lose yourself to a large extent state support However, Buddhism, nevertheless, to an enormous extent contributed to the formation of a personality that stood out from the collective and constantly participated in the process of its socialization. This is its enduring significance in the history of Japan.
Despite the fact that the compilation of the Kojiki and the Nihon shoki pursued the same goals, only the Nihon shoki was recognized as a "real" dynastic chronicle. Although both monuments were composed on Chinese("Kojiki" - with a large use of the phonetic notation of the characters "manyōgana"), "Kojiki" was written by Ono Yasumaro from the voice of the narrator Hieda no Are. Thus, the "oral channel" familiar to Shintoism was used for the transmission of sacred information. Only then, according to the beliefs of the adherents of traditionalism, did the text become a true text.
The text "Nihon shoki" from the very beginning appears as a written text. In view of the active spread of Chinese writing, which created new opportunities for fixing and storing important cultural values, Japanese society faced the question of which speech, written or oral, should be recognized as more authoritative. Initially, the choice was made in favor of the first. For some time, Chinese literary language became the language of culture. He served primarily the needs of the state. Chronicles were kept in Chinese, laws were drawn up. Works of Chinese philosophical, sociological and literary thought were used as textbooks in public schools established in the 8th century.
Medieval Japanese poetry now known to the whole world. Ho the first of the poetic anthologies that have come down to us is "Kaifuso"
ancient japan, like others, begins with myths. She generously scatters hundreds of centuries into the reigns of the gods and on earth - she leads us through the ranks of semi-divine heroes, and only from a certain era takes on an earthly character. We must recognize this epoch as the real beginning of the very history of ancient Japan.
ancient japan, as a state, was formed in the 7th century BC. It is obvious that she could not arise from nothing, accept state structure right after the era of savagery. Undoubtedly, there was a period of tribal and tribal life, but we know almost nothing about it. It is only known that under 660 BC. chronicles mention the founding of the Mikado monarchy in the southern parts of the present Japanese empire, from Kyushi to Ieddo Bay.
They call the first emperor Jimmu, whose ancestors, of course, were heroes, demigods and even the goddess of the sun herself, the supreme deity of Japan. Jimmu taught the people various crafts, established the division of time into years, months and hours, gave laws, arranged a government, and so on.
In addition, he was also a conqueror, because, leaving Kiusi, for seven years he was engaged in the conquest of the country that formed the territory of his state and before that was already occupied by a people not wild, but having weapons, leaders and fortified buildings. Was there Jimmu a Chinese native, as Klaproth believed, it is difficult to say; it is more likely that his fatherland was.
At least, the Japanese chronicles say that already in his time foreign gods entered the country, and, consequently, their servants - the priests. The latter could come only from the Heavenly Empire.
Behind Jimmu followed by the mikado:
2. Sun-sei, contemporary of Confucius (581-548) and third son Jimmu, which shows that even then the birthright was not particularly important in such a state as.
3. An-ney, who died in 510 BC
4. I-toku - 475 BC
5. Cosio - 392 BC His reign was marked by the first war known to Japanese chroniclers; it was a civil strife between two regions, i.e. their rulers, Iez and Go.
6. Koan - 290 BC
7. Korea - 214 BC In his time, Japan was divided into 36 provinces, although it did not yet occupy the entire state.
8. Kookin or Kogen - 157 BC, a contemporary of the Chinese Emperor Shinoshiko, to whom legend ascribes an exile to Japan, led by the doctor Si-fu, to find the herb of immortality; three thousand Chinese, who then remained within the boundaries of the Japanese state and were probably the first to introduce him closer to the industry and culture of China.
9. Kaikva - 97 BC
10. Siu-zin - 29 BC This mikado in 86 B.C. first introduced a position in the state shogun a, that is, the commander-in-chief of the troops in case of uprisings or external war. This position was given to him by one of his sons. In the same reign, the first national census was made, the Japanese began to start a merchant and even a navy.
11. Xining - 79 AD In the reign of this contemporary of Augustus, the Japanese began to dig ponds and make ditches for cultivating rice fields. At the same time, Buddhism first penetrated the state.
12. Keiko - 113
13. Seimas - 192
14. Qiu-ai - 201
15. Zip-gu-qua-gu - 270 This famous empress was the first woman on the throne mikado. She had the intention of conquering Korea and she herself commanded the army sent to this peninsula. Her name is very popular in Japan, and some features of the life of the Japanese are associated with it. She is assigned to the category of gods.
16. O-sin or Wo-zin - 313 Mikado, according to Japanese chronicles, famous in war and peace and also deified. Under him, Japanese writing, borrowed from China, began, initially without any change. Before Vozin in Japan, all the laws and orders of the mikado were announced to the people verbally and passed on to posterity according to legend, as well as stories about past events.
17. Nin-toku - 400 g
18. Litsiu or Ritsiu - 406
19. Fon-sei - 412
20. Inkyo - 424
21. Anko - 457
22. Yuriaku or Iu-liak - 480. The first coins were minted during his reign by a certain Sinkoyu.
23. Sei-nei - 485
24. Ken-so - 488
25. Ningen - 499
26. Burets or Murets - 507 A cruel sovereign of ancient Japan, who himself opened the stomachs of pregnant women.
27. Kei-tai - 534 Very virtuous mikado state and mourned by all after death.
28. An-Kan - 536
29. Sen-kva - 540
30. Kin-mei - 572 A very religious sovereign and a great patron of Buddhism, who from that time firmly established himself in the state.
31. Fitatzu or Bidats - 586. No less zealous admirer of the teachings of Shakyamuni, whose famous statue was then brought to Japan and placed in the Kobuzi temple. With his zeal for Buddhism, he even stirred up an uprising against himself of the national party, at the head of which was a certain Morya.
32. Io-mei - 588 The winner of Moriah.
33. Siu-ziun - 593. Under him, the division of the state into seven roads or large regions was established, the division was not administrative, but geographical.
34. Sum-ko or Shiko - 629 Empress, during whose reign the Japanese first recognized the gold brought from Shreya.
35. Zio-mei - 636
36. Quo-goku - 642; woman.
37. Ko-toku - 655. He was the first to establish the Japanese table of ranks and insignia of officials. From his time in the state, ancient Japan began to use the account in chronology not from the beginning of the monarchy, but by reigns. Nothing else stood out.
38. Sai-mei - 662
39. Ten-chi - 673
40. Ten-mu - 687 This mikado received his title of ruler of the state after a civil war with his younger brother. Such internecine wars were in the order of things, for primogeniture did not give the right to the throne, and many sovereigns of ancient Japan were from younger sons, nephews and other relatives of the reigning mikado, bypassing the closest relatives. Under Ten-mu on the island of Tsushima, the first Japanese silver mines were discovered and began to be developed. At the same time, the custom was established to celebrate the days of the patrons of different cities with the so-called matsuri so beloved by the Japanese people.
