Stereotypes are always national, and if there are analogues in other cultures, then these are quasi-stereotypes, because, while coinciding in general, they differ in nuances, details that are of fundamental importance. For example, phenomena and the queue situation in different cultures are different, and therefore stereotyped behavior will also be different: in Russia they ask “Who is the last one?” or just stand in line, in a row European countries they tear off a ticket in a special apparatus and then follow the numbers that light up above the window, for example, at the post office.
So, a stereotype is a fragment of the conceptual picture of the world, a mental “picture”, a stable cultural and national idea (according to Yu. E. Prokhorov, “super stable” and “super fixed”) about an object or situation. It is a certain culturally determined idea of an object, phenomenon, situation. But this is not only a mental image, but also its verbal shell.
Belonging to a particular culture is determined precisely by the presence of a basic stereotypical core of knowledge that is repeated in the process of socialization of an individual in a given society, therefore stereotypes are considered to be precedent (important, representative) names in culture. A stereotype is such a phenomenon of language and speech, such a stabilizing factor that allows, on the one hand, to store and transform some of the dominant components of a given culture, and on the other hand, to express oneself among "one's own" and at the same time recognize "one's own".
At the heart of the formation of ethnic consciousness and culture as regulators of human behavior are both congenital and acquired in the process of socialization factors - cultural stereotypes that are assimilated from the moment a person begins to identify himself with a certain ethnic group, a certain culture and realize himself as their element. .
The mechanism for the formation of stereotypes are many cognitive processes, because stereotypes perform a number of cognitive functions - the function of schematization and simplification, the function of forming and storing group ideology, etc.
We live in a world of stereotypes imposed on us by culture. The totality of the mental stereotypes of an ethnic group is known to each of its representatives. Stereotypes are, for example, expressions in which a representative of a rural, peasant culture will speak of a bright moonlit night: it is light so that you can sew, while a city dweller in this typical situation will say: it is light so that you can read. Similar stereotypes are used by native speakers in standard communication situations. Moreover, practically any, and not just the logically main feature, can become dominant in the stereotype.
The cultural sphere of a certain ethnic group contains a number of elements of a stereotypical nature, which, as a rule, are not perceived by the bearers of another culture; these elements are called lacunae by Yu. A. Sorokin and I. Yu. created text, namely gaps.
The stability of culture, its viability are determined by how developed the structures that determine its unity, integrity. The integrity of culture involves the development of cultural stereotypes - stereotypes of goal-setting, behavior, perception, understanding, communication, etc., i.e. stereotypes overall picture peace. An important role in the formation of stereotypes is played by the frequency of occurrence of certain objects, phenomena in people's lives, often expressed in longer human contacts with these objects in comparison with others, which leads to the stereotyping of such objects.
A stereotype of behavior is the most important among stereotypes; it can turn into a ritual. In general, stereotypes have much in common with traditions, customs, myths, rituals, but they differ from the latter in that traditions and customs are characterized by their objectified significance, openness to others, while stereotypes remain at the level of hidden mindsets that exist among “their own”.
So, the stereotype is characteristic of the consciousness and language of a representative of culture, it is a kind of core of culture, its bright representative, and therefore the support of the individual in the dialogue of cultures.
To describe the language of a particular region in the light of linguoculturology, we use the scheme proposed by N.I. Tolstoy in ethnolinguistics: the literary language corresponds to the elite culture, dialects and dialects - folk culture etc.
This scheme can be used in the linguistic and cultural description of any other region.
the brightest linguistic feature, which reflects the culture of the people, are phraseological units and proverbs, metaphors and symbols. For example, mythologemes, archetypes, standards, stereotypes, customs, rituals, and beliefs are fixed in the language.
The national and cultural identity of phraseological units, metaphors, symbols is formed through cultural connotations. And yet we maintain that language is not the repository of culture.
The unit of language - the word - is only a signal, the function of which is to awaken the human consciousness, to touch certain concepts in it, ready to respond to this signal.
Language is only a mechanism that contributes to the coding and translation of culture. Texts are the true guardian of culture. Not the language, but the text displays spiritual world person. It is the text that is directly related to culture, because it is permeated with many cultural codes, it is the text that stores information about history, ethnography, national psychology, national behavior, i.e. about everything that constitutes the content of culture. In turn, the rules for constructing a text depend on the context of the culture in which it appears.
The text is built from the lower levels of linguistic units, which, if appropriately selected, can enhance the cultural signal. Phraseological units are such units in the first place.
Maslova V.A. Linguoculturology - M., 2001
The study of cultural stereotypes, their stability, selection is associated with the needs modern life, with the awareness of the fact that, formed by various circumstances, including accidents, limited knowledge, the image of the “other”, “another culture” in general, often very far from reality, has the same historical and cultural significance as reality itself . It is these images that guide many of us in our practical activities. Artificially created images-representations begin to play an active role in shaping the mentality of contemporaries and possibly subsequent generations.
Despite the stability of stereotypes and, at first glance, sufficient knowledge, their study in each new historical era is important scientific problem, if only because there is a constant voltage pulsation between the traditional installation and its erosion, between enrichment with new historical facts and rethinking already known. Despite sufficient attention on the part of researchers to this phenomenon, the explanation of the nature, emergence and functioning of stereotypes, as well as understanding the term "stereotype" itself, is still a problem.
