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Place of residence of the peoples of the Volga region in the 17th century. Message-report "Peoples of the Volga region

Place of residence of the peoples of the Volga region in the 17th century. Message-report "Peoples of the Volga region

05.04.2019

The peoples of the Volga region in the XVII century.

By the beginning of the XVII century. the conquest of the Volga region was already completed. A number of strong military-administrative points were created on the territory of the region, in particular Osa, Sarapul, Ufa, Samara, etc., covering the region from the east from the offensive of neighboring nomadic peoples.

In the middle of the XVII century. Following the model of the southern serif lines, the construction of the so-called Zakamskaya line was begun - from Bely Yar on the Volga to Menzelinsk (founded around 1645), supplemented in the south by the Samara line - from Insar to Simbirsk, with the settlement of small service people to carry out guard service here ( 1652-1657).

The economic wealth of the region attracted the attention of large Moscow feudal lords, who in the first half of the 17th century. intensively snatched up the lands of the indigenous population of the middle Volga region.

In the 17th century known, for example, are the large estates of the boyar Morozov in the Mordovian lands, Prince Cherkassky and others, with large forest developments, potash factories and other, mainly fishing, enterprises associated with the brutal feudal exploitation of the local population. The decree of 1685 speaks about the seizure of lands: “and to which Mordovian and Chuvash and Circassian and all kinds of lands were given, and those Russian people, in addition to their dachas, took possession of many lands.”

In the middle of the XVII century. the Moscow government was even forced to limit Russian land seizures in the region, fearing a decline in the collection of yasak. The situation in the Volga region was complicated by the ethnic heterogeneity of the local population.

Here Tatars, Mari (Cheremis), Chuvashs, Mordovians, to the north - Udmurts, to the east - Bashkirs faced. The tsarist government skillfully sowed discord between these peoples, which prevented their unification.

In particular, Moscow supported the Tatar feudal lords, creating from them its own support in the region.

The local nobility gradually transferred to the service of the Moscow government, receiving land dachas and feudal privileges in return. So, on the territory of the Volga region in the XVII century. the category of "serving Tatars" is spreading. Local petitions contain complaints about their exploitation and robbery of the local population.

Feudal stratification and oppression was intensified by the policy of the Moscow government. Among the duties imposed on the population, a significant place was occupied by the duty to build security lines: every summer, up to 5 thousand people were taken to the gross and prison business - 1 person from three yasak yards.

A prominent place in the enslavement of the local population was occupied by the system of conversion to Christianity. Baptism created a privileged position for the "newly baptized" compared to the unbaptized. In particular, the patrimonies and estates of relatives were assigned to the baptized, and the feudal privileges of their clan were transferred to them.

Only baptized feudal lords were allowed to own peasants who professed the Christian faith. Class contradictions, intensified by religious and national strife, weakened the forces of the national struggle in the Volga region.

In the fight against peasant movement the local feudal elites acted in alliance with the Moscow government, while the popular movement united with the broad movement of the Russian peasantry.

In the 17th century the general situation hindered independent uprisings in the Volga region. In their struggle, the peoples of the Volga region usually relied on peasant wars Muscovite Rus' XVII-XVIII centuries. or on the popular movement in neighboring Bashkiria.

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Population Samara region formed over a number of centuries. Since ancient times, the Middle Volga region has been the borderland of ethnic massifs of various origins.

Once upon a time, beyond the Samara River, in the direction of the present Novokuibyshevsk, foreign lands stretched - the nomadic nomads of the Bashkirs, Nogais, and the state border of Rus' passed right along the river. In 1586, Samara was founded as a frontier post to protect Russian lands from Nogai nomads. Time passed, the once warring peoples began to cooperate, and the fertile lands of the Volga attracted settlers here. Russians, Chuvashs, Tatars, Mordovians, Germans, Kalmyks, Ukrainians, Bashkirs, Jews began to live nearby. Different cultures, way of life, traditions, religions, languages, forms of management... But everyone was united by one desire - to create, build, raise children, develop the region.

The same economic conditions, close contacts in the process of developing the region, were the basis for the development of international features in the traditional culture of the peoples. A notable feature of the Samara Territory is the absence of interethnic conflicts and clashes. Many years of peaceful cohabitation, the use of everything valuable in the life and economy of neighbors had a beneficial effect on the creation of strong ties between the Russian population and other peoples of the Volga region.

According to the 2002 census, 3 million 240 thousand people live in the region. The ethnic composition of the population of the Samara region is multinational: 135 nationalities (for comparison, Russia has a total of 165). The national composition of the population is as follows:

Russians make up the majority 83.6% (2,720,200);

Tatars - 4% (127,931);

Chuvash - 3.1% (101,358);

Mordva - 2.6% (86,000);

Ukrainians - 1.8% (60,727);

Armenians - 0.7% (21,566);

Azerbaijanis - 0.5% (15,046);

Kazakhs - 0.5% (14,918);

Belarusians - 0.4% (14,082);

Germans - 0.3% (9,569);

Bashkirs - 0.2% (7,885 people);

Jews - 0.2% (6,384);

Uzbeks - 0.2% (5,438);

Roma - 0.2% (5,200);

Tajiks - 0.1% (4,624);

Mari - 0.1% (3,889);

Georgians - 0.1% (3,518);

other nationalities (Udmurts, Koreans, Poles, Chechens, Ossetians, Kyrgyz, Moldovans) - 0.7% (25,764)

Besermyans(self-name - beserman; udm. beserman) - a small Finno-Ugric people in Russia, dispersed living in the north-west of Udmurtia in 41 settlements, of which 10 villages are mono-ethnic.

The number, according to the 2002 census, is 3.1 thousand people.

They speak the dialect of the Udmurt language of the Finno-Ugric group of the Ural family, in general close to the southern dialects of the Udmurt language, which is explained in ethnic history besermyan [ source unspecified 1550 days] .

The believing Besermen are Orthodox Christians; The folk religion of the Besermians is very close to the folk religion of the Udmurts, including also some elements of Islamic origin.

Kerzhaki- ethnographic group of Russian Old Believers. The name comes from the name of the Kerzhenets River in the Nizhny Novgorod region. Carriers of the culture of the North Russian type. After the defeat of the Kerzhensky sketes in the 1720s, tens of thousands fled to the east - to the Perm province. From the Urals they settled throughout Siberia, to Altai and the Far East. They are one of the first Russian-speaking inhabitants of Siberia, the “old-timer population”. They led a fairly closed communal lifestyle with strict religious rules and traditional culture. In Siberia, kerzhaks formed the basis of the Altai masons. They opposed themselves to the later settlers in Siberia - the "Race" (Russian), but subsequently almost completely assimilated with them because of their common origin.

Komi-Yazvintsy (Komi, Yoz, Komi Yoz, Permians; Komi-yazvin. komiyoz, permyakyuz, komi utyr; Komi yozva komiyas, yazvinsa; k.-p. Komi Yazvins) - an ethnographic group of Komi-Zyryans and / or Komi-Permyaks, or a separate Finno-Ugric people in Russia.