41. Zito - 697 A woman during whose reign the Japanese first learned how to prepare their drink - sake.
42. Mon-mu - 708 The provinces received coats of arms. At the same time, an exact measure of loose bodies was introduced.
43. Gen-mei - 715 Under this empress, a census was made of the populated areas of the state to establish permanent official names.
44. Gen-sio - 724 The state gave rules for the cut and wearing of clothes for women.
45. Sio-mu - 750
46. Cohen - 759; woman. Gold was first found in Japan.
47. Fai-tai - 765
48. Shio-toku - 771; woman.
49. Koonin - 782
50. Kwang-mu - 806
51. Fei-tsio - 810
52. Sa-ga - 824
53. Ziun-va - 834
54. Nin-myo- 851
55. Mon-toku - 859 
56. Seiwa - 877 Chronicles say that during the reign of this contemporary of our Rurik, Confucian teaching made great progress in the upper classes of ancient Japanese society. Myself mikado with particular pleasure indulged in reading the works of the Chinese philosopher.
57 Iozei - 885
58 Kwa-po - 888
59 Uda - 898
60 Daigo - 931
61. Siuzanu - 949
62. Mura-kami - 968
63. Rei-zen - 970
64. Yen-wo - 985
65. Kvasam - 987
66. Itzi-tsio - 1012 The flowering age of the Japanese famous writers lived at the court of Itzi-tsio.
67. San Zio - 1017
68. Go-itsi-tsio - 1037
69. Go-ziu-zaku - 1046
70. Go-rei-zen - 1069 Uprising in the province
71. Go-san-tsio - 1073
72. Shiro-gawa - 1087
73. Fori-gawa - 1108
75. Shin-toku - 1142
76. Kin-ei - 1156 In the reign of this mikado in the state there was a famous internal war between the princely houses of Feki and Genji, which threatened to completely devastate the country. It is to this war that the commanders-in-chief of the troops, or shogun u, because they
were the suppressors of the rebelling specific princes. Ieritomo was especially famous, to whom the emperor gave the title of great shogun but with the power to bring to an end the internecine war. Having succeeded in this task, he at the same time almost deprived the power of the mikado and made the title shogun final with the title of sultans under the Baghdad caliphs. His long career was compiled in the reign of:
77. Go-sira-gawa - 1159
78. Ni-tsio - 1166
79. Roku-tsio - 1169
80. Takokura - 1181
81. AN-toku - 1184
82. Go-shoba - 1199, of which the last one actually gave him the title sei shogun.
83. Tsutsi-mikado - 1211, in turn bestowed the same title on the son of Ieritomo, five years after the death of the famous father. In 1206 printing was introduced from China.
84. Shion-toku - 1221 Under him, Ieritomo's natural son, Sonetomo, already by force supported his claims to the position of shogun and for this purpose started a navy.
85. Go-fori-gawa - 1233
86. Si-tsio - 1243
87. Go saga - 1247
88. Go-fuka-kuza - 1260
89. Kame-yama - 1275
90. Guda - 1288 Under him, in 1284, a Mongolian fleet appeared off the coast of the state with two hundred and forty thousand troops, with the goal of conquering this country; but was broken by a storm.
91. Fuzimi - 1299
92. Go-fuzimi - 1302
93. Go-ni-tsio - 1308
94. Fanazono - 1319
95. Go-dai-go - 1132 The killing field of the 96th mikado, Kvo-gena, he reigned a second time for three years. The beginning of new internecine strife, which led to the fact that mikado abdicated the throne, which then passed to Quo-gen.
96. Quo-gen - 1337
97. Kwo-myo - 1349
98. Sioux-hwo - 1352
99. Go-quo-gu - 1372
100. Goien-yu - 1383
101. Go-ko-matsu - 1413 At the end of the 14th century, Japan even had two mikado, northern and southern, of which the latter, however, voluntarily renounced his claims in 1392 and became a monk under the name Tai-tsio-ten-o (Transition mikado monasticism is not uncommon in Japanese history. No less than three emperors before Tai-chio adopted the monastic cassock. This custom has been established in Japan since the introduction of Buddhism).
Azekura, mikado treasury, 8th century
102. Sio Quo - 1429
103. Go-fana-zono - 1465
104. Go-tsutsi-mikado - 1501
105. Kaziva-bara - 1527
106. Go-nara - 1558 Under him, in 1543, the Portuguese arrived in Japan.
107. Ogoki-matsi ~ 1587 In his reign, in 1565, the shogun Yozi-tira made Shogun Nobunaga was killed along with his eldest son, in Miako Palace. By death Nobunaga rank shogun and for some time he wore San Fosi, but in 1586 Fideiosi finally established himself in this position, having received from mikado kanbuku title, i.e. viceroy. Fideiosi was the son of a peasant, who, with his talents and courage, went out into the people. Having become the ruler of Japan, he, according to the custom of the country, changed his name and began to be called taiko-herself. The aristocrats who rebelled against him were for the most part subdued and even dispossessed by him; the Mikado themselves have lost almost their position.
108. Go-io-zsi - 1612 In his reign taiko, then already almost a real sovereign of Japan, in order to divert the attention of the aristocracy from internal affairs, weaken it with expenses and subordinate it at least for a while to a military dictatorship, he decided in 1592 to go to war against Korea, under the pretext of delivering new appanages to the princes who had lost those during civil strife. The conquest of almost the entire peninsula was completed, despite the opposition of the Chinese, but in 1598, before his death, taiko withdrew troops, and the conquered lands fell away from Japan.
109. Go-mindzu-novo or Dai-zeo-hwa - 1630 In his reign, the only son and heir taiko was besieged in the Osaka castle by his former tutor Ieyasu and betrayed himself to the flames so as not to surrender, or, according to legend, disappeared into the possession of Prince Satsuma. Ieyasu became shogun om, and when the aristocracy rebelled against his seizure of power, he resorted to the same measures as taiko, i.e. he pacified the rebels with weapons, took away their possessions and gave them to his adherents. In 1614, however, the remaining tribal nobility, namely eighteen daimyō, unanimously united against him, and then Ieyasu decided to make a deal, then illuminated by consent mikado and known as the "Laws of Gongensama". This act had the character of a constitutional charter and was maintained in force until the very recent events our time. Ieyasu was the founder of the Minamoto dynasty, which ruled Japan for two and a half centuries.
110. Nio-te - 1644 Empress, under which the extermination of Christians and the expulsion of all foreigners from Japan, excluding the Chinese and the Dutch, followed.
111. Go-quo-myo - 1655
112. Blue or Gao-sai - 1664
113. Kin-zen or Rei-gen - 1687. To convince the government that there were no Christians left in the empire, a census of the people by religion was carried out under him, and those who suspected adherence to Christianity were imprisoned for life.