At present, there is no consensus in scientific thought regarding its content. The term "stereotype" can be found in various contexts, where it is interpreted ambiguously: the standard of behavior, the image of a group or person, prejudice, cliché, "sensitivity" to cultural differences, etc. Initially, the term stereotype was used to refer to a metal plate used in printing to make subsequent copies. Today, a stereotype in general terms is understood as a relatively stable and simplified image of a social object, group, person, event, phenomenon, etc., emerging in conditions of information deficiency as a result of generalizing the personal experience of an individual and often preconceived notions accepted in society.
At the same time, stereotypes are often identified with traditions, customs, myths, and rituals. Despite the unconditional similarity of stereotypes with traditions and customs, it should be noted that stereotypes differ to a large extent from them in their psychological basis. The functional field of stereotypes lies mainly in the sphere of mental structures, while cultural traditions, customs and myths are the objectified results of their formation, fixed by rationalized (ideological, political, conceptual) or irrationalized (artistic-poetic, mystical-religious) ways and means. in which society is interested (or not interested).
In other words, traditions and customs are distinguished by their objectified universal significance, openness to others, while stereotypes are the product of the individual's hidden subjective mindsets. Myth, as an eternal way of ordering reality, is a product of collective belief and acts as an extremely successful mechanism for the emotional consolidation of society.
The author of the term, Walter Lippmann, understood stereotypes as: “... preconceived notions that decisively govern all processes of perception. They label certain objects, both familiar and unfamiliar, so that the barely familiar seem well known and the unfamiliar seem profoundly alien. W. Lippman explained the functioning of stereotypes through an analysis of the socio-psychological aspects of people's activities and considered stereotypes to be the mental material on which the public consciousness as a whole is based. Stereotypes, according to the scientist, streamline the world and facilitate the process of thinking of people, thanks to them a person feels confident. The scientist identified two main reasons that influence the emergence of stereotypes.
The first reason is the use of the principle of economy of effort, which is characteristic of everyday human thinking and is expressed in the fact that people tend not to react each time in a new way to new facts and phenomena, but try to bring them under existing categories. To abandon the economy of attention in favor of a pure experiential approach would undermine human existence. Thus, the process of stereotyping is always preceded by the process of categorization, as one of the ways of human cognition. surrounding reality.
The second reason for the formation of stereotypes is the protection of existing group values. Lippman called stereotypes a fortress that protects our traditions and pointed out that any encroachment on our stereotypes is regarded by us as an attack on the foundations of our worldview. Stability, rigidity, conservatism - these are the main characteristics of stereotypes according to W. Lippmann. The stereotype was studied by him in the system of those factors that cause its occurrence and determine its functioning.
The formation of stereotypes is based on the features of human thinking and the psyche. Firstly, this is concretization - the desire to explain abstract, and, therefore, difficult to digest concepts with the help of any accessible and understandable for the individual and all members of this community, real images. Secondly, this is a simplification, which boils down to highlighting one or more features as fundamental for the disclosure of complex phenomena. social factor The emergence of stereotypes is, as a rule, the presence of limited, one-sided experience.
In the late forties of the XX century, the most popular definition in Western scientific thought was the one proposed by the American psychosociologist Kimball Jung. The stereotype was understood by scientists as "a false classificatory concept, with which, as a rule, some social sensual-emotional tones of similarity and difference, approval or condemnation of another group are associated." In his definition, K. Jung emphasized the distorted nature of the assessment of phenomena and objects by stereotypes, and thus initiated the understanding of a stereotype as an erroneous assessment or prejudice about phenomena or groups of people.
In the future, the stereotype began to be perceived as an image or representation, obviously false, about a person or group. In Western science, the concept of a stereotype has increasingly become identified with ethnic or racial prejudice. As a result, there was a narrowing of the content of the concept of "stereotype" even in comparison with the original one, which was proposed by W. Lippman - these are images of any object or phenomenon that exist in the mind of a person and are manifested in his behavior. Now stereotypes are interpreted as a set of distorted ideas. Falsehood became so strongly associated with the concept of "stereotype" that the term "sociotype" was proposed to refer to standard but true knowledge about a sociocultural group.
Only in the late 1950s. O. Kleinberg's hypothesis about the presence of a "grain of truth" in this phenomenon became widespread. According to this hypothesis, stable simplified representations can be either true or false. The American researcher argued that "partially incorrect, superficial, limited stereotypes, however, generalize the real features of culture." Under the influence of Kleinberg's hypothesis, discussions arose again about the correspondence of stereotypes to true knowledge about objects and objects of the surrounding world. There is a tendency to identify stereotypes with generalizations of phenomena that really exist, although perhaps not in the form in which they are reflected.
However, it should be noted that some Western scholars who have studied the stereotype as a phenomenon of human psychology and culture generally do not consider the problem of containing a “grain of truth” in a stereotype to be worthy of attention. From their point of view, any generalization regarding the assessment of human behavior is already a stereotype.
In fact, the problem of the ratio of true and false in stereotypes is very important. The main difficulty in resolving this issue lies in the absence of a reliable criterion for determining the degree of truth of a judgment. Note that the truth, in this case, is understood as an adequate reflection of objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality. The evolution of views on the problem of the truth-falsity of stereotypes can be represented in the form of three stages. At the beginning, stereotypes were considered to be predominantly false formations. It was assumed that stereotypes, functioning both at the personal and collective levels, cannot act as an absolutely true reproduction of reality. Later, social stereotypes began to be understood primarily as a simplification, schematization of real objects. Simplification itself can be both false and true. The process of stereotyping is neither good nor bad, it performs the function of categorizing the social world that is objectively necessary for a person. The American psychosociologist E. Bogardus defined stereotyping as the lower stage of the evaluation process, but at the same time vital. Stereotyped perception arises from the great variety of groups and individuals and the inability for most busy people to weigh every reaction to every person. Thus, persons and groups are typified. Stereotyping plays an evaluative role and makes life easier in society.