Kungur, or Sylven, Mari(Mar. Kogyr Mariy, Sulii Mariy) - an ethnographic group of Mari in the southeastern part Perm Territory Russia. The Kungur Mari are part of the Ural Mari, who in turn are among the Eastern Mari. The group got its name from the former Kungur district of the Perm province, which until the 1780s included the territory where the Mari had settled since the 16th century. In 1678-1679. in the Kungur district there were already 100 Mari yurts with a male population of 311 people. IN XVI-XVII centuries Mari settlements appeared along the Sylva and Iren rivers. Some of the Mari were then assimilated by more numerous Russians and Tatars (for example, the village of Oshmarina of the Nasad village council of the Kungur region, the former Mari villages along the upper reaches of the Iren, etc.). The Kungur Mari took part in the formation of the Tatars of the Suksun, Kishert and Kungur regions of the region.

Nagaybaki (nogaibaki, tat. nagaybaklar) - an ethno-religious group of Tatars living for the most part in the Nagaybaksky and Chebarkulsky municipal districts of the Chelyabinsk region. The language is a dialect of the middle dialect of the Tatar language. Believers are Orthodox Christians. According to Russian law, they are officially small people .

Nenets(nenets. neney neneche, hasovo, neshang ( obsolete - samoyeds,yuraki) - Samoyed people in Russia, inhabiting the Eurasian coast of the Arctic Ocean from the Kola Peninsula to Taimyr. The Nenets are divided into European and Asian (Siberian). European Nenets settled in the Nenets Autonomous Okrug of the Arkhangelsk Region, and Siberian Nenets in the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug of the Tyumen Region and in the Dolgan-Nenets Taimyr municipal area Krasnoyarsk region. small groups Nenets live in the Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug, in the Murmansk and Arkhangelsk regions, the Komi Republic.

VOLGA REGION:

The dwelling of the Kalmyks corresponded to their way of life. Roaming with his herds from place to place, the Kalmyk had a portable dwelling - a yurt - a kind of felt hut on a wooden base. The decoration of the yurt was a low bed with several felts, a box was placed next to it, where “burkhans” (idols) were kept. In front of the burkhans, a small wooden table, decorated with carvings, paints and gilding, was placed with silver or copper cups, in which donations were placed - oil, wheat and spices. The necessary accessory of the yurt was the tagan, which occupied its middle. This hearth, in which food was cooked, was considered a sacred place.

The outer clothing of the Kalmyks consisted of a robe or single-breasted beshmet, borrowed from the Caucasian highlanders. Beshmet was tied at the waist with a belt belt; for the rich, the belt was decorated with iron plates with silver notches. In winter, they wore a sheepskin or fox fur coat. Hats of the national Kalmyk cut with a square crown were very popular in Russia. In their likeness, hats were cut for Russian coachmen and coachmen. Kalmyk women's clothing consisted of a wide blouse and trousers. On their heads they wore low yellow caps with a black pattern, decorated with gold thread and thick red fringe.

The main food of the Kalmyks was goat and mutton meat. Strong broth from lamb was even considered healing. Instead of bread, they baked donuts from rye or wheat flour in hot ashes from a hard kneaded dough. In addition to them, budan was prepared from flour - milk mixed with flour and boiled in a cauldron. Wheat dough balls fried in mutton fat were also a special delicacy.

Germans(immigrants from various regions of Germany) at the beginning of the 20th century. constituted a colony of about 400 thousand people and lived on the territory of the current Samara and Saratov regions. The first colonists appeared here after the manifestos of Empress Catherine II, who called on everyone in Europe to freely settle in "the most favorable for the population and habitation of the human race. most useful places, until now idly remaining. The German settlements of the Volga region were, as it were, a state within a state - a completely separate world, sharply different from the surrounding Russian population in terms of faith, culture, language, way of life, and character of people.
After the start of the Great Patriotic War the national formations of the Volga Germans were liquidated, and their inhabitants were evicted to different regions of the country, mainly to Kazakhstan. Many of the Germans who returned to the Volga region in the 1960s and 1970s left for Germany after the collapse of the USSR.

Tatars profess Islam Sunni persuasion, that is, along with the Koran, they recognize the Sunnah - the Muslim Holy Tradition about the deeds of the Prophet Muhammad. The main part of the Sunnah arose at the end of the 7th - beginning of the 8th century. For many centuries, the mullahs and their numerous assistants were engaged in teaching boys, and their wives - girls, as a result of which literacy among the Tatars was much more common than among the Russians.

Kalmyks confess Buddhism, preserved by them from the time of their movement from the east. Beliefs are based on ten commandments about good and evil deeds, in many ways similar to the Christian religion. Evil deeds include taking life, robbery, adultery, lying, threatening, rude words, idle talk, envy, malice in the heart; good deeds - pardon from death, do alms, observe moral purity, speak kindly and always the truth, be a peacemaker, act according to the teachings of the sacred books, be satisfied with your condition, help your neighbor and believe in predestination.
Volga Germans - mostly Lutherans. Russians - Christians Orthodox persuasion.

39)Peoples of the European North of Russia.

This is the territory from the Kola Peninsula and Karelia to the Northern Urals.

A permanent population appeared here in 3-2 thousand BC. The locals knew how to make polished stone tools, boats hollowed out of tree trunks, bows and arrows. They made pottery without the use of a potter's wheel, covered it with ornaments. The peoples have a light people of Mongoloidity with a general Caucasoid appearance. The most ancient tribes, most likely, spoke the languages of the Samoyedic group. Later, native speakers of the Finno-Ugric group penetrated here. At the end of the 1st - beginning of the 2nd millennium AD. in the southwestern Urals, a large tribal association of ancient Permians was formed (the creators artistic culture- Perm animal style). Their descendants are Komi-Zyryans and Komi-Permyaks. From the 6th c. AD the sources mention the nationality (all), whose descendants are now called Vepsians. Already in the 9th c. AD the Korela people lived on the Karelian Isthmus - the ancestors of modern Karelians. In the 8th-11th centuries. AD Slovenes appeared in the European North of Russia. Nowadays, Russians make up the majority of the population.

Economy and material culture. The Saami and the Nenets have long been engaged in reindeer herding. The peasant economy of Russians, Karelians, Vepsians and both Komi peoples became the basis for the formation of the economic and cultural type of northern farmers. Initially, agriculture was carried out as a slash.

Animal husbandry has not received special development.

Actively engaged in fishing. Hunting for fur-bearing animals, upland and other game. Preparation of mushrooms, forest berries and herbs.

All of these activities are still relevant today. Added animal husbandry.

Mining is developing (coal in Komi, iron ore in Karelia).

Religion. In the 11th-13th centuries. AD Karelians and Vepsians converted to Orthodoxy. Many still retained their former beliefs in the forester, the bath master and other representatives of lower demonology. In our time, there is little interest in Orthodoxy among Northern Russians, Karelians, Vepsians, and Komi, but remnants of superstitions associated with lower demonology often persist.