114. Figasi-pit - 1710
115. Nakane-Mikado - 1736
116. Sakura-matsi - 1747
117. Mamo-sono - 1763
118. Go-sakura-matsi - 1771
119. Go-mamo-sono - 1780
120. Saint something - 1817
From the reign of the one hundred and fourteenth to the one hundred and twentieth mikado Japan remained closed to foreigners; she herself begins to gradually expand her territory to the north and establishes colonies not only on Matsmai, the southern part of which was acquired back in the 17th century, but also on Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands.
121. Ku-sio... - Hoffmann's table, which is the main source of Japanese chronology, ends with the name of this mikado. The names of subsequent mikados are unknown to us, except for Osa-phyto, which, however, was called that before accession to the throne. It is noteworthy that since the establishment of the hereditary power of the shoguns in the Minamoto family, the mikado very often abdicated the throne, barely reaching adulthood; their power has obviously lost all appeal.
Siebold and Hoffmann also give a table of shoguns from 1186, that is, from the time of Ioritomo. It seems superfluous to me to repeat it, but as from the end of the 18th century. Japan became the subject of attempts by foreigners to open access to it, and at the same time they had to deal not with mikados, but with shoguns, then for a better understanding of events, we will give the names of tycoons from 1787.
Ie-nari 1787-1842
Ye-oshi po – 1853
Ye-zada by – 1858
Ye-koskipo – 1867
Stotsbashi by - 1868 
During the 19th century, the shoguns themselves had already lost almost all significance, and the real power in public affairs passed to the first ministers, the chairmen of the council of taikun, who, in turn, were the heirs of the Ikamono-kami family until 1861. Since March 1868, the title of shogun has been abolished.
Let's make some conclusions:
1. Japanese state area never left the Japanese archipelago. The exception is two short-term conquests of Korea.
2. In turn, Japan was not conquered by foreigners or even accessible throughout the territory, but only in part, which continues to this day. This circumstance and the system of political structure made the Japanese people completely homogeneous ethnographically.
3. From time immemorial, Japan has been one state and, moreover, a monarchical one. Republican forms of government were unknown to her.
4. However, since ancient times, the form of government in Japan has been a constitutional monarchy, where the monarch reigns, but does not govern.
5. As in any non-despotic monarchy, in Japan from time immemorial there was a nobility that owned landed property, enjoyed great political rights and often fought for them when the authorities wanted to violate them.
6. But the same nobility sometimes waged internecine wars.
7. The centralized government, in its struggle against federalism, the aristocracy, sometimes resorted to weapons - and the power of military leaders rose - then to oppose the bureaucracy to the hereditary nobility (often in the form of espionage), which led to extreme regulation of the social structure and way of life.
8. The Constitution of Japan and its social order, however, have not changed significantly in the entire continuation of its history up to the present. The most important change occurred at the end of the struggle between the shoguns and the princes in the 17th century, but even here the society remained aristocratic, and the masses were politically disenfranchised.
9. The development of culture, industry and education was greatly influenced by Chinese civilization. Already 1000 years ago, Confucian rationalism was popular in Japan.
10. The influence of other countries was expressed by the introduction of Buddhism and, at one time, Christianity, but the latter, being accepted among the people, was, however, eradicated.
Due to the peculiarities of the relief in Japan, three economic and cultural types were developed, which were closely interconnected: seaside (fishing, collecting mollusks and algae, salt evaporation), flatland (agriculture with a predominance of paddy rice cultivation) and mountainous (hunting, gathering nuts, chestnuts). , acorns, roots, berries, mushrooms and wild honey, brushwood and timber harvesting, rainfed agriculture). At the same time, the natural features of the archipelago predetermined the isolation of individual regions, which hampered the processes of commodity and cultural exchanges (the abundance of mountains contributed to the conservation of local features of life, and short and stormy rivers did not play an important unifying role inherent in rivers in other ancient civilizations). Occupation by sea fishing and irrigated agriculture pushed the ancient tribes to early settled life. The self-sufficiency in resources of most regions of the Japanese islands became a prerequisite for the manifestation of political separatism, which was observed throughout the entire period of ancient Japan.
Climate change at the end of the Paleolithic and the beginning of the Jomon period forced people to adapt to new living conditions. In connection with the development of forests and the hunting of deer, wild boars, bears, hares, badgers, martens and birds, the bow replaced the spear, and the role of traps and a stone ax increased. Gathering and fishing have become more important than before. With the warming and the expansion of forests to the north, the bulk of the population has moved from northern Kyushu to northeast Honshu, where favorable conditions have developed for fishing (especially chum salmon and pink salmon), gathering and hunting. The rise in the level of the world's oceans has led to the formation of coastal warm shallows, rich in fish and shellfish. It was around such shoals that settlements and “shell heaps” arose ( most of of which were located along the Pacific coast, especially in the Kanto region). The basis of the diet was fish caught in rivers and bays during high tides (salmon, perch, mullet), and shellfish collected in shallow water during low tide, but ocean prey was also found (tuna, sharks, rays and even whales). Often, fishing boats reached the islands of Sado and Mikurajima, and, in addition, crossed the Sangara and Korea Straits.
During the Yayoi period, under the influence of continental culture, the Japanese archipelago established new form management - most of the population of the islands switched to settled intensive agriculture, the basis of which was paddy rice cultivation. In addition, iron tools (axes, sickles, knives) began to be widely used, irrigation was developed (the creation of complex irrigation and drainage systems), people carried out large-scale earthworks that required coordination of efforts to equip flood fields and build dams. Hunting has lost its former importance, as evidenced by a sharp decrease in the number of finds of arrowheads in archaeological layers. early period Yayoi.
Initially, the culture of rice cultivation took root in the north of Kyushu, in the southwestern and central parts of Honshu. In the northeast of Honshu, this process proceeded much more slowly, despite the fact that rice cultivation was already familiar in the north at the beginning of the Yayoi period. Gradually, the center of the economic life of the archipelago moved to central and southern Japan, the population of which quickly overtook the northeastern part of the country. The increase in agricultural productivity was reflected in the appearance of wooden storages on piles, which replaced the pit storerooms inherent in the Jōmon period. But even in the most developed central Japan, the inhabitants of the hilly and mountainous regions practiced upland slash-and-burn agriculture for a long time, continued to hunt and gather, and the inhabitants of the coastal regions continued to fish.
Dotaku. II-I century BC. e. Tokyo National Museum
Thanks to migrants from the continent during the Yayoi period, the archipelago got acquainted with the culture of metals and metallurgy technologies (initially, imported products made in Korea and China were used, but later began to own production). Thanks to the import of knowledge in Japan, the archaeological eras of bronze and iron were not divorced in time and largely overlap (moreover, the use of bronze in the Yayoi period began even later than iron, so immediately after the Stone Age, the Bronze-Iron Age began in the archipelago). Simple tools of economic activity and military weapons (swords, spearheads and arrowheads, fish hooks, shovels, axes and sickles) were made from iron, and more prestigious symbols of power and cult accessories (ritual swords and spears, dotaku, mirrors).
