PERSONALITY ORIENTATION
The term personality orientation goes back to the works of W. Stern (Richtungsdipositionen) and is translated as “the dominant correct attitude”. The solution of the issue of orientation always involves an indication of what the personality is directed to, therefore, they talk about the orientation of the interests, tastes, views, desires of a person, which indicates the selectivity, individuality and uniqueness of the individual.
Orientation acts as the leading content characteristic of the personality, its system-forming property, which determines its entire psychological make-up.
In different concepts, the orientation is revealed in different ways: as a “dynamic tendency” (Rubinshtein), “sense-forming motive” (Leontiev), “dominant attitude” (Myasishchev), “subjective relations of the personality” (Lomov), “dynamic organization of the essential forces of a person” (Prangishvili), "the main life orientation" (Ananiev).
In the study of the orientation of the personality in domestic psychology, there were various scientific schools and directions:
1) understanding of orientation through needs and motives (S.L. Rubinshtein, A.N. Leontiev, L.I. Bozhovich, Yu.M. Orlov);
2) the theory of significance (N.F. Dobrynin);
3) the theory of personality relations (V.N. Myasishchev, B.F. Lomov);
4) installation theory (D.N. Uznadze).
A. V. Petrovsky and M. G. Yaroshevsky (dictionary)
In the psychological dictionary edited by A.V. Petrovsky and M.G. Yaroshevsky, the following definition of the orientation of the personality is given: “The orientation of the personality is set of sustainable motives, orienting the activity of the individual and relatively independent of the actual situations. The orientation of a personality is characterized by its interests, inclinations, beliefs, ideals, in which the worldview of a person is expressed ”(Psychology. Dictionary. / Under the general editorship of A.V. Petrovsky, M.G. Yaroshevsky. - M., 1990. - p. 230).
The same dictionary reveals the components that make up the orientation of the personality.
Interests- a form of manifestation of a cognitive need, ensuring the orientation of the individual to the realization of the goals of activity and thereby contributing to orientation, familiarization with new facts. Interest can turn into addiction.
inclinations- the selective orientation of the individual to a certain activity, which encourages him to engage in it. The basis of the propensity is a deep, stable need of the individual in a particular activity, the desire to improve the skills associated with this activity.
Beliefs- a conscious need of the individual, prompting her to act in accordance with her value orientations. The content of needs, acting in the form of persuasion, reflects a certain understanding of nature and society. Forming an ordered system of views (political, philosophical, aesthetic, natural sciences, etc.), the totality of beliefs acts as a person's worldview.
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General psychology.Dictionary / Under. ed. A.V. Petrovsky // Psychological lexicon. encyclopedic Dictionary in six volumes / Ed.-comp. L.A. Karpenko. Under total ed. A.V. Petrovsky. - M.: PER SE, 2005. - 251 p.
The dictionary "General Psychology" covers theoretical and methodological aspects psychological knowledge, including the latest research on the subject. The characteristics of the historical prerequisites for the development of psychology, directions, branches, concepts are given; ideas about the most important mental properties, processes and states; psychology of language and speech; most common methods psychology. The five sections of the dictionary correspond to the subject structure of General Psychology. In this capacity, it can be useful to both students and teachers of psychology departments of universities, as well as to everyone who is interested in psychology.
Abstraction[lat. abstractio - distraction] - one of the main operations of thinking, consisting in the fact that the subject, isolating any features of the object under study, is distracted from the rest. The result of this process is the construction of a mental product (concepts, models, theories, classifications, etc.), which is also denoted by the term "A.".
M.G. Yaroshevsky
aviation psychology- branch of psychology that studies psychological patterns labor activity aviation specialists. The subject of A. p. is the psyche of a person who controls complex aviation systems. The object of AP is the activity of the individual and the collective, its content, conditions, and organization. Subject A. p. - flight and engineering staff, aviation dispatchers.
V.A. Bodrov
Austrian (Graz) school- a group of researchers (H. Ehrenfels, S. Vitasek, V. Benussi and others) who worked in the 1880s-1910s. mainly at the University of Graz under the guidance of the philosopher and psychologist A. Meinong, who founded the first experimental psychology laboratory in Austria (1894) and theoretically developed the ideas of his immediate teacher F. Brentano. She is known primarily for the formulation and theoretical and experimental development of the problem of the integrity of consciousness posed by Ehrenfels. It was Ehrenfels who introduced the term "Gestalt quality" into psychological science to denote the integrity of the mental image (ie, the irreducibility of its properties to the sum of the properties of its constituent sensations) and consciousness as a whole. In A. sh. were investigated (including experimentally - on the material of optical-geometric illusions, pathology of perception) the properties of some integral mental formations. Thus, A. sh. paved the way for the transition of psychology from the elementary strategy of cognition, characteristic, for example, of associative psychology, to a holistic approach proposed and developed by Gestalt psychology and the Leipzig school, although representatives of A. sh. as a whole did not go beyond the elementary method of cognition. They considered the quality of integrity ("Gestalt quality") - for example, melody, form - as another element of perception, joining the original sum of sounds or visual sensations as another new element - "automatically" (Ehrenfels) or as a result of a special "productive" spiritual act (Meinong). The absence or presence of such an act was explained in A. sh. the absence or occurrence of optical-geometric illusions and peculiarities of music perception, in particular amusia (Vitasek, Benussi). However, A. sh. posed the problem of other units of analysis of consciousness than in associative psychology, the problem of holistic factors and the problem of the subject's activity in building a holistic image (which was subsequently unjustifiably ignored by Gestalt psychology). A. sh. also contributed to the development of problems of perception of space, optical-geometric illusions, apparent movement, philosophical, epistemological and ethical issues.