A negative attitude towards stereotypes can be traced in the definition of another American researcher J. Wishman. The scientist identified the following main characteristics of the concept that underlies the stereotype:
1. the concept is rather simple than differentiated;
2. more erroneous than true;
3. it is rather acquired from others than received in direct experience with reality;
4. it is resistant to new experiences.
Stereotypes are effective, but unreliable. Thus, scientists point out the conditions for the emergence of stereotypes, namely the inadequacy of perception and the lack of contact with reality. In this case, the stability of this phenomenon is especially emphasized.
Today, the most common opinion is about the simultaneous truth and falsity of a stereotype. This is possible when a person's actions, due to "false" stereotypes, influence the further course of events in such a way that even false ideas and expectations come true, are validated in the eyes of the bearer of this stereotype. On this issue, we can agree with the opinion of P.N. Shikhirev, who argues that what is important in a stereotype is not truth itself, but conviction in it.
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A cultural stereotype is a certain canon of thoughts and perceptions, a stable reproduction of leisure activities, forms of behavior. On the one hand, a cultural stereotype helps an individual navigate situations, while a fixed form of prejudice plays a negative role, making it difficult to objectively assess the contradictions that arise in the course of development. public relations, the ambiguity of people's actions.
In a broad sense, a cultural stereotype as part of a worldview can be considered as a carrier of collective ideas, as an imprint of power relations, as a manifestation of implicit knowledge, as a component of motivation for social practice. Its versatile study is relevant, first of all, from the standpoint of the anthropological version of cultural studies, which, studying the specifics of the subject of cultural activity, is aimed at providing him with pragmatic, adaptive-appropriate knowledge.
The study of cultural stereotypes, their stability, selection is associated with the needs of modern life, with the realization of the fact that, formed by various circumstances, including accidents, limited knowledge, the image of the “other”, “another culture” as a whole, is often very far from reality. , has the same historical and cultural significance as reality itself. It is these images that guide many of us in our practical activities.
Despite the stability of stereotypes and, at first glance, sufficient knowledge, their study in each new historical era is an important scientific problem, if only because there is a constant pulsation of tension between the traditional setting and its erosion, between enrichment with new historical facts and rethinking of the already known. Despite sufficient attention on the part of researchers to this phenomenon, the explanation of the nature, emergence and functioning of stereotypes, as well as understanding the term "stereotype" itself, is still a problem.
At present, there is no consensus in scientific thought regarding its content. The term "stereotype" can be found in various contexts, where it is interpreted ambiguously: a standard of behavior, an image of a group or a person, prejudice, a cliché, "sensitivity" to cultural differences.
Initially, the term stereotype was used to refer to a metal plate used in printing to make subsequent copies. Today, a stereotype in general terms is understood as a relatively stable and simplified image of a social object, group, person, event, phenomenon, emerging in conditions of information deficiency as a result of generalizing the personal experience of an individual and often preconceived notions accepted in society.
At the same time, stereotypes are often identified with traditions, customs, myths, and rituals. Despite the absolute similarity of stereotypes with traditions and customs, it should be noted that stereotypes differ from them to a large extent in their psychological basis.
The functional field of stereotypes lies mainly in the sphere of mental structures, while cultural traditions, customs and myths are the objectified results of their formation, fixed by rationalized (ideological, political, conceptual) or irrationalized (artistic-poetic, mystical-religious) ways and means. in which society is interested (or not interested).
In other words, traditions and customs are distinguished by their objectified general significance, openness to others, while stereotypes are the product of hidden subjective mindsets.
By their nature, stereotypes are sensually colored images that accumulate the social and psychological experience of communication and interactions of individuals. Having such a nature, stereotypes have a number of qualities: integrity, value coloring, stability, conservatism, emotionality, rationality, etc. Thanks to these qualities, stereotypes perform their various functions and tasks, of which the following are of particular importance for the process of intercultural communication:
explanation of human actions by providing ready-made and simple information about their specific socio-cultural characteristics;
foresight various forms behavior from communication partners;
formation of the foundations of one's own behavior in relation to interlocutors and partners;
protection of traditions, customs, habits, one's own culture, apology of one's own co-cultural group;
providing members of society with relevant standards, models, standards of behavior;
stabilization and integration of relations between sociocultural groups in society.
Stereotypes are rigidly “built into” our value system, they are an integral part of it and provide a kind of protection for our positions in society. For this reason, stereotypes are used in every intercultural situation. Mechanisms of intercultural perception set in motion the selective application of the norms and values of the native culture. Without the use of these extremely common cultural specific ways assessments, both of one's own group and of other cultural groups, cannot be dispensed with. Representatives of another group are identified by such characteristics as gender, ethnicity, speech characteristics, appearance, skin color, marriage customs, religious beliefs, etc. cultural stereotype tradition
The relationship between the cultural affiliation of a particular person and the character traits attributed to him is usually not adequate. People belonging to different cultures have a different understanding of the world, which makes communication from a “single” position impossible. Guided by the norms and values of his culture, a person himself determines what facts and in what light to evaluate, which significantly affects the nature of our communication with representatives of other cultures.