The first evidence of the emergence of metal production (stone and clay molds) was found in northern Kyushu. At the beginning of the Yayoi period, even the ore for casting was imported from the mainland. Each of the resulting economic structures (seaside, lowland and mountainous) had a relatively specialized character, which predetermined the emergence of a natural exchange of goods between the coast and the hinterland. The inhabitants of the hinterland supplied game and wood, which was used for building boats and houses, for heating, for the production of metals, for firing pottery, and for evaporating salt (in the coastal regions and on the plains, the forests were reduced to fields and as fuel rather quickly), and, besides, , wooden utensils (shovels, rakes, hoes, mortars, spoons, scoops, cups), deer bone for hooks, creepers and hemp fibers for nets and woods. In the opposite direction were rice, fish, shellfish, seaweed and salt. The production of metals, ceramics and fabrics existed both in the mountainous regions and on the coast, so in this area the exchange was not so much the products themselves, but their unique samples that differed in style or quality from the base mass.
During the Kofun period, the climate of the archipelago underwent changes: the amount of precipitation increased and the general temperature decreased. This pushed the area of paddy rice cultivation to the south and forced people to adapt to harsher conditions. In connection with the intensification of the economy, metal tools began to be used more widely, almost replacing wooden ones, and the mass construction of irrigation systems began, which led to cooperation at the regional level. Iron ingots were imported from China and Korea, which were used both as a raw material for casting and as a kind of monetary equivalent. As a result, the area of cultivated land increased, the centralization of life intensified, and huge state grain storages appeared. The authorities mobilized workers for the construction of huge mounds, palaces, sanctuaries and canals.
By the end of the Kofun period, a significant property and social stratification of society appeared, a noticeable layer of officials and clergymen stood out, labor service and taxation were developed. In a large part of the archipelago, the scattered communities of the Yayoi period were united under the rule of the Yamato rulers. Thanks to active contacts with the mainland, increased productivity of the economy, progress in crafts and agriculture, and the wider use of metal tools, the Kansai and northern Kyushu regions were ahead of the rest of the lands of the Japanese islands in technological development.
According to the Taik reforms (646), private estates and the dependent categories of the population who worked on them were abolished, state ownership of land, an allotment system of land use and a triple system of taxes (grain, fabrics or cotton, and labor service) were introduced, registers of households and tax lists were compiled. . Higher officials received farms for the maintenance of the family in the form of rent in kind from a certain number of households. Medium and small officials received cuts of silk and other fabrics for their service. The road infrastructure was significantly modernized, post stations and inns with stables were equipped along the main trade routes, which facilitated communication between the capital and outlying provinces.
Household registers were compiled in 646, 652, 670 and 689, after which the publicly liable population and peasants began to be allocated land. For this, the available units of area measurement were established and unified ( tan And those). According to the decree of 691, the authorities determined privileged lands and income from the courts, which complained to the nobility as compensation for lands that had previously passed into state ownership, as well as to dignitaries in accordance with their rank - for service. Finally, the system of privileged possessions (lands allocated for positions, ranks and services to the imperial court) was formed in the VIII century.
The awards included both natural distributions and income from a certain number of yards ( jikifu) assigned to a specific person or institution - a ranking official, a Confucian scholar, a prince or a Buddhist temple. Formally jikifu continued to be under the control of local authorities, who did not allow the transformation of these courtyards into hereditary private estates (quite often the rulers issued decrees according to which they changed the number jikifu granted to someone, or returned them to the state).
During the Nara period, the legislation for individual provinces specified specific local products and products that went directly to the court in the form of taxes (for example, products of sea fishing instead of ordinary fabrics). The taxpayer was not individual person but the whole community. There were two large markets in Nara, which were under the strict control of the authorities, who set fixed prices and monitored the quality of goods. Both merchants and state shops traded in the markets, selling goods that came in the form of taxes from the governors of the provinces and large Buddhist temples. Here you could buy rice, fish, vegetables, seaweed, dairy products, dried meat and salt, as well as writing materials, Buddhist sutras, clothes, dishes, jewelry and dyes for fabrics.
If in V-VII centuries most labor intensive public works was the construction of burial mounds, then in the VIII century all the forces of the country, including huge human resources, were directed to the construction of Nara and the communications network. For the construction of the capital, every 50 peasant households were obliged to provide two men as labor service, who were replaced by countrymen every three years.
It was in the 8th century that seven “state roads” were built to ensure communication between the capital and the periphery ( kando), which were subdivided into "large", "medium" and "small". Status "big" kando had Sanyodo, passing from Nara along the coast of the Inland Sea of Japan to the province of Nagato (further through Kyushu, the path lay on the mainland). The status of "average" had kando Tokaido (passed along the Pacific coast to the province of Mutsu) and Tosando (passed through the central regions of the island of Honshu to the provinces of Mutsu and Dewa, where it connected with Tokaido). The remaining roads were considered "small": Hokurikudo (passed along the coast of the Sea of Japan to the province of Echigo), Sanindo (passed along the coast of the Sea of Japan to the province of Nagato), Nankaido (passed through Awaji to Shikoku, where it diverged to the capitals of all four provinces there) and Saikaido (passed through Kyushu).
Along kando provincial capitals were located (about 60), from which regional roads were laid to the administrative centers of counties (about 600). On kando post stations were equipped, which provided the imperial messengers, publicans and ambassadors with lodging for the night and horses. On average, the stations were at a distance of 16 km from each other, and there were more than 400 in total. The new state roads were relatively straight and wide (from 18 to 23 m), the regional ones were inferior to them and for the most part were ancient reconstructed trade routes (they had a width from 5 to 13 m). The distance between the capital and Kyushu was covered by messengers in 4-5 days, and between Nara and the northeastern provinces of Honshu - in 7-8 days. During the Heian period, due to the deterioration of roads and the reduction in the number of post stations, the delivery time for messages almost doubled. Water communications remained undeveloped, and the number of boat stations was extremely small.
Sea communications were used mainly in one direction - from the mainland to Japan. The inhabitants of the archipelago did not build large ships adapted for sailing on the high seas, the absolute majority of their ships were intended for coastal transportation. Gradually, Japan's economic and political ties with the outside world, active during the Asuka period, declined. The sea (especially the Sea of Japan) was perceived as a state border, the cycle of reproduction was closed and self-sufficient, rich marine resources and paddy rice cultivation contributed primarily to the development of the near space.