41. Peoples of Transcaucasia

In the conditions of daily labor activity and communication with representatives of other nationalities, the inhabitants of Transcaucasia tend to form microgroups along ethnic lines. Possessing fairly good organizational skills, communicative qualities, independence, they tend to become informal leaders in teams.
The Armenian people were formed in the Armenian Highlands in their basic qualities as early as the 4th century BC. The state of Armenians was part of the political landscape of the Ancient East, and at the end of the 20th century it reappeared on the world map.

Georgians occupy mountain valleys, highlands and plateaus between the Greater and Lesser Caucasus, being the strategic center of the entire Caucasian region. The people, consisting of a large number of ethnographic groups, is distinguished by the unity of a common consciousness and the individualism of each individual.

Between Georgia and the Adyghe lands along the Black Sea coast lies the land of the Abkhaz, which was called the "country of the soul", the ethnogenesis of the Abkhaz connects them with the ancient population of the lands south of the Caucasus. In the everyday culture of the Abkhazians, its aboriginal potential was combined with influences from the kindred Adyghe peoples and neighboring Western Georgia. Abkhazia acts in many manifestations as a reserve of the early traditions of the Caucasian community, especially that of its mountainous part, which is connected with the Black Sea.
Among the relatively large peoples of Transcaucasia, there are several relatively small ones (Kurds, Aisors, Udins, Tats, Talyshs). There are settlements of Greeks in the Western Caucasus, some of which appeared in the Caucasus long ago, while others moved from Anatolia in the second half of the 19th century.

41.South Caucasus (Transcaucasia)- a geopolitical region located on the border of Eastern Europe and Southwest Asia, lying south of the main, or watershed ridge of the Greater Caucasus. The Transcaucasus includes most of the southern slope of the Greater Caucasus, the Colchis lowland and the Kura depression, the Lesser Caucasus, the Armenian Highlands, the Talysh mountains with the Lenkoran lowland. Independent states are located within the Transcaucasia: Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia. In the same region are: Abkhazia and South Ossetia, whose independence is recognized only by Russia and three other countries, as well as the unrecognized Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. Transcaucasia borders in the north with Russian Federation, in the south - with Turkey and Iran.

The Transcaucasian republics of the CIS include two bordering with Russia, Azerbaijan and Georgia, as well as Armenia, which in the Soviet period constituted one Transcaucasian economic region.

The area of the three republics is 186.1 thousand km2, the population is 17.3 million people.

The largest republic in terms of area and population is Azerbaijan, the smallest is Armenia.

The main titular peoples of Transcaucasia belong to different language families. Georgians are representatives of the Kartvelian language family of the Kartvelian group, Armenians also form their own group in the Indo-European language family, Azerbaijanis belong to the Turkic group of the Altaic language family. The majority of the Georgian population are Christians, Azerbaijanis are adherents of Shiite Islam, Armenians are Christians and monophysites.\

Azerbaijanis(Azerb. azərbaycanlılar, آذربایجانلیلار, or Azeri. Azərilər, آذری لر) are a Turkic-speaking people who make up the main population of Azerbaijan and a significant part of the population of northwestern Iran. The total number is over 30 million people. In addition to Iran and Azerbaijan, they traditionally live on the territory of modern Russia (Dagestan), Georgia (Borchaly) and Turkey (Kars and Ygdir).

Belong to the Caspian type caucasian race.

They speak Azerbaijani.

Believing Azerbaijanis predominantly profess the Islamic Shia (Jafarite madhhab).

The formation of the modern Azerbaijani ethnos on the territory of Eastern Transcaucasia and Northwestern Iran was a centuries-old process that ended mainly in the Abkhazians (Abkh. Aҧsua) - one of the Abkhaz-Adyghe peoples, the indigenous population of Abkhazia, living in the Northwestern part of the Caucasus. There are also large diasporas in Turkey, Russia, Syria, Jordan, dispersed - in the countries of the West. Europe and in the USA.

According to the 1989 census, the number of Abkhazians in Abkhazia was 93.3 thousand people (18% of the population of Abkhazia), according to the 2003 census - 94.6 thousand people (44% of the population), according to the 2010 census - 122.1 thousand. people (about 51%). At the beginning of the 21st century, their total number in the world is estimated at 185 thousand people (according to the data of Abkhazian demographers, about 600 thousand). Abkhazians live in 52 countries of the world.

They speak Abkhaz language, the majority of those living in Abkhazia are also in Russian.

The most common religions are Orthodoxy (from the 6th century) and Sunni Islam (from the 15th century) .m by the end of the 15th century.

Georgians(self-name - kartvelebi, cargo. ქართველები) are the people of the Kartvelian language family. Most of the Georgian nation is concentrated within the borders of Georgia. . Also, many Georgians live in the eastern provinces of Turkey and in the interior of Iran, especially in the city of Fereydunshahr. Many Georgians have dark hair, there are blondes. Most Georgians have brown eyes, although 30% have blue or gray eyes. Due to the remoteness of the Georgians from the main routes of invasion and migration, the territory of Georgia turned out to be an object of great demographic homogeneity, due to which modern Georgians are direct descendants of the indigenous inhabitants of the Caucasian isthmus. According to the linguistic principle, the Georgian people include three groups: Iberian, Svan and Megrelo-Laz, and the last two are included in separate (from Georgian) linguistic groups of the Kartvelian family. Most Georgians traditionally profess Christianity (Orthodoxy), which was adopted on May 6, 319. For the most part, anthropologically they belong to the Pontic and Caucasian types of the Caucasoid race. Joseph Stalin is called the most famous Georgian in the world [

42. Since ancient times, Central Asia and Kazakhstan have been distinguished by the diversity of their ethnic composition and a wide variety of economic and cultural features of individual regions, the difference between which was due to the sharp contrasts of natural conditions described above - a combination of vast sandy and clay deserts suitable for cattle breeding, and powerful mountain systems, where in the foothills and mainly on the foothill plains, as well as in the valleys and deltas of the rivers, the most ancient centers of agricultural culture arose, where, along with agriculture, cattle breeding and fishing were developed. Individual areas differed from one another in the features of the historically established relationships between the economic activities of the population and the geographical environment, which in turn determined the way of life, the nature of material culture - types of settlements and housing, means of transportation, food, etc.

Ethnographic science has developed the principle of classifying the population according to the so-called economic and cultural types; economic and cultural types are historically established complexes of interrelated features of the economy and culture, characteristic of peoples that are approximately at the same level socio-economic development and living in similar natural-geographical conditions.