For example, when communicating with Italians gesticulating animatedly during a conversation, Germans who are accustomed to a different style of communication may develop a stereotype about the “irritability” and “disorganization” of Italians. In turn, the Italians may develop a stereotype about the Germans as "cold" and "reserved", etc.
Depending on the ways and forms of use, stereotypes can be useful or harmful for communication. Stereotyping helps people understand the situation and act according to new circumstances in the following cases:
if it is consciously adhered to: the individual must understand that the stereotype reflects group norms and values, group traits and signs, and not specific qualities inherent in an individual from this group;
if the stereotype is descriptive, not evaluative: this involves the reflection in stereotypes of the real and objective qualities and properties of people in this group, but not their evaluation as good or bad;
if the stereotype is accurate: this means that the stereotype must adequately express the signs and traits of the group to which the person belongs;
if the stereotype is only a guess about the group, but not direct information about it: this means that the first impression of the group does not always give reliable knowledge about all the individuals of this group;
if the stereotype is modified, i.e. based on further observations and experience with real people or comes from the experience of a real situation.
In a situation of intercultural contacts, stereotypes are effective only when they are used as the first and positive guess about a person or situation, and are not considered as the only true information about them.
Stereotypes become ineffective and impede communication when, focusing on them, people are mistakenly assigned to the wrong groups, group norms are incorrectly described, when stereotypes are mixed with the description of a certain individual, and when it is not possible to modify stereotypes based on real observations and experience. In such cases, stereotypes can become a serious obstacle to intercultural contacts.
In general, the following reasons are distinguished, due to which? stereotypes can hinder intercultural communication:
if stereotypes cannot be revealed individual characteristics people: stereotyping assumes that all members of a group have the same traits. This approach is applied to the whole group? E and to an individual over a certain period of time, despite individual variations;
if stereotypes repeat and reinforce certain erroneous beliefs and beliefs until people begin to accept them as true;
if stereotypes are based on half-truths and distortions. While retaining the real characteristics of the stereotyped group, stereotypes at the same time distort reality and give inaccurate ideas about the people with whom intercultural contacts are made.
People retain their stereotypes, even if the reality and their life experience contradict them. In this regard, in a situation of intercultural contacts, it is important to be able to deal effectively with stereotypes, i.e. be aware of and use them, as well as be able to refuse them if they do not correspond to reality.
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only the cases pursued by enterprises are important, but on the mutual dependence of business and society.
Until now, a deep understanding of this relationship is often lacking for both Russian entrepreneurs and society as a whole, as a result of which all parties suffer.
Thus, the German model and the experience gained from studying it in the field of business communications can help to fulfill a vital role in Russia - to spread and strengthen the correct ideas about business in society, i.e., first of all, about the possibility of realizing one's own potential through labor -
wear, and not a means of easy money. In addition, society needs to educate citizens in the understanding that occupation own business- the process is long-term and difficult, and you need to be prepared for this. It is also not a way to keep yourself busy as a business owner, but a responsible process that has a huge impact on society. It is also absolutely obvious that
satiety
domestic
will face incomparably tougher competition and will be forced to use
all the possibilities of working with society provided by communication technologies, as demonstrated by the German experience.
REFERENCES
1. Baikov S. V. Communication technologies in the business sphere: tools and socio-cultural aspects: dis. ... cand. philol. Sciences. M., 2007.
2. Vodovozova E. How people live in this world. SPb., 1904, p. 40-45.
Received 10.06.08.
STEREOTYPES OF NATIONAL CULTURE IN INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
A. A. Panyagin
Every people, every nation has its own ideas about the world around it, certain stereotypes are formed - both about themselves, behavior and traditions.
In the encyclopedic dictionary, a social stereotype is defined as “a schematic, standardized image or representation of a social phenomenon or object, usually an emotional
tions within their cultural spatially colored and possessing a large
stva, and with respect to representatives of another linguistic and cultural space. Fe-
stability ... expresses the habitual attitude of a person to any phenomenon, formed under the influence of social conditions and previous experience ... ".
For a long time, there has been a controversy about the definition of the concept of “ste-There are different points of view regarding the reotype”, attempts are being made to identify ways to form
the nomen and the concept of "stereotype" attract the attention of researchers (I. S. Kon, V. V. Krasnykh, U. Lippman, I. Yu. Markovina, A. V. Pavlovskaya, Yu. A. Sorokin, N. V. Ufimtseva and etc.).
about this problem. We will consider the stereotype phenomenon as a concept that includes the ideas of one nation about the culture of another nation as a whole.
formation and dissemination of national stereotypes in society, the issue of their influence on relations between peoples is discussed.
mi. There is no consensus among researchers
lei and regarding the legitimacy of using the word “stereotype” itself. The concept of a stereotype in modern humanities is interdisciplinary in nature. Initially developed on the basis of sociology and social psychology since the 1920s, the concept of a stereotype later became the subject of analysis from the point of view of communication theory, ethnology, the history of literature and culture, and the philosophy of language. National stereotypes are studied in different sciences - sociology, psychology, political science, philology, history, and each science interprets this phenomenon in its own way.
The term "stereotype" [from the Greek. stereos is solid, typos is an imprint] introduced into scientific circulation by the American sociologist W. Lippmann. This term received universal recognition thanks to his work "Public Opinion" (1922), which defined stereotypes as "the pictures in our minds" (the pictures in our heads). All further definitions of a stereotype as a linguistic, philosophical, socio-psychological (ethnographic, cultural-behavioral) phenomenon are somehow based on Lippmann's definition, to some extent emphasizing various aspects of this phenomenon - its static character, assertiveness, hypertrophy (tendentiousness) . Developing the concept of a stereotype from the point of view of social psychology, U. Lippmann noted important feature of this concept - focus on a certain perfect image world, which is formed in the minds of representatives of a particular community, and the ability to meet public expectations.