Peasants made up about 90% of Japan's population. Once every six years, the peasant had the right to receive a plot of land, but quite often it was smaller than it was supposed to be, located far from home and represented fragmented plots. The peasant paid grain ( co) and natural ( those) tax, as well as a special tax on those who did not work out labor service ( yo). So was about 3% of the harvest (a significant part of the population was still associated with fishing, hunting and gathering); those was levied from the estate plots of each yard (later - from each adult male) with fabrics, silk yarn and cotton wool, varnish, ceramics and other home crafts, as well as seafood, metals and mining products; yo it was also possible to pay with cloths, rice, salt and other products. labor service ( buyaku) lasted up to 70 days a year and was carried out both in the capital and in the provinces (the construction of temples, administrative buildings, canals, roads and fortifications). The authorities gave workers rations, which were cut in half in case of illness or bad weather, when work stopped. If necessary (for example, during the construction of Nara), the authorities mobilized the population for a longer period. The maximum service life in the homes of aristocrats was set at 200 days a year, but it was often exceeded at the discretion of the owner. Every third adult peasant served military service (protection of borders and order, construction work and annual military training).
There were rice loans for agricultural workers ( suiko), when grain was issued from warehouses at 50% (state loan) or 100% per annum (private loan). In 735-737, an epidemic of smallpox broke out in the country, after which a severe economic crisis ensued. The living conditions of the peasants deteriorated so much that in 737 the authorities were forced to abolish private loans at high interest rates. Despite this, the peasants massively left for the cities, throwing their allotments and refusing to pay their debts.
During the Nara period, about 1% of the population were semi-free artisans. shinabe And zakko(or tomobe). Formally, they belonged to the category ryomin, but in fact stood between ryomin And sammin, since the craft was considered a less worthy occupation than agriculture (despite the fact that most artisans, in accordance with the allotment system, received land for self-cultivation and fed from it). TO shinabe included musicians, suppliers of food and falcons for hunting, water carriers, gardeners, potters, dyers, papermakers, pharmacists and winemakers, zakko- blacksmiths, manufacturers of armor, weapons and harness (breast armor, shields, bows, arrows, quivers, bridles and camping tents), manufacturers of musical instruments. Zakko allowed to marry with "good people", and shinabe approached in terms of status comin("emperor's people"). Part shinabe And zakko were petty employees in state enterprises, making up together with toneri(palace employees) and petty officials the lowest level of the bureaucratic apparatus. As civil servants, these groups of artisans were exempted from paying taxes and taxes, as well as from labor service (in fact, they performed it by producing handicrafts according to the instructions of the court economic administration). In 759 shinabe were officially abolished, passing into the category of taxable population.
sammin, according to various estimates, from 3 to 10% of the population, included both public and private slaves, who, in turn, were divided into a number of groups. Highest social status had ryoko- slaves who were subordinate shoryoshi(management of tombs, which was part of shikibusho- ministries of ceremonies). They built the imperial tombs, looked after them and guarded them. They were followed kanko- public servants, close in status to the category ryomin. They were doing agriculture and various works purely for the imperial court. State slaves kannuhi (Kunuhi) were used in agricultural work and in handicraft production, serving officials of various departments. domestic slaves canin belonged to the metropolitan and provincial aristocracy, as well as temples. personal slaves sinus were in complete subordination to their master, equating to private property or livestock (these completely disenfranchised people could be sold, donated or inherited).
The basic rules of the allotment system of land use included the following points: peasants received allotments only for temporary use (it was possible to claim their land from the age of six); on a par with free peasants, allotments were received by state slaves, and a third of the norm - by private slaves of all categories; women received 2/3 of the allotment area assigned to a free man; redistribution of land took place every six years; individual aristocrats and officials were given "privileged lands" that were inherited (from one generation to eternal use).
All lands were divided into cultivated (arable lands, vegetable gardens, orchards, household plots) and uncultivated (forests, swamps and mountains). All paddy fields included in the state fund of allotment land use were divided into coden(used by state and religious institutions, as well as the "emperor's people": Buddhist and Shinto temples, post stations, state slaves) and shiden(granted or leased by the emperor to private individuals: peasants, artisans, officials, military leaders, governors of provinces and districts, government land and palace guards).
The main expenditure items of the treasury were the maintenance of the imperial court, the army and law enforcement forces, the bureaucracy, state Buddhist and Shinto temples, as well as the sending and receiving of embassies, the construction and maintenance of roads ( kando), postal and boat stations. The main sources of income were revenues from basic taxes ( so-cho-yo), interest on rice loans ( suiko) and rental fees for public lands. Land tax ( co) remained almost entirely at the disposal of local authorities (heads of provinces and counties), and the main part those by the forces of the peasants themselves was delivered to Nara. In the Kinai metropolitan area, a significant part of the population had various privileges and was exempted from paying taxes. The provinces of the northeastern part of Japan did not pay taxes at all, only occasionally bringing tribute to the emperor's court. The main form of exploitation of the population was various types of labor service.
In 708, the first silver and copper coins were minted in denominations of 1 mon. Due to the lack of silver (the country had the only deposit on the island of Tsushima), the release of silver coins was soon discontinued. In 711 1 mon was equated with six sho rice (about 4.3 liters), and 5 mon- to a piece of cloth measuring approximately 4 m by 70 cm. Half mona corresponded to the daily subsistence minimum of that time. Since 711, seasonal salaries to officials, along with fabrics, rice and tools, were also paid in cash. The real value of money gradually decreased, largely due to uncontrolled emission. In 708-958, 12 issues of coins were carried out, each time the authorities set an inflated price in relation to the old issues, while the quality of the coins was constantly deteriorating. In 958, only the new issue was recognized as “correct”, and the circulation of old coins was banned, in fact, the money savings of the population were confiscated.
Many officials received an extraordinary increase in rank thanks to monetary offerings to the treasury (persons above the 6th rank needed a special decree of the emperor for this). With the appearance of coins in circulation, certain types of taxes in kind were allowed ( those And yo) replace with money, lease land plots for money, pay workers employed in construction public facilities, contentment with money. To stimulate money circulation, rich peasants were allowed to trade rice on the roads, and the authorities set "fixed prices" for basic foodstuffs. Wanting to put trade under strict state control, the authorities began to grant ranks to merchants as well. Despite all the measures taken, the bulk of the population of the Japanese archipelago preferred a natural exchange of goods and services.
Coins of the Nara period
In an effort to increase revenues to the treasury, the authorities encouraged the cultivation of new, previously unused or abandoned land. To intensify the process, in 723 a decree was issued according to which a person who began cultivating new land received its possession for three generations, and a person who began cultivating abandoned land and restored old irrigation canals received an allotment until his death. The development of virgin lands was taken up by the metropolitan aristocracy and large temples, using landless and runaway peasants for these purposes. In 743, a new decree introduced a norm according to which a person who began the development of a wasteland received a developed area in eternal private possession. Permission for land development began to be issued by the heads of provinces, which accelerated the formation of private land ownership. The authorities set the limits of permissible possessions for the nobility and ordinary peasants (if a prince of the 1st class or an official of the 1st rank could own a plot of no more than 500 those, then a peasant, county inspector or accountant - no more than 10 those), but at the same time, the aristocracy skillfully circumvented these restrictions and seized control over vast territories.