Ethnographers single out on the territory of Central Asia and Kazakhstan the end of the XIX-beginning of the XX century. three main economic and cultural types: 1) settled inhabitants of oases, leading an intensive agricultural economy with the use of artificial irrigation; 2) semi-sedentary population, combining cattle breeding with agriculture; 3) nomadic pastoralists. In six of the fifteen natural and economic zones identified by geographers in the territory of Central Asia and Kazakhstan in the pre-revolutionary period, judging by the historical and ethnographic materials, the economic and cultural type of sedentary farmers prevailed, leading their economy on artificially irrigated lands and intermountain valleys and on the flat foothills; in three zones - the economic and cultural type of pastoral nomads, a significant part of whom were also engaged in irregular farming at their winter quarters and near temporary springs and springs of the desert zone; in four - the economic and cultural type of semi-sedentary farmers and pastoralists, who were characterized by irregular irrigated and cairo farming on the outskirts of agricultural oases and in the lower reaches of rivers, sometimes combined with fishing. We see a slightly different variant of the same economic and cultural type in the mountainous regions, where mountain pasture and distant pasture cattle breeding was sometimes combined with rainfed, non-irrigated (bogara - crops under spring rains) and small oasis irrigated agriculture.

For each of the major peoples of Central Asia and Kazakhstan, one of these three economic and cultural types was the main, traditional and predominant, but at the same time, individual ethnographic or local groups in the environment of the same people often belonged to different economic and cultural types.

The majority of the population of Central Asia and Kazakhstan in late XIX and the beginning of the 20th century. engaged in settled agriculture on artificially irrigated lands and nomadic cattle breeding. Sedentary agricultural and steppe pastoral peoples never existed in isolation from each other. They have always been in close economic relations, exchanging the products of their economy; political and cultural ties between them were also always strong. These centuries-old ties between the sedentary population and the steppe tribes determined an extremely many peculiar features of the history, way of life and features of the material and spiritual culture of the peoples of Central Asia and Kazakhstan. As shown by the latest archaeological and ethnographic studies, semi-sedentary tribes also played a significant role in the history of Central Asia, being the creators of unique forms of economy and culture.

Let us give a brief description of the three economic and cultural types identified in the territory of Central Asia and Kazakhstan.

1. Settled farmers. They have existed in Central Asia and Kazakhstan since ancient times, on the fertile banks of the river systems of the East, which include a number of Central Asian rivers (Amu-Darya, Syr-Darya, Murghab, etc.), where natural conditions provided the possibility of irrigation, on the basis of plow irrigation agriculture, the most ancient state associations, class societies were formed and the foundation of modern civilization was laid.

Even in the slave era, intensive irrigated agriculture with the use of large irrigation facilities became widespread. zheniya (dams, canals, etc.), in the construction of which the labor of slaves was widely used. This type of agriculture is most widespread in the territory of modern Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and the south of Turkmenistan. It caused the flourishing of the economy of the powerful ancient slave-owning states of Central Asia with their high and peculiar civilization.

The inhabitants of agricultural oases - Uzbeks, Tajiks, Turkmens, etc. - over the centuries have accumulated a wealth of experience in irrigation agriculture, in the construction of powerful irrigation facilities, in methods of irrigating fields.

Farmers have developed a number of ways to restore soil fertility and agrotechnical methods to improve their physical and chemical properties: melioration by sanding, destruction of the takyr crust, fertilizer with silt deposits of irrigation water, waste, earth from destroyed clay buildings and coastal dumps of abandoned canals, characterized by a high content of potassium salts; they used watering and washing the soil in order to get rid of harmful salts in the upper layer, etc.

Areas of irrigated agriculture in river valleys, intermountain basins and in the foothills of Central Asia stand out as areas with an exceptionally dense agricultural population. At the beginning of the XX century. in some parts of the Bukhara and Samarkand oases along the Zeravshan and in the Ferghana Valley, the average population density exceeded 150-200 people per 1 sq. km. km; in the Khorezm oasis - 80-100 people per 1 sq. km. The population density decreased towards the periphery of the oases. In most cases, densely populated agricultural irrigated areas were sharply demarcated from neighboring sparsely populated desert or swampy (in river deltas) areas used for cattle breeding. Settlements of farmers in the irrigated zone were confined to irrigation systems and were located in the neighborhood of cultivated areas.

In the lower reaches of large rivers - on the Amu-Darya, Syr-Darya, Zeravshan - a dispersed (“farm”) type of settlement prevailed: individual estates of farmers were scattered relatively far from one another (for example, in Khorezm - by 400-500 m); they formed a wide (from 2 to 5 km) strip along the main main canals. The location of the estates depended on the direction of the canals and their branching into smaller ones.

The nature of the irrigation network largely determined the settlement of farmers in the intermountain basins (Fergana, the basins of the Zeravshan, Talas, Asy, etc.)? where a network of large villages has formed on vast alluvial fans, stretching out along fan-shaped divergent channels, as well as in the foothills of the Kopet-Dag and Tien Shan on the border between the desert and the mountains, where the arrays of irrigated lands are surrounded by desert and mountain-steppe pastures.

Mountain villages were located most often at the bottom of wide valleys and in their side branches. For crops, every patch of alluvial sediments of mountain rivers was used.

Behind the zone of irrigated lands, a zone of rain-fed lands began, located along the slopes and up the valleys of mountain rivers. The inhabitants of the mountainous regions of the Pamir-Alay and Tien Shan - Tajiks, Uzbeks, Kirghiz - developed various methods of field cultivation in the mountains, on mountain sloping slopes, on terraces and on alluvial fans of mountain rivers, etc .; they created forms of intensive terraced agriculture.

On the foothill plains of the Kopet-Dag and the Nurata mountains, "kyariz" irrigation was used (kyariz - a structure for the use of groundwater); its device required enormous expenditures of human labor and deep knowledge of the terrain, structure and slopes of the underlying soil. Both irrigated and rain-fed agriculture among the Uzbeks, Tajiks, Kirghiz, Turkmens of Kopet-Dag were combined with mountain pasture cattle breeding. Irrigated agriculture in combination with stall and desert pastoralism was developed among the Uzbeks, Karakalpaks and Turkmens of the Khorezm oasis, among the Uzbeks and Tajiks of the Bukhara oasis, in the Tashkent (among the Uzbeks), Murgab and Tejen oases (among the Turkmens), in the Ferghana Valley, etc.

2. Semi-sedentary population. It combined in its economy cattle breeding, agriculture, and sometimes fishing.

Many peoples of Central Asia and Kazakhstan until the beginning of the 20th century. the traditions of irregular semi-sedentary extensive cairo and estuary agriculture, dating back to the Eneolithic and Bronze Ages, were preserved. As you know, the estuary method of irrigation, which consisted in the fact that individual sections of river floods and lakes were isolated, drained and sown, is the prototype of all modern irrigation. In the estuaries and cairo lands bordering river channels and lakes, crops of gourds, millet, dzhugara and rice were widely practiced. Crop farming on estuaries and guillemots was very dependent on natural conditions and was characterized by great instability and irregularity.