Stereotypes allow a person to form an idea of the world as a whole, to go beyond the narrow social, geographical and political environment. Lippmann wrote that stereotypes are so persistently passed down from generation to generation that they are often reproduced
accepted as a given, a reality, a biological fact. If personal experience contradicts the stereotype, most often one of two things happens: a person is inflexible, not interested for some reason in changing his views, or simply does not notice this contradiction, or considers him an exception,! confirming the rule, and usually just forgets about it. A receptive, inquisitive person, when a stereotype collides with reality, changes the perception of the world around him.
Lippmann not only introduced the term "stereotype" into scientific circulation, gave it a definition, but also emphasized the importance of this phenomenon. The researcher came to the conclusion that the system of stereotypes “...perhaps is pivotal in our personal tradition, it protects our place in society...and also saves time in our busy lives and helps
save us from confusing attempts |
see the world as sustainable and embrace it as a whole.” With this understanding, ste- | rheotype, two of its important features stand out: ! firstly, it is determined by culture, and secondly | | second, is a means of saving labor | | output efforts and, accordingly, linguistic | funds.
If Lippmann laid the theoretical
basics of the study of stereotypes, the American |
which scientists K. Braley and D. Katz in 1933 developed | worked the technique that subsequently received! widespread and long years| which has become decisive for researchers | national stereotypes. Brailey and Katz op | defined the ethnic stereotype as "sustainable" | chivoe representation, little consistent with | | the realities that it seeks to pre- | put, and arising from the property inherent in man, first determine the phenomenon, and then
already watch it." I
World War II gave a new impetus | to the study of ethnic stereotypes. She clearly showed how big role are playing | traditional sustainable views on- | childbirth about each other, how important it is to study the ways of formation (and, consequently, the impact) of such ideas.
Most of the works devoted to the problems of studying ethnic stereotypes that were published during the period under review are based on materials from sociological surveys.
dew. Thus, at the initiative of UNESCO, a large-scale study was conducted to identify how representatives of one country perceive the peoples of other countries, as well as what factors determine their perception. Psychologist O. Klenberg, proana-
different planes of the language - formal (phraseology, language clichés, formulaicity, principles of compatibility within language structures, etc.) or semantic (semantic connotations of language units accompanying the main / primary meaning). For
lysing the results of this study, the linguistic study of the stereotype specifically defined the concept of "ethnic stereotype" important aspects such as
as a picture in people's minds regarding their own or other national groups. He believed that such images or representations are usually widespread in society.
society; as a rule, they are extremely primitive and immune to objective reality.
In Russia, the problems of studying stereotypes were not given such attention as in the West. At the same time, a number of interesting and original concepts have been developed in our country. The concept of N. A. Erofeev, which is based on historical material, seems interesting and scientifically substantiated. The author, although he refuses the term "stereotype", pays considerable attention to the problems of perception of each other by nations. After all, “ethnic ideas,” he believes, “are, as it were, the result of learned information, the result of its processing and a generalized conclusion from it, they often affect relations between nations, ethnic groups and states.”
In ethnolinguistics, the term "stereotype" refers to the content side of the language and culture, that is, it is understood as a mental (mental) stereotype that correlates with the picture of the world. Language picture
of the world and the linguistic stereotype are correlated as part and whole, while the linguistic stereotype is understood as a judgment or several judgments relating to a certain object of the extralinguistic world.
The concept of a stereotype has turned out to be widely in demand in modern linguistics (works by E. Bartminsky, E. L. Berezovich, U. Quasthoff, I. M. Kobozeva, L. P. Krysin, I. Panasyuk, V. A. Plungyan, E. V. Rakhilina and others). From the standpoint of linguists, stereotypes are conventionally established semantic and/or formal constructions that form the cultural and linguistic image of an object; Thus, within the framework of the linguistic approach, the stereotype can refer to two different sciences, we can draw the following conclusions:
stereotype and its linguistic sign, stereotype and word meaning (stereotype and cognitive semantics), stereotype cognitive structure, ways of conceptualizing linguistic reality. A stereotype is also understood as a subjectively determined representation of an object in which descriptive and evaluative features coexist and which is the result of the interpretation of reality within the framework of socially developed cognitive models.
In the works of the above linguists, it is noted that ethnocultural stereotypes perform the following functions:
The function of socio-ethnic integration. The stereotype, on the one hand, satisfies the mental need to save cognitive effort, on the other hand, the social need to maintain the internal cohesion of the community and its opposition to other human communities;
Protective function ethnic stereotypes is manifested in the fact that they contribute to the preservation of the traditional system of values both in relation to their own community (autostereotypes) and in relation to "strangers" (heterostereotypes);
The communicative function of ethnic stereotypes serves to exchange information between representatives of "one's own" community (how to identify "one's own" among "strangers" and "alien" among "one's own");
with the help of the cognitive function of ethnic stereotypes, an image of the outside world and one's own microcosm is formed;
The manipulating function of ethnic stereotypes lies in the fact that, under certain conditions, they can act as an instrument of mental influence on the masses for ideological and political purposes.