In 765, a decree was issued that forbade the nobility to use the forced labor of peasants in their private estates. This practice distracted them from working their own allotments, which ultimately reduced taxes and revenues to the state treasury. On the basis of private land holdings, the nobility and the clergy formed extensive estates ( shoen) that were passed down from generation to generation. The growing influence of newly-minted latifundists led to the fact that the ban on the use peasant labor in private estates was canceled already in 772, and new decrees (784, 797 and 801), trying to somehow stop or limit the seizure of new lands and turning them into shoen actually did not give positive results. During the reign of Emperor Kammu (802), the period for the redistribution of land allotments was increased from six to 12 years, but at the same time, in the 9th century, real estate revision was carried out only twice - in 828 and 878-880 - and only in the Kinai region.
The concentration of arable land in private hands (lands granted by the emperor for special merits, lands of Buddhist and Shinto temples, virgin lands) undermined the economic foundations of the “state ritsuryo". The state (represented by the emperor) ownership of land was replaced by a system of private landownership ( shoen). The allotment system of land use, which formed the basis of the "state ritsuryo”, actually functioned only in the Kinai metropolitan area, and in remote provinces it either did not exist, or the local nobility customized it to fit their realities (in addition, the allotment system assumed the existence konden einen shizai ho- “private ownership of newly developed lands”). At the turn of the 8th-9th centuries, several types of private land holdings appeared. TO sho included lands, the rights to which were recognized by the state - allotments of the imperial house, the highest aristocracy, large temples and monasteries. TO Siryo included sections of the lower aristocracy and the provincial nobility, who had to pay land taxes to the heads of the provinces (at the end of the 11th century, taxes were abolished for them as well). TO shoki shoen("early shoen”), the vast forest tracts granted by the state for the economic needs of monasteries and temples were ranked (over time, they added the newly developed surrounding lands to the forests).
The largest landowner in the 8th-9th centuries was the Todai-ji temple, which owned almost 3.5 thousand hectares. those lands in the provinces of Echizen, Etchu and Echigo (the temple received full independence over its possessions only in the XII century). Due to tax oppression and labor duties, peasants fled en masse from state plots, finding shelter and land with the provincial nobility and temples. The real power in the province became dogo(“having power over the land”), supplying the peasants with everything necessary for agricultural and irrigation work, and in some places maintaining order. Soon many dogo became chiefs of counties, cooperated with provincial governors or metropolitan aristocrats, who, in response, turned a blind eye to the growth of their land holdings. Newly developed lands that were cultivated by the inhabitants neighboring villages on the basis of lease relations, also eventually passed into the category shoki shoen. Lands owned by the aristocracy or developed by peasants from the virgin lands, in contrast to the lands of temples and monasteries, were taxed.
Gradually the difference between the state ( kubunden) and private ( joden) was erased by the lands, and they received a common name fumyo. Allotments were processed tato("strong peasants"), which were divided into daimyō tato("large tato") and shomyo tato("little tato"). The first worked on extensive fumyo, the second - on small ones. Daimyo tato could hire poor peasants and have personal slaves. Often from among tato went out myoshu- rich and respected peasants in their midst, who followed the processing of fields dogo, for the collection of crops and taxes from a certain group of peasants. Temple shoki shoen, although they were actually private estates, they continued to depend on the authorities to a certain extent (in order to attract peasants from the surrounding villages to cultivate the land, it was necessary to obtain permission from the head of the county).
In 822 and 830, severe epidemics occurred in Japan, which led to another economic crisis. Diseases and pressure from the authorities on landowners have led to the fact that many cultivated lands (including shoki shoen) were abandoned in the second half of the 9th - early 10th centuries. At the beginning of the 10th century, a new type began to take shape. shoen - Kissin Chikay(a plot cultivated by a peasant to his overlord, who in his possessions had full administrative and fiscal power). Owners Kissin Chikay were small landowners ryoshu) from the number local nobility who received positions and their respective lands, as well as metropolitan officials appointed to positions in the province. Over time, opposing groups of landowners arose. On the one hand, the local nobility, who occupied high positions in the provincial administrations, and on the other hand, ryoshu, forced to look for patrons who are able to protect their vassals (such landowners, in exchange for patronage, transferred ownership of the land to a noble aristocrat or religious institution, while retaining the right to directly manage the property).
As patrons ( honke) members of the imperial house, the Fujiwara family and other influential families, major Buddhist and Shinto shrines, provincial governors who received part of the income from the ward shoena. On honke numerous ryoshu who formally owned the site and also received part of the income from it. At the bottom of the pyramid were semin, among which were myoshu(they answered ryoshu for the collection of taxes, the condition of the fields and canals, the provision of seeds to the peasants). Noble families could take care of hundreds of scattered plots of land, and for better management they were created mandokoro- advice from senior managers of all shoen kind who collected income from allotments and led directly ryoshu.
After the decline of agriculture in the 9th-11th centuries, which was largely facilitated by a series of droughts, epidemics and military conflicts between factions of the nobility, from the end of the 11th century, crop areas began to expand (mainly due to the restoration of previously abandoned plots), food production revived, however, there was no noticeable progress in agriculture.
During the reign of Emperor Go-Sanjo, a "department for the study of land rights" was created ( kiroku shoen kenkeisho or for short kirokujo), which was engaged in controlling the size and exchange of fields, the seizure of state plots and peasants, registration of property rights to land. officials kirokujo they checked all private properties, both temple ones and those belonging to influential families. As a result of the fact that all plots that were not documented were seized in favor of the imperial house, the emperor soon became the country's largest private landowner (by the 12th century, the ruling family's possessions amounted to more than a hundred shoen in 60 provinces). Emperors Shirakawa and Toba continued their policy of strengthening the economic base of the imperial house. With them separate shoen began to unite into vast possessions, such as Hachijoin. In the second half of the 12th century imperial court widely practiced farming out to trusted aristocrats and temples of entire provinces in which they collected taxes.
dwelling
With the beginning of sea fishing in the Jomon period, the first relatively large settlements of fishermen began to appear on the coast. Gradually, the inhabitants of the mountainous regions moved to the coastal regions and river valleys, and the subcultures of the inhabitants of the interior regions and the coast became more and more isolated. If in numerous settlements of hunters and gatherers scattered in mountainous areas, on average, there were 4 - 5 dwellings ranging from 5 to 15 square meters. m, then coastal settlements consisted of several dozen dwellings, the area of \u200b\u200bwhich could reach 40 square meters. m. In the largest settlements there could be up to 400 dwellings located in a circle around the central space. The plan of an ordinary dwelling was a circle with a diameter of 4 - 5 m (less often - a rectangle). The wooden frame of the house was covered with bark, grass, moss and leaves. The earth floor was at a depth of 50 cm to 1 m from the surface, but in some cases it was covered with stone flooring (some of the houses were built on piles for a number of reasons). In the center of the dwelling, as a rule, there was a hearth (at the beginning of the Jomon period, it was taken out of the house). At some sites, large collective dwellings with an area of more than 270 m and with several hearths were found, most likely used in winter by the whole family.