Semi-sedentary farmers and pastoralists in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. were settled mainly on the outskirts of large agricultural oases, in the lower reaches of many rivers, as well as in naturally irrigated areas of the foothills and the North Kazakhstan steppes (see map, pp. 36 - 37). This type was common among the inhabitants of the delta regions of the Amu Darya and Syr-Darya-Karakalpaks, Turkmens and North Khorezmian Uzbeks; in the Bukhara oasis - among the Turkmens, Uzbeks and Kazakhs; in Ferghana - among part of the Kirghiz and Karakalpaks. In the mountainous regions of Central Asia, this type also included part of the Tajiks (in the Baysun and Kugistan mountains of southern Uzbekistan), Kirghiz (in the Issyk-Kul basin) and Uzbeks, who were characterized by rainfed agriculture in combination with mountain pasture cattle breeding. Semi-sedentary agricultural economy was also conducted by the Turkmens, who for a long time combined cattle breeding with agriculture. In the northern regions of Kazakhstan semi-settled agricultural economy (rainfed agriculture) was conducted by the Kazakhs (in the basins of the Irgiz, Turgai, Emba, etc.).

The semi-sedentary population of Central Asia and Kazakhstan can be divided into two large groups: the first was made up of nomadic pastoralists (Kazakhs, some groups of Uzbeks) who recently settled in the cultural zone of oases and border areas, who migrated from the steppes, the second - ethnographic groups of peoples who throughout the history of their formations led a semi-sedentary lifestyle (a significant part of the Karakalpaks, Aral Uzbeks, as well as part of the Turkmens and the Syrdarya Kazakhs). These are the descendants of tribes and peoples, in which the complex type of economy prevailed in antiquity, early and late Middle Ages. Inhabitants of vast deltaic regions, lakeside and riverine regions, they inherited the archaic traditions of an integrated agricultural, cattle-breeding and fishing economy, apparently from the tribes of the Bronze Age that lived in these areas.

3. Nomad and herdsmen. They occupied vast expanses of steppes, mountains and deserts of Central Asia and Kazakhstan.

Nomadic pastoralism differed depending on the regions. The Kazakhs, who lived in the vast steppes, in the recent past (until the beginning of the 20th century) roamed mainly over long distances in the meridional direction, moving far to the north in summer and far to the south in winter. The territories and routes of their migrations were strictly defined, traditional and passed down from generation to generation.

For Kazakh nomadic cattle breeding, the leading role of sheep and horse breeding is characteristic.

The Turkmen roaming routes in the desert were determined by the location of wells and the seasonal use of pastures. Part of the population constantly lived in oases, while the other went out with herds into the sands, moving along certain tracts located not far from wells or drainage structures built in the desert on takyrs, which also served as watering places for the herd. The herd was dominated by sheep, goats and camels. The latter were especially important as a transport animal in the vast sandy and waterless expanses of the great Central Asian deserts.

Among the Kirghiz, who occupied the mountain plateaus and valleys of the Tien Shan, nomadism was predominantly vertical in nature, being associated with a change in the vegetation cover on pastures. Summer pastures were located high in the mountains, in alpine meadows, and wintering areas were located in deep valleys protected from cold winds and snowstorms.

significant place among various breeds livestock in the highlands of the Pamir-Alay and Tien Shan were occupied by mountain yaks.

Nomadic and partly transhumance animal husbandry was the main, but not the only occupation of the nomads; many of them were engaged in their winter camps and agriculture, which had an auxiliary value. Since ancient times nomads in the mountains used spring waters and temporary seasonal streams for field cultivation and developed the skills of so-called bulak (bulak springs) and firth farming. In the steppes and deserts, they learned to collect water on takyrs after rain and divert it to the lowlands; these lowlands were sown with various crops. In Turkmenistan, hollows (oytak) were used in places for arranging melons in them and sowing grain crops.

The economic and cultural types of Central Asia and Kazakhstan, reflecting the historically established relationships between the economic activity of the population and the geographical environment and thus being a historical category, have undergone changes in the process of development of the economy and culture of the Central Asian peoples. These changes have become especially significant in Central Asia and Kazakhstan today, when in the socialist agriculture the historically established labor skills of the population are used in a completely new way. The most ancient type of semi-sedentary complex economy disappeared along with extensive forms of subsistence farming and remnants of patriarchal tribal life. Nomadic pastoralism disappeared as a special economic and cultural type.

The general nature of animal husbandry has changed. Most collective farms and state farms have a transhumant form of animal husbandry. The watering of large areas of the steppes of Kazakhstan, the sandy deserts of the Karakum and Kyzylkum as a result of irrigation construction and the widespread use of artesian wells improved the fodder base, expanded the area of pastures, and facilitated the work of shepherds-cattle breeders. The composition of the herd has also changed. Valuable and highly productive meat-wool and karakul breeds of small cattle, meat and dairy breeds of cattle are becoming increasingly important; in connection with the development of new vehicles, camel and horse breeding decreased.

Irrigated agriculture based on modern agricultural technology, which produces high-value agricultural crops, primarily cotton, has flourished the most.

43. In addition to anthropological and linguistic features, the peoples of Siberia have a number of specific, traditionally stable cultural and economic features that characterize the historical and ethnographic diversity of Siberia. In cultural and economic terms, the territory of Siberia can be divided into two large historically developed regions: 1) the southern one - the region of ancient cattle breeding and agriculture; and 2) northern - area of commercial hunting and fishing economy. The boundaries of these areas do not coincide with the boundaries of landscape zones. Sustainable economic and cultural types of Siberia developed in antiquity as a result of different in time and nature historical and cultural processes that took place in a homogeneous natural and economic environment and under the influence of external traditions of other cultures.

By the 17th century among the indigenous population of Siberia, according to the predominant type of economic activity, the following economic and cultural types have developed: 1) foot hunters and fishermen of the taiga zone and forest-tundra; 2) sedentary fishermen in the basins of large and small rivers and lakes; 3) sedentary hunters for sea animals on the coast of the Arctic seas; 4) nomadic taiga reindeer herders-hunters and fishermen; 5) nomadic reindeer herders of the tundra and forest-tundra; 6) pastoralists of the steppes and forest-steppes.

In the past, some groups of foot Evenks, Orochs, Udeges, separate groups of Yukagirs, Kets, Selkups, partly Khanty and Mansi, and Shors belonged to the foot hunters and fishermen of the taiga in the past. For these peoples great importance had hunting for meat animals (moose, deer), fishing. A characteristic element of their culture was a hand sled.

The settled-fishing type of economy was widespread in the past among the peoples living in the basins of the river. Amur and Ob: Nivkhs, Nanais, Ulchis, Itelmens, Khanty, part of the Selkups and the Ob Mansi. For these peoples, fishing was the main source of livelihood throughout the year. The hunt had an auxiliary character.

The type of sedentary hunters for sea animals is represented among the settled Chukchi, Eskimos, and partly settled Koryaks. The economy of these peoples is based on the extraction of sea animals (walrus, seal, whale). Arctic hunters settled on the coasts of the Arctic seas. The products of the marine fur trade, in addition to meeting personal needs for meat, fat and skins, also served as a subject of exchange with neighboring related groups.