After analyzing the concept of "stereotype" in
Each person has an individual personal experience, a special form of perception of the surrounding world, on the basis of which the so-called “picture of the world” is created in his head, which includes an objective part and a subjective assessment of reality by an individual. The stereotype is part of this picture;
Most scientists involved in the study of this problem note that the main feature of stereotypes is their cultural determinism: a person's ideas about the world are formed under the influence of the cultural environment in which he lives;
The stereotypes shared by the majority of people may change depending on the historical, international, as well as domestic political situation in a particular country;
A stereotype is not only a mental image, but also its verbal shell, that is, stereotypes can also exist at the linguistic level - in the form of a norm.
Thus, a stereotype is a relatively stable, generalizing image or a set of characteristics (often false) that are characteristic of representatives of their own cultural and linguistic space or representatives of other nations; a person's idea of the world, which is formed under the influence of the cultural environment (in other words, it is a culturally determined idea), existing both in the form of a mental image and in the form of a verbal shell; the process and result of communication (behavior) according to certain semiotic models. A stereotype (as a generic concept) includes a standard, which is a non-linguistic reality, and a norm that exists at the linguistic level. Stereotypes can be both characteristics of another nation, and everything related to the ideas of one nation about the culture of another nation as a whole: general concepts, norms of speech communication, behavior, moral and etiquette norms, traditions, customs, etc.
Using the definition of a stereotype in its broadest sense in the context national culture, it is advisable to consider some common features character of a social group. In this case, one speaks of a national character.
The concept of character in psychology is used to denote a set of stable individual traits personalities that are manifested in its activities and communication. In the past, it was assumed that each people has its own special "spirit", and the problem of national character rested on clarifying the features of this "spirit". From this point of view, the national character is understood as a stable complex of values, attitudes, and behavioral norms specific to a given culture. National specificity is revealed when comparing the norms and traditions of communication between different peoples.
People perceive ethno-cultural stereotypes, which are understood by many as a myth, as patterns that must be met. Therefore, stereotyped ideas about the features of the national character have a certain influence on people, stimulating in them the formation of those character traits and those norms of speech behavior that are reflected in pragmatic clichés, which are an important factor in international relations.
In the works of many researchers, the national character appears as a specific set of real features of the nation. Noting national specifics of every nation, it includes: self-consciousness, habits, tastes, traditions associated with national feelings, national culture, way of life, national pride And national stereotypes in relation to other peoples. It turned out that most people have very stable stereotypes in relation to a certain national character, i.e., the conviction that representatives of some nations demonstrate fairly stable ideas about the existence of specific complexes of traits in other nations. It is important that often these stereotypes depend on how this nation "behaves" in a given time period.
According to D. B. Parygin, “the fact of the existence of psychological characteristics various social groups strata and classes of society, as well as nations and peoples. N. Dzhandildin also comes from a similar view, who defines the national character as “the
number of specific psychological traits that have become more or less
nor characteristic of one or another socio-ethnic community in specific economic, cultural and natural conditions its development".
S. M. Harutyunyan, who also recognizes the existence of a national character, or " psychological warehouse nation", defines it as "a kind of national flavor of feelings and emotions, ways of thinking and acting, stable and national traits habits and traditions that are formed under the influence of the conditions of material life, features historical development given nation and manifested in the specifics of its national culture.
A fairly common opinion is about the national character, according to which it is not a set of specific, peculiar features for a given people, but a peculiar set of universal universal human features. V. G. Kostomarov in a plenary report at the opening of the “Week of the Russian Language in France” in March 1998
said the same about national culture: “National culture is by no means a set of unique features inherent in given people, but a specific set of universal human traits and ideas. Yu. V. Bromley also spoke "only about the relative specifics of the traits of the national character, the nuances of their manifestation."
In the process of perceiving the stereotypes of the culture of another people, a certain attitude is formed towards them. Most often they are perceived as something alien. This is how a conflict of cultures arises - the result of discrepancies between what is accepted (and these are stereotypes) in one's own and someone else's culture for the recipient. Clash of cultural stereotypes (i.e. cultural conflict) can create communication difficulties, cause “culture shock” and thus lead to a misunderstanding of the culture of another people.
There are autostereotypes that reflect what people think about themselves, and heterostereotypes that refer to other peoples are more critical than autostereotypes. For example, what is considered a manifestation of prudence among one's own people, is considered a manifestation of greed by another people. As an illustration, let us cite the stereotypical ideas of Russians in relation to the Germans.
1. Love for beer. It cannot be said that beer was some kind of nationally specific drink for the Germans. Other nations also drink beer. But at the same time everyone admits that beer is such a German invention that the whole of Germany, we can safely say, flows with this foamy drink of amber, pale yellow, brown or milky brown color. "Passion for beer and skill excellent
cook it
characteristic German
tsev, and in this they differed from the most ancient times. Already in the Middle Ages, therefore, most researchers of the century considered beer to be one of the main drinks.
Lei adhere to the point of view that the national character is a set of character traits inherent in a particular nation. In our opinion, such an understanding of the national character is rather narrow. We agree with S. M. Harutyunyan, who defines the national character as a set of character traits, traditions, habits of a particular nation, formed under the influence of the cultural and historical development of this country. Thus, it is possible to draw a parallel between the two concepts - "national
nalnyi character" and "stereotype": they are equivalent to each other, identical. Their difference lies only in the fact that the concept of "national character" is generic, and "stereotype" is specific, that is, part of the national
th character.
The Germans call beer flüssiges Brot, which literally translates as "liquid bread".