During the Heian period, a prosperous Japanese dwelling acquired its traditional features. The floors of the living quarters were almost completely covered with straw mats ( tatami), divided into several sections by low wooden thresholds. Part paper walls (shoji And fusama) was made sliding, which made it possible to change the appearance of the room. Behind the grooves shoji there were wider grooves for external shutters ( amado), which moved at night and in bad weather. Often between shoji And amado passed narrow verandas engawa). Later, the central part of the interior became tokonoma- a niche in the end wall, which was decorated with vases, censers, scrolls with painting or calligraphy. The almost complete absence of furniture was made up for by flat cushions for sitting ( zabuton), low dining tables, mats, and wadded mattresses for sleeping. Kitchens with earthen or wooden floors were equipped with charcoal braziers ( hibachi), often - equipped with open hearths in the floor ( irori or kotatsu). Separate outbuildings housed large wooden tubs for bathing.
Cloth
In ancient times, the inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago already knew simple clothes made from hemp and expensive silk robes. long time among the nobility, the Korean type of costume prevailed. During the Nara period, Chinese-style clothing dominated the life of the capital. Early models of bathrobes ( kimono) with wide sleeves ( sode) were similar to traditional Chinese hanfu, later pants were added to them ( hakama), belts ( obi) and short capes ( haori). Women's kimono were sewn from fabrics of light and bright patterned colors, and men's - from dark one-color fabrics. Various types of straw or wooden sandals were worn on their feet ( waraji, geta And zori), later there were special socks for them ( tabi).
Kitchen
The basis of the meal was boiled rice, which was served with various vegetable and fish seasonings. were widely distributed fish soups with vegetables and bean paste, rice balls with fish slices ( sushi And norimaki), rice cakes mochi. Since ancient times, traditional cuisine has used fresh and dried seaweed, salted and pickled vegetables, as well as ingredients such as radish. daikon, lettuce hakusai, garden thistle root gobo, leaf chrysanthemum shungiku, ginkgo tree nuts ( ginnan), mushrooms, young bamboo shoots, lotus rhizomes, shellfish, octopus, squid, cuttlefish, trepang, crabs and shrimp. Often, vegetables, fish and seafood were prepared without heat treatment, only finely chopped and served raw with various sauces (in some cases, fermented or acidified). Food was served in bowls using wooden chopsticks ( hashi). Among the drinks, tea was considered the most exquisite; rice mash was used at court and in temples. sake.
Usually, folk beliefs are understood as ancient religious practices that are not associated with the church hierarchy. This is a complex of ideas and actions based on prejudices, superstitions, etc. Although folk beliefs differ from the temple cult, however, the connections here are obvious. Let us turn, for example, to the ancient one, which the Japanese have worshiped since time immemorial.
Initially, religions that came to Japan from the mainland had a huge impact on beliefs, as already indicated. This can be illustrated by the example of the Koshin cult.
Many deities from the Buddhist pantheon have spontaneously entered the popular pantheon of Japanese deities. Yes, it is very popular in Japan. Buddhist saint Jizo. In the courtyard of one of the temples in Tokyo, a statue of Jizo was erected, entangled with straw ropes. This so-called Shibarare Jizo- “connected Jizo”; if any valuables were stolen from a person, he tied Jizo and promised to release him upon discovery of the loss.
Researchers classify the ancient folk beliefs of the Japanese as follows:
- production cults (related mainly to agriculture and fishing);
- cults of healing (providing supposedly cures for diseases);
- cults of patronage (aimed at protection from epidemics and other troubles from the outside);
- cult - keeper hearth(who protected the house from fire and maintained peace in the family);
- the cult of good luck and prosperity (giving acquisitions and blessings of life);
- a cult of scaring away evil spirits (aimed at getting rid of various evil spirits - devils, water, goblin).
They say what your friends are, so are you. And what about the ancient legends in this case? "Tell me, what were your gods of old, and I'll tell you what you are now?" Can it be argued that there is a direct relationship between such a long past and the present? Probably not. But something of him still remains in us. Well, is this so, let's look at the example of the history of Japan and the role that the spear, sword and ... its most ancient heroes played in the development of the spiritual culture of this nation.
Let's start with the fact that the ancient Japanese books "Kojiki" and "Nihon Shoki", written down at the beginning of the 8th century, report that the first gods were invisible, and no one knew their names. Then the two gods Izanagi and Izanami appeared, brother and sister, the first of the gods whose names became known to people. The elder gods instructed them to create the earth and gave ... a magic spear. They stood on the heavenly floating bridge, plunged the spear into the ocean, stirred up its waters with this spear, and when they pulled it out of the water, drops fell off the tip, which fell and turned into Onogorojima - “Itself thickened island”. Then the brother and sister settled on this island, and the jasper spear was used as a pillar in their house. That is, without the spear, Japan would simply not exist!
Literally next, the first mention of the sword is also found. It belonged to the god Izanagi, with whom he killed his own son - the God of Fire, at the birth of which Izanami experienced severe pain. The Goddess was greatly upset by such “concern”, and she went to underworld. Well, Izanagi repented that he had committed the first murder in the world, and went down to the underworld to return her. But the evil spirits and gods of the dungeon did not allow him to do this, although he fought with them with this sword. When he returned, he performed numerous ablutions to cleanse himself of hellish filth, and gave birth to three more children, who later became the main Japanese gods and played a very important role in the history of the Japanese. important role. So, it was his daughter, the goddess of the sun Amaterasu, who sent her grandson Ninigi no Mikoto (“Young man - the god of rice ears”) to earth, and gave him three magical items: a bronze mirror (with which the gods once lured her out of the cave), jasper pendants and the "Sword of Swirling Clouds" - a gift from her brother, the formidable god Susanoo.