Nomadic taiga reindeer breeders, hunters and fishermen were the most common type of economy among the peoples of Siberia in the past. He was represented among the Evenks, Evens, Dolgans, Tofalars, Forest Nenets, Northern Selkups, and Reindeer Kets. Geographically, it covered mainly the forests and forest-tundra of Eastern Siberia, from the Yenisei to the Sea of Okhotsk, and also extended west of the Yenisei. The basis of the economy was hunting and keeping deer, as well as fishing.

The nomadic reindeer herders of the tundra and forest-tundra include the Nenets, reindeer Chukchi and reindeer Koryaks. These peoples have developed a special type of economy, the basis of which is reindeer husbandry. Hunting and fishing, as well as sea fishing, are of secondary importance or are completely absent. The main food product for this group of peoples is deer meat. The deer also serves as a reliable vehicle.

Cattle breeding of the steppes and forest-steppes in the past was widely represented among the Yakuts - the northernmost cattle-breeding people in the world, among the Altaians, Khakasses, Tuvans, Buryats, Siberian Tatars. Cattle breeding was of a commercial nature, the products almost completely satisfied the needs of the population in meat, milk and dairy products. Agriculture among pastoral peoples (except for the Yakuts) existed as an auxiliary branch of the economy. Some of these peoples were engaged in hunting and fishing.

Along with the indicated types of economy, a number of peoples also had transitional types. For example, the Shors and Northern Altaians combined sedentary cattle breeding with hunting; The Yukaghirs, Nganasans, Enets combined reindeer herding with hunting as their main occupation.

The diversity of cultural and economic types of Siberia determines the specifics of development by indigenous peoples natural environment, on the one hand, and the level of their socio-economic development, on the other. Prior to the arrival of the Russians, economic and cultural specialization did not go beyond the framework of the appropriating economy and primitive (hoe) agriculture and cattle breeding. A variety of natural conditions contributed to the formation of various local variants of economic types, the oldest of which were hunting and fishing.

At the same time, it should be taken into account that "culture" is an extrabiological adaptation, which entails the need for activity. This explains such a multitude of economic and cultural types. Their peculiarity is a sparing attitude to natural resources. And in this all economic and cultural types are similar to each other. However, culture is, at the same time, a system of signs, a semiotic model of a particular society (ethnos). Therefore, a single cultural and economic type is not yet a community of culture. The common thing is that the existence of many traditional cultures is based on a certain way of managing the economy (fishing, hunting, sea hunting, cattle breeding). However, cultures can be different in terms of customs, rituals, traditions, and beliefs.

The national culture embodies the memory of the people, acting as what allows to identify this people among others, allows a person to preserve his individuality, to feel the connection of eras and generations, to gain spiritual support and life support. And if we consider the calendar, as well as the life of people, then the customs and traditions of the peoples of the Volga region demonstrate a close relationship with them.

Russians

Among all the peoples who lived on the territory of the Volga region, the largest share is accounted for by Russians. Russian women wore an outfit that consisted of a canvas shirt called "sleeves" and a sundress. For poor families, sundresses, for the manufacture of which they used painted canvas, served as a familiar costume. Sundresses sewn on the basis of Chinese were put on for the celebrations. The opportunities of wealthy families allowed them to wear sundresses, for the creation of which they used silk, plush and velvet.

Despite the fact that among the Russians the main faith was Christianity, the customs and traditions of the peoples of the Volga region had pagan roots. With enviable constancy, they celebrated such celebrations as Christmas time, Shrovetide, Semik-Trinity.

Tatars

Tatars belong to the Turkic group of the Altaic language family. If we consider ethnic composition these residents of the Volga region, in this respect they are diverse. Among them are the ancient Turkic, Bulgar, Kipchak and other Turkic-speaking tribes, as well as individual Finno-Ugric and Slavic.

Let the Tatars differ from each other in dialect and in territorial terms, yet they represent a single nation, which is characterized by a common literary language, a culture that includes folklore, music, religion, traditions of the peoples of the Volga region.

The population of Ulyanovsk is represented for the most part by Tatars who profess Islam. And today the inhabitants of the city do not deviate from the traditions of Islam, making attempts to develop it. These steps affect various aspects of life, including raising children, respect for elders, participation in colorful national holidays. At the same time, at the heart of their worldview, an important role is given to a respectful attitude towards other religions and cultures.

Chuvash

Chuvash are part of Turkic group Altaic language family. Based on the name given people lies the Bulgar tribe Suvar, Suvaz. It was the Bulgars and Suvaz, and with them the Finno-Ugric tribes of the Mari, who contributed to the emergence of the Chuvash ethnos.

For a long time, the Chuvash of the Ulyanovsk Volga region remained pagans, but everything changed when they joined the Russian state. Their pagan faith provided for a system where a large number of gods were present, headed by Thor. Among the gods were both good and evil. And one or another god, demonstrating his patronage, corresponded to a certain occupation of people. In the existing religious cult, there was a close connection with the cycle of agricultural work, which was attributed to the cult of ancestors.

In the 18-19 centuries. many representatives Chuvash people adopted Christianity. This led to the loss of the pagan faith in pure form. However, there was still duality. When it was time for such important events as christenings and weddings, they were held in the church. At the same time, among this people, along with ancient pagans, Christian names were also found.

Mordva

The Mordovian tribes meant the indigenous people, whose habitat was the interfluve of the Oka, Sura and the Middle Volga. This nation includes 2 main groups:

Erzya;
Moksha.

The first lived on the left bank of the river. Sura. As for the second, its place of residence was the basin of the river. Moksha. In the Ulyanovsk region, the majority of the inhabitants are Mordvin-Erzya.

Usually women of this nation wore a shirt made of white canvas, which had bright embroidery, where red, black, blue tones, which had interspersed with yellow and green. The festive traditional costumes of the peoples of the Volga region had their own differences, the Mari, like the Mordvinian outfit, played the role of an important attribute.

Erzyanki also had a ceremonial shirt, which was very often decorated with embroidery. Girls dressed in it on two occasions: when they came of age and when they got married.

In the folk holidays of the Mordovians, a connection with the agricultural calendar was traced. A lot of people gathered in the summer when they celebrated the Velozks holiday, which was held in honor of the patroness of the village (Vel-ava). In the modern period, they also continue to honor this tradition: often in the villages they hold a holiday of a remote or small village, and in some places - a holiday of traditional Mordovian cuisine.

The meeting of any such holiday invariably provided for a purposeful prayer, which complemented the performance of a certain set of magical rites. Moreover, along with public prayers, family prayers were also held. In this case, attention has already been paid to the interests of a particular family.

Connecting link

National costumes were determined primarily by the customs and traditions of the peoples of the Volga region, which took shape under the influence of environment and weather conditions. A characteristic feature for each is the finish. The ornament, rooted in prehistoric times, is not without reason called letters from the past. The faith of the ancestors in inscribed amulets created patterns that belonged only to this tribe or nationality, and was passed down from century to century. This is how the ornaments that have come down to us arose, serving, like embroidery and furs, as a kind of determinant of the belonging of a costume to a certain people. But just as the longest river in Europe connects all the peoples of the Volga region, so the main part of the national costume - a shirt (especially for women) - is common and feature for all national costumes of the peoples of these territories.