2. The bureaucracy of the Germans, about which the Russians have heard, is by no means a myth. In order to spend at least a couple of days in Germany, a foreigner must fill out a lot of forms.
3. Attitude to business. Deutsch sein heisst, eine Sache um ihrer selbst willen treiben, which literally means "Being a German means doing things for its own sake." This catchphrase goes back to Richard Wagner's Deutsche Kunst und deutsche Politik (1867), where he writes: "...was deutsch sei: nämlich, die Sache, die man treibt, um ihrer selbst und der Freude an ihr willen treiben... "(The Germans are hardworking and ready to bring any business to
end, often victorious.) We believe that such an attitude to business arose from a love of order.
4. The Germans are famous for accuracy, love for order, cleanliness, punctuality. Everything that is done in everyday life must be done properly, superficiality in business is not approved in Germany. The love of the Germans for order was also reflected in the proverbs:
Ordnung ist das halbe Leben. (Order is the soul of every business.)
Ordnung muss sein. (Must be in order.)
Heilige Ordnung, segensreiche Himmelstochter. (The holy order is the blessed son of heaven.)
5. Rudeness / arrogance. Many Russians tend to think that the Germans are a rude nation, but in reality they are just straight forward. Any German will almost always tell you what he really thinks. Germans are considered arrogant because their language sounds arrogant and because they think they know everything (even if they really don't).
6. There are a lot of rules and regulations in Germany, and to foreigners, especially Russians, they seem not very important. If you break the generally accepted rules, it will immediately become clear to a German that you are a foreigner.
7. Lack of sense of humor. It cannot be said that the Germans do not have a sense of humor, it is simply different from that of the Russians, and manifests itself differently in different situations. To us, German humor may seem serious because of the bureaucracy of the Germans, the large number of rules and regulations, and the Germans' proverbial love of order.
8. Germans use the handshake gesture wherever they are and whoever they meet. A handshake is considered a courtesy. Only young people and close friends replace the handshake with some other gesture.
Willy Hellpach (1877-1955), German physician and psychologist, Minister of Culture of Baden-Württemberg and subsequently Prime Minister of this land, in 1954 published the book The German Character. In it, he analyzes the main features of the German character. According to the author, despite
all the changes and vicissitudes of historical j
situations, in the German character especially
stable and unchanged were the main j
other properties: Schaffensdrag “thirst for creative activity”; Gründlichkeit "thoroughness"; Ordnungsliebe "love of order"; j Eigensinn, Dickkopfigkeit “willfulness”, “stubborn;
stvo"; Vertraumtheit "dreaming" and j
Manierverachtung "neglect of good [manners]."
A. V. Pavlovskaya distinguishes between two categories!
stereotypes: superficial and deep. Superficial stereotypes - j
these are those ideas about this or that people, \
which are due to historical, international
native, internal political situation or j other temporary factors. These stereo | types change depending on the situation in the first world and society. Their duration would be j
!
creatures. These are, as a rule, representational images; niya associated with specific historical
mi realities. Surface stereotypes I
are of undoubted interest before i
only for historians, as well as anyone who is interested in j
influenced by socio-political processes, j
taking place in society. I
Unlike surface, deep |
stereotypes are unchanged. They don't change in I
time flow. Deep stereotypes about - I
get along with amazing stability, and name-I
but they are of the greatest interest! to study the characteristics of the national !
character: the stereotypes themselves give the mother j
al for the study of the people who are- I
Xia the object of stereotyping, and characterization assessments | | they therize the features of the group in which j they are common.
At the heart of the formation of ethnic co- |
knowledge and culture as regulators of j
human behaviors act as innate, j
and acquired in the process of socialization
tion factors - cultural stereotypes that j
rye are assimilated from the moment as soon as j
man begins to identify himself with |
a certain ethnic group, a certain culture |
swarm and be aware of oneself as their element. Owl-I
the number of mental stereotypes of the ethnos j
known to every member. Stereo-I
types are used by native speakers in j
gift situations of communication. And domini!
practicing in a stereotype can become a practitioner!
logically any, and not just logically the main behavior of a person in any society is typical
The stability of culture, its viability are determined by how developed the structures that determine its unity, integrity. The integrity of culture involves the development of cultural stereotypes - stereotypes of behavior, perception, understanding, communication, i.e. stereotypes of the general picture of the world. V. A. Maslova emphasizes that an important role in the formation of stereotypes is played by the frequency of occurrence of certain objects, phenomena in people's lives, often expressed in longer human contacts with these objects in comparison with others, which leads to the stereotyping of such objects.
Note that the behavior of each person is individual and diverse, but, despite
zirovanno, ie, it obeys the norms developed in a given society.
So, stereotypes exist in any society, but it is especially important to emphasize that the set of stereotypes for each of them is purely specific. The regulation of human behavior within the native cultural and linguistic space is greatly influenced by cultural stereotypes, which begin to be assimilated precisely from the moment when a person begins to realize himself as part of a certain ethnic group, part of a certain culture. Thus, we can distinguish two forms of behavior in a particular socio-cultural space: free, variable behavior (individual for each person) and regulated behavior, subject to stereotypes existing in a given society.
] on this, it is safe to say that PAM behavior.