Three Sacred Regalia of Japanese Emperors
But here's what's interesting: Susanoo obtained this sword not so much by force as by cunning. At that time, a certain giant snake lived on earth in the Izumo region, which had eight heads and eight tails (in Japan, eight is a lucky number!), And he was so big that his tails filled eight valleys at once. The eyes resembled the Sun and the Moon, and forests grew on the ridge. The snake ate people in whole villages, but he especially liked young girls, so Susanoo volunteered to kill him. Choosing as bait beautiful girl, he armed himself with his father's sword and hid nearby. However, in addition to supplies for the monster, there is also a fair amount of sake. The serpent crawled up and, not paying attention to the girl, plunged all eight heads into sake cups (apparently, these cups were the right size for him!) and drank every drop. Now the drunken serpent was an easy prey for Susanoo, who promptly chopped it to pieces. When he reached the tail, he found there another magic sword, which he presented to his sister. And since black clouds swirled above the tail, where it was found, it was given the name: “Ame no Murakomo no tsurugi”, or “Sword of Swirling Clouds”.
Even the philosopher Socrates noticed an interesting feature of contemporary Greek mythology: its Olympian gods behave in it in a way that no normal ancient Greek could have imagined. They are gluttonous, indulge in debauchery with earthly women, and the gods-children overthrow the gods of their fathers instead of respecting them. The children of the gods behave accordingly, for example, the same Hercules, who is far from always being an object worthy of imitation in myths. Don't believe? But he also uses arrows poisoned by the poison of the Lernaean Hydra, that is, he uses weapons that valiant warriors have always condemned. What is this? Accident? Or was it done on purpose to show mere mortals how not to do it, and what is allowed to Jupiter, not allowed to the ox?! Interestingly, the gods in Japan behaved in exactly the same way.
The same god Susanoo, wanting to annoy his sister Amaterasu, firstly, demolished the boundaries in her fields, and filled up the irrigation canals. And, secondly, in her chambers intended for food, he defecated and scattered the feces. Moreover, the goddess, as a true Japanese woman, did not reproach him for this (although his behavior cannot be called anything other than ugly), but spoke as follows: “It looks like a bowel movement, but this is my brother - God, probably, having vomited while drunk, you did it. And what demolished the boundaries, filled up the canals, so it’s probably my brother God, you took pity on the earth and therefore did it, ”that is, she found a decent excuse for all his outrages.
Statue of Yamato Takeru at Kenrokuen in Kanazawa, Ishikawa Province
We meet the same thing in the legends about the exploits of the legendary prince Yamato Takeru. With his courage, he could compete with the Knight of the Round Table Lancelot Ozerny or one of the ancient Russian epic heroes. But he didn’t have a truly chivalrous spirit, and many of his actions seem simply strange, to say the least!
So, he began his exploits by killing his older brother just because he was late for dinner. And not just killed, but strangled, tore off limbs, wrapped it all in mats and threw it away! This act so shocked his father, Emperor Keiko, that he sent his son to the island of Kyushu, where he would fight against the enemies of the emperor. The first ones he had to kill on the orders of his father were the brave Kumaso brothers. He approached the house of the enemy, and finding there three rows of guards, changed into women's clothes given to him by his aunt, after which he joined the enemy leaders feasting there. When they got drunk, like the ill-fated snake, he pulled out a dagger hidden under his clothes and killed them both, that is, he acted not like a samurai, but like a real vile and despicable ninja. Then he defeated another leader in the province of Izumo, and again, not by force, but by cunning. At first, he became friends with him so that he began to consider him almost his brother. Then he made himself a wooden sword and began to wear it, thrusting it into the scabbard as if it were a real one. Well, he invited the gullible leader to swim in the river. They left their swords on the shore, and then, coming out of the water, Prince Yamato invited him to exchange swords as a sign of friendship. The leader agreed, and then accepted his insidious offer to cross swords in a friendly duel. Of course, he immediately discovered that his new sword was made of wood, but it was too late, because Prince Yamato immediately killed him.
It is clear that all these actions of Prince Yamato frankly do not correspond perfect image samurai-warrior, but in the future he behaved completely differently from what a real samurai would be like, that is, a “knight without fear and reproach”! Having received the order to set out again, he again visited his aunt, the high priestess of the great shrine in Ise, and received from her the sacred "Sword of Swirling Clouds", that is, the most powerful weapon of all that existed at that time. But, even possessing such a sword, Yamato won the victory in this campaign by no means with his help. By the way, the huge snake that Susanoo killed, it is not clear how he resurrected again, overtook him and demanded to return the “Sword of Swirling Clouds”. However, Yamato jumped over the snake, but did not fight him. Then he met the girl Iwato-hime (well, how without a girl ?!), whom he passionately fell in love with. But instead of marrying her and living happily ever after, for some reason he left her and went to the Sagamu region, the ruler of which decided to kill him. The hero was lured by cunning into a valley overgrown with dry tall grass, and then it was set on fire. It was then that the prince finally used the sword, mowed the grass around him, set it on fire and thereby escaped. Naturally, he killed everyone who wanted him dead, and burned their bodies. And his sword then began to be called "Kusanagi no tsurugi" ("Sword that Parts the Grass").
Then he again came to Iwato-hime. But knowing (from where, it is not clear!) that he could not stay with her, he left her again, giving her the “Sword of Swirling Clouds”. Iwato-hime took the sword and, with tears in her eyes, for some reason hung it on a mulberry tree. Here the hero was again attacked by the ubiquitous giant snake, over which he again jumped, but at the same time hit him with his foot. This raised his temperature, and he bathed in a cold stream. The fever subsided, but he could not recover, and anticipating his imminent death, he wanted to see Iwato-hime. And she immediately appeared before him, because all this time she secretly followed him in his wanderings. The prince perked up, but only he did not get better, and as a result he died, after which he became a white bird that flew south.
Prince Yamato ended his life in such a strange way, and this end of it, we note, contains all the features of epic tales about the exploits of the samurai, as well as the knights of the Round Table, which are constantly encountered: our hero is lonely, he is pursued by enemies, and in the end he dies young from an absurd chance. Moreover, the image of a lone warrior-hero samurai is alive in Japan today, and Prince Yamato is the first among her heroes. Moreover, his name is in the earliest histories of the country - the semi-mythological "Kojiki" ("Notes on the deeds of antiquity"), written in 712, and "Nihon shoki", 720 years. Surprisingly, Japanese history is simply replete with such “heroes” and losers. And it is not clear why the image of Yamato, from which, in fact, everything began, was created so contradictory and restless? Perhaps this was done on purpose, and in this case we are again dealing with the “principle of Jupiter and the ox”, and he was supposed to show the samurai what is in their history and such examples that obviously do not need to be followed ?! Or, on the contrary, the heroic in him (although what is it, this most “heroic”?) should have overshadowed everything negative in his image? As a result, the sword became the "soul of the samurai", but for some reason the spear did not become deified! Interestingly, in christian bible it is not stated with what weapon Cain killed Abel. He could be cursed or made a symbol, but its creators clearly did not want this. Therefore, “rose and killed” is given in it without details. Not so in Japan, only her heroes ancient history with spears and swords turned out to be very strange.