Common to all

So, the traditional costumes of the peoples of the Volga region have one common feature. The Soviet archaeologist and ethnographer Boris Alekseevich Kuftin called it a “tunic cut”: the shirts of all ethnic groups of the Volga region do not have shoulder seams. Of course, other peoples, such as the ancient Romans or the Japanese, lacked shoulder seams. This was explained primarily by the primitive conditions in which it was necessary to dye or paint clothes, or something else, but it is impossible not to note the fact that with the difference in national outfits, such a detail common to all costumes existed. The same, obviously, were the materials from which the clothes were sewn - hemp and linen. It can be assumed that crushed mother-of-pearl was also used in all Volga costumes. Basically, the traditional costumes of the peoples of the Volga region: Mordovian, Chuvash, Tatar, peoples of the Middle and Samara Volga regions - differ from each other.

Erzya and Moksha

For comparison, consider first Each nation, its origin, history is very diverse. Mordva, divided into two sub-ethnoses (Moksha and Erzya, having their own languages), is a Finno-Ugric people. Only a third lives in Mordovia, the rest - in adjacent regions and throughout Russia. They mostly profess Orthodoxy, but there are Molokans and Lutherans. And all this from century to century formed national clothes and was reflected in them. It must be said that for a long time water arteries were the only trade roads connecting neighbors. Communicating with each other, the peoples of the Volga region borrowed customs, customs, recipes from each other. national cuisines, got acquainted with traditions, adopted elements of outfits and jewelry.

Differences in costumes even within the same ethnic group

This is how the traditional costumes of the peoples of the Volga region were formed. The Mordovian women's outfit is intricate, while the men's outfit is simple and comfortable. It can be noted that the Moksha women wear the national costume all the time, and the Erzya women only on holidays. And this is not the only difference even in the national costume of one people. Common and absolute for them is the white color of the canvas, the cut of the shirt, the presence of beads and shells in the decorations, as well as the decoration of the outfits with embroidery. The men's clothing is uncomplicated and is very reminiscent of a Russian costume - a loose shirt, trousers tucked into onuchi. Panar and ponkst (shirt and trousers) were made of hemp for every day, and linen for festive occasions.

Mandatory Details

An integral part of the costume was a sash, or karks, with which a shirt was always girdled. He was given great importance. It was made, as a rule, of leather, had a buckle, simple in the form of a ring or decorated in every possible way.

Either weapons or tools were hung on the belt, warriors were distinguished by the belt. Over the shirt in the summer, Mordovian men put on a light white vest (Mushkas - for Moksha, Rutsya - for Erzi), in winter - a chapan, reminiscent of a Russian Armenian, straight cut, with long sleeves, a large smell and a wide collar, or a sheepskin coat cut off at the waist. The most common headdress was felted hats (white or black) with small margins, later, like the Russians, factory caps, in winter - hats with earflaps or malakhai. On the feet were bast shoes with footcloths or onuchs, on holidays - boots. Simple and convenient. But in order to dress up a Mordovian woman, it took several hours and two or three assistants.

Unique features

The traditional white shirt, decorated with embroidery, was shorter among the Mokshans, and therefore pants were added to it. The richly embroidered belt among the Erzyans was replaced by a pulai - a loincloth made of beads, sequins, beads, chains. For the first time, an Erzyanka girl put it on on the day of majority and did not take it off until old age. On the days of big holidays, it was worn over all this with red tassels, under which richly decorated towels were tucked on the sides. It was called selge pulogai. And for Moksha women, the rutsyat keska served as a belt decoration, put on several pieces at once and also very richly decorated. Thus, it is clear that the traditional costumes of the peoples of the Volga region, even within the same people, had significant differences. And according to them appearance and the manner of wearing it was possible to accurately determine the approximate age of a woman, social status and nationality.

Outerwear

On top of all of the above, Mordovian women put on a kind of sundress - kafton-krda. Sometimes they wore loose clothes rutsyu, resembling a sleeveless jacket above the knees. And the cover and color of the sub-ethnoses, they differed, as did the onuchi. Headdresses were complex structures reflecting age, family and social status. No decorations were spared for them. The demi-season clothing was the suman, just like the men. In winter, women wore sheepskin coats with a lot of frills under the cut-off waist. Shoes from men's are not very different. And, of course, women wore jewelry, Moksha women added bibs to traditional rings, beads, bracelets. It can be added that in the 19th century an apron was added to the Mordovian women's costume. On the example of the national costume of this ethnic group, it can be seen that the women's clothing of the peoples of the Volga region in terms of the number of things, intricacy and variety of jewelry and additions significantly exceeds the men's costume, and women's outfits of other nationalities are much simpler than Mordovian ones.

Bright details

The Turkic-speaking people (the second largest in the Russian Federation) Tatars are divided into three ethno-territorial groups, one of which is the Volga-Urals. All of them differ from each other, including national clothes. Comparing the traditional costumes of the peoples of the Volga region, Tatar can be distinguished immediately. He is characterized by rounded headdresses pointed upwards, wide-step harem pants, beshmets and very beautiful shoes made of embossed leather or embroidered velvet. Wide shirts, kazakins and camisoles in the waist are also characteristic. Straight caftans of blue color with sleeves cut from the shoulder, or chekmeni, reminiscent of ancient Turkic clothing. This suggests that a bright indicator of a person's nationality, which is a traditional costume, having passed long haul historical development, preserved the memory of distant ancestors.

Feature of the costume

A common feature of the clothes of all Tatars is its trapezoidal shape (the back was always fitted) and the presence of a shirt (kulmek) and pants (yshtan) in both men's and women's suits. The women's shirt differed only in length - sometimes it reached the ankle. The Tatar shirt differed from other tunic-shaped shirts included in all the traditional costumes of the peoples of the Volga region in width and length (for men it reached the knees) and a stand-up collar.

Women always had a bib under the shirt, which, as a rule, had a deep neckline. Rich Tatar women had shirts made of expensive imported fabrics. Pants differed in that for men they were sewn from striped fabrics (stripes), for women - from plain ones.

Graceful simplicity

Outerwear: kazakin, beshmet and chekmen - was overpacked, with a one-piece fitted back. The men also had a chapan for visiting the mosque. The obligatory attribute was the belt. And women's outerwear differed from men's only in decorations, for which they used fur, braid, embroidery and decorative stitching. Considering the traditional costumes of the peoples of the Volga region (Tatar, for example), we can draw the following conclusion: both male and female costumes are not very intricate, which does not make them less beautiful. They differ from each other in decorative details and a shirt, which in some versions resembles, rather, the main feature national clothes of any ethnic group is that it is closely connected with the life of this people, was formed over the centuries and was created by the entire ethnic community.