REFERENCES
1. Harutyunyan S. M. Nation and its mental warehouse. Krasnodar, 1966.
2. Bromley Yu. V. Ethnos and ethnography. M., 1975.
3. Vodovozova E. N. How people live in this world. Germans. SPb., 1904.
4. Dzhandildin N. The nature of national psychology. Alma-Ata, 1971.
5. Erofeev N. A. Foggy Albion. M., 1982.
6. Maslova V. A. Linguistics of culture. M., 2001.
7. New illustrated encyclopedic dictionary / ed. count : V. I. Borodulin [et al.] M. : Great Russian Encyclopedia, 2000.
8. Pavlovskaya A. V. Ethnic stereotypes in the light of intercultural communication / / Vestn. Moscow State University. Ser. 19. Linguistics and intercultural communication. 1998. No. 1.
9. Parygin D. B. Public mood. M., 1966.
10. Katz D., Braly K. Racial Stereotypes in One Hundred College Students // Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 1933 Vol. 28.
stereotypes like cultural phenomenon
Human consciousness is endowed with the ability to reflect the objective reality surrounding a person, and this reflection is a subjective image of the objective world, that is, a certain model, a picture of the world. When reality is objectified by consciousness, the mechanisms of stereotyping are activated. The reflection of a fragment of the picture of the world in the mind of an individual results in a stereotype, a fixed mental “picture” [Krasnykh 2002:177-178]. Thus, from a meaningful point of view, a stereotype is a certain stable fragment of the picture of the world stored in the mind.
The phenomenon of “stereotype” itself is considered not only in the works of linguists, but also in the works of sociologists, ethnographers, cognitive scientists, psychologists, ethnopsycholinguists (W.Lippman, I.S. Kon, Yu.D. Apresyan, V.A. Ryzhkov, Yu.E. Prokhorov, V. V. Krasnykh, V. A. Maslova).
Social stereotypes manifest themselves as stereotypes of thinking and behavior of the individual. Ethnocultural stereotypes are a generalized idea of the typical features that characterize a nation. German accuracy, Russian "maybe", Chinese ceremonies, African temperament, Italian temperament, Finns' stubbornness, Estonians' slowness, Polish gallantry - stereotypical ideas about a whole nation that apply to each of its representatives.
In cognitive linguistics and ethnolinguistics, the term stereotype refers to the content side of language and culture, i.e. is understood as a mental (thinking) stereotype that correlates with the “naive picture of the world”. Such an understanding of the stereotype is found in the works of E. Bartminsky and his school; the linguistic picture of the world and the linguistic stereotype are correlated as part and whole, while the linguistic stereotype is understood as a judgment or several judgments relating to a certain object of the extralinguistic world, a subjectively determined representation of an object in which descriptive and evaluative features coexist and which is the result of an interpretation of reality within the framework of socially developed cognitive models. We consider as a linguistic stereotype not only a judgment or several judgments, but also any set expression, consisting of several words, for example, a stable comparison, a cliché, etc.: a person of Caucasian nationality, gray as a harrier, a new Russian. The use of such stereotypes facilitates and simplifies communication, saving the strength of communicants.
A stereotype is interpreted in modern social sciences as "a set of stable, simplified generalizations about a group of individuals, which makes it possible to distribute members of the group into categories and perceive them in a stereotyped way, according to these expectations." However, the stereotype extends not only to groups of subjects. It also expresses the habitual attitude of a person to any phenomenon or event. Stereotypes are formed in the process of personality socialization [Ryzhkov 1988:11] and are formed under the influence of social conditions and previous experience.
In linguoculturology, the following types of stereotypes are distinguished: simple and figurative. Both have autostereotypes and heterostereotypes. (think of examples).
Stereotypes are always national, and if there are analogues in other cultures, then these are quasi-stereotypes, because, while coinciding in general, they differ in nuances, details that are of fundamental importance. For example, the phenomena and the situation of the queue in different cultures are different, and therefore, stereotyped behavior will also be different: in Russia, they ask “Who is the last one?” or they simply stand in line, in a number of European countries they tear off a ticket in a special apparatus and then follow the numbers that light up above the window, for example, in the post office.
According to Harutyunyan, "a peculiar national flavor of feelings and emotions, ways of thinking and actions, stable and national features of habits and traditions, formed under the influence of the conditions of material life, the features of the historical development of a given nation and manifested in the specifics of its national culture." In other words - a set of character traits inherent in a particular nation.
Ethnic cultural stereotypes cannot be considered separately from the culture of communication, since interethnic communication is not an isolated area. social life, but a mechanism that ensures the coordination, functioning of all elements of human culture.
The culture of interethnic communication is a system of specific this ethnic group stereotyped forms, principles, methods of communicative activity. The system of ethnocultural stereotypes is specially adapted to perform socially significant functions in the life of an ethnic group.
Ethnic stereotypes in situations of intercultural communication act as "guides" of behavior. Based on the formed ideas, we predict in advance the behavior of representatives of another ethnic group, and unwittingly, we set a distance in the process of intercultural communication.
The perception of another ethnic group is a direct reaction to contact with a foreign ethnic environment. Usually, perception goes through the prism of one's ethnic "I", that is, a certain traditional stereotype of thinking and behavior, determined by ethnicity. Now, when ethnic differences dominate the behavior of people more and more, determining the nature of the perception of other ethnic groups, intercultural communication gives rise to many problems.
The basis for the formation of ethnic stereotypes are cultural differences, which are easily perceived in intercultural interaction. Being formed in the zone of ethno-cultural contacts on the basis of systems of ethnic ideas about the imaginary and actual features of one's own and others ethnic groups, stereotypes are fixed at a subconscious level as an unquestionable imperative in relation to representatives of other ethnic cultures.