Costume of the Samara Volga region

The national clothes of the peoples of the Samara Volga region are the same for the poor and the rich. It is distinguished by the quality of workmanship, the beauty of materials, the high cost of decor. In Samara, in addition to Russians, Ukrainians, there are Chuvashs and a lot of Tatars. Therefore, the traditional costumes of the inhabitants of the Samara Volga region are not very different. So, the wide women's shirt kulmek, which underlies the national costume of the Samara Tatars, is divided into three types. The first of them is no different from the shirt described above - wide, straight, similar to a man's. It has a main straight panel and two lateral, widening downwards, straight, ribbon-lined slit on the chest. The sleeves were complemented by gussets, and a frill ran along the bottom of the hem. All the coolies were long. At the shirt of the second type, the frills rose to the hips, waist, sometimes to the chest. Coolmack of the third kind looked more like

The subtleties of the costumes of this territory of the Volga region

An obligatory accessory for the women's toilet was a camisole, which was worn over a coolmak and sewn from heavy fabrics. A distinctive feature was the close connection of the chest and neck decorations with the headdress. Elderly women wore a peculiar, richly decorated head scarf - orpek, richly decorated with tambour embroidery. By the manner in which the scarf was worn, it was possible to determine which Tatar group the woman belongs: to the Samara or Kazan Tatars. The costume of the men of the Samara Territory differed little from the clothes of other peoples of the Volga region. Unless the side wedges of the kulmak were wider, as a result of which they resembled. A short camisole with short sleeves was put on over the shirt, the last was the kazakin. In this region, Muslim men wore skullcaps richly embroidered with beads, the ornament on them was floral.

Distinctive features of the costumes of the Middle Volga region

The national costumes of the peoples of the Middle Volga region echo the above outfits, because Russians, Chuvashs, Mordovians and Tatars live here. For women's clothing the same shirt is characteristic. They wore it with a sundress of different cuts or with a pony - a woolen skirt with a richly decorated hem. The final detail was shugay - a short warm jacket. The role of a blouse worn over a shirt was performed by a cap, while away, shulpan or armlets. The men's suit was simple and therefore comfortable: a shirt with a sash, striped ports tucked into shoes. In winter - a warm loose caftan.

No striking differences

The traditional costumes of the peoples of the Volga region did not have striking differences. Chuvash also did not differ much, except perhaps for the names of parts. The same tunic-shaped shirt among the Chuvash was called seke, and pants with a wide step - yem. For women, the seke, decorated with beautiful embroidery, was worn with an overlap at the waist, and a zapon (apron) was put on over the shirt. Decorations made of metal plaques and coins were characteristic. Tukhya, the headdress of girls, was distinguished by its originality: its shape was cone-shaped, it was complemented by tika (decoration descending on the forehead) and headphones with ribbons. The headscarves of the Tatars of the Middle Volga region were called tuttar. It should be noted that it was the headdresses, especially women's ones, that distinguished the traditional costumes of the peoples of the Volga region. The Chuvash male costume differed from others mainly in the color of the pants: they were always white, the embroidery on the shirt along the neckline could be triangular in shape. Outerwear was decorated with appliqué and embroidery. The ornament adorned the chest, followed the smell and hem. The white straight-backed shupar robe had very narrow sleeves.

Already in the second half of the 16th century, Russians rushed to the Volga region. This happened during the period of granting estates and estates to people who served in the tsarist army, who lived at that time in the northern regions of the region. Many who chose this land as their new home were from the Muscovite state. Before the rest, adventurers, “walking” people, as well as vagrants decided to settle in the Volga region. All this population of the Volga region expected that, being far from the constant supervision of the authorities and masters, they would have more freedom and fewer problems.

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The process of formation of a settled Russian diaspora in the Trans-Volga region was finally completed by the 18th century. This was also helped by the fact that the Orenburg defensive line was being built here, designed to become an obstacle for the steppe nomads. When the peasants gained their freedom in 1861, most of them went to look for unoccupied fertile land, turning their attention to the southern part of the region. As people who arrived from different parts of the country mixed with local peoples a new type of inhabitant of the Volga region began to form, which was not similar to the population living in the central regions of Russia.

Tatars

They are considered a generation that arose from people from the Kazan or Astrakhan horde. If you pay attention to their physical type, then in this regard they have no equal in attractiveness among all the local residents of this region. Representatives of this nationality traditionally wear oriental clothes, an important feature of which is a significant length and width. In their attire there is a shirt of white or another color, providing for a sufficient width of the sleeve, which covers the body at the level below the knees. The belt is not included. It is worn together with a sleeveless camisole made on the basis of colorful silk fabric, a robe, which is girdled with a sash, and a fur coat was worn over it. Wealthy Tatars were distinguished by the fact that their outfits were sewn from finer cloth. The presence of a large number of gold jewelry indicated that this person very rich.

The Tatar population of the Volga region also stood out for its housing. The peculiarity was that the stove was necessarily separated from the rest of the space in the house with a curtain. Behind the latter, the female half was most often located. Those who lived in great prosperity owned a house where there were two halves, separated from each other by a passage. This room most often served for prayer. Carpets were laid in the living quarters, and chests with bright upholstery were placed next to the walls.

Kalmyks

This people is usually attributed to the western branch of the Mongols. The arrival of the Kalmyks modern territory This region took place at a time when the population density of the Volga region was extremely low - in the 17th century. Having decided to leave their home, which was Dzungaria in the southern part of Siberia and Mongolia, they, led by Khan Ho-Yurluk, settled on a large territory along right side lower reaches of the Volga. With their arrival, local nomads have already ceased to be the main force in these places.

The houses in which the Kalmyks lived fully took into account their way of life. Changing from one place to another, they moved along with the herds, having a yurt with them. This name was given to a portable dwelling, which resembled a felt hut, which provided for a wooden covering. From the decoration in such a dwelling, a low bed was presented, which had several felts. Not far from it there was a box used to store "burkhans" (idols).
Usually, in the attire of the Kalmyks, the main element was a robe or single-breasted beshmet, which was a complete copy of the clothes of the Caucasian highlanders. To gird the beshmet, a belt belt was pulled around the waist. In people who lived in prosperity, the belt was distinguished by the presence of iron plates that had silver notches. Kalmyks used sheepskin or fox fur coats as winter clothing.

Germans

This people at the beginning of the twentieth century formed a colony, the number of which at that time was about 400 thousand people. They chose the territory where the Samara and Saratov regions are now located as their place of residence. The settlement of these lands by colonists began after the manifestos of Empress Catherine II, the essence of which was to provide any inhabitant of Europe with the opportunity to choose new lands for habitation, which differ in the most favorable conditions. Those settlements that the Germans formed in this area can be compared with a state that arose within a state. They created a unique world that was unlike the neighboring world of the Russian population, which was clearly manifested in the faith, culture, language and way of life, as well as the character of the inhabitants. Particularly interesting in the light of this was the question of what is the natural increase in the population of the Volga region, given the arrival of settlers in these lands.