HER. Sokolova
Autokinetic effect- one of the illusory movement of phenomena, observed in a situation of prolonged fixation of the gaze on a stationary object small size on a uniform, "unstructured" background. For example, if in a dark room you look closely at a fixed luminous point, then after a while (1-3 minutes) this spot is perceived as randomly moving in different directions. A. e. may have a paradoxical character: the sensation of movement occurs simultaneously with the perception of the same object as motionless. Manifestation A. e. depends on the illumination and structure of the stimulus field, eye movement, body posture, instructions, attitude of the subject, social norms and other factors. Amplitude of movements at A. e. can reach several tens of degrees, while not coinciding either in amplitude or in direction with eye movements. Therefore, A. e. cannot be explained by the shift of the image along the retina or by the eye's own movements. The generally accepted explanation of A. e. does not currently have.
IN AND. Panov
Automatism(in psychology) [gr. automatos - self-acting] - an action implemented without the direct participation of consciousness. There are "primary" A., representing the functioning of innate, unconditioned reflex programs, and "secondary" A., formed in vivo. With "secondary" A., a rigid, unambiguous connection is established between certain properties of situations and a series of successive operations that previously required conscious orientation.
A.I. Podolsky
Agape - antique concept denoting love for one's neighbor. In Greek philosophy, a distinction was introduced between the concepts of "A.", expressing active, bestowing love, focused on the good of one's neighbor, and "eros", representing passionate love, focused on satisfying one's own needs. Since the beginning of the spread of Christian culture, the concept of "A." received a new impetus for development: in the early Christian communities, in order to form love for one's neighbor, special evening meals were arranged for all members of the community (which received the same name), the purpose of which was to express brotherly feelings to each other. In many philosophical systems concept "A." took a central place, for example, in the philosophy of Plotinus ("Enneads") or Ch.S. Pierce (1839-1914), who saw in him the creative energy of the evolution of nature.
THEM. Kondakov
Adaptation- adaptation of the structures and functions of the body to environmental conditions. A.'s processes are aimed at maintaining homeostasis. The concept of A. is used as a theoretical concept in those psychological concepts that interpret the relationship between the individual and his environment as processes of homeostatic balancing (for example, Gestalt psychology, theory intellectual development J. Piaget). Along with sensory A. (i.e., with an adaptive change in the sense organs to the acting stimulus), in psychology they talk about A. to social conditions, about A. to children's institution, school A. (or maladaptation), etc.
B.M. Velichkovsky
Sensory adaptation(from Latin adaptatio - to adapt and sensus - feeling, sensation) - an adaptive change in sensitivity to the intensity of the stimulus acting on the sense organ; can also manifest itself in a variety of subjective effects (see Consistent image). A. s. can be achieved by increasing or decreasing absolute sensitivity (for example, visual dark and light adaptation).
B.M. Velichkovsky
Agitation[fr. agitation- great excitement, excited state] - an affective state of a person that occurs in response to a threat to life, an emergency situation and other psychogenic factors. A. manifests itself in the form of strong motor excitement, accompanied by anxiety, fear, loss of focus in actions, accelerated incomprehensible speech.
L.A. Karpenko
Activity- 1) "causality of the cause" (I. Kant); 2) the active state of living organisms as a condition for their existence in the world. An active being is not merely in motion, it contains within itself the source of its own motion, and this source is reproduced in the course of the motion itself. In this case, we can talk about restoring the energy, structure, properties, processes and functions of a living being, its place in the world, generally speaking, about reproducing any dimensions of its life, if only they are considered essential and inalienable. Bearing in mind this special quality - the ability for self-movement, during which the individual reproduces himself - they say that he acts as a subject of A. In the formation and existence of a human individual as a subject, such manifestations of A. as activation, unconditionally and conditionally reflex acts, search A., arbitrary acts, will, acts of free self-determination and self-positing of the subject. In correlation with the activity of A. the subject is defined as a dynamic condition for its formation, implementation and modification, as a property of its own movement. A. is characterized here by the following properties: spontaneity, that is, the conditionality of the acts produced by the specifics internal states the individual at the moment of action, in contrast to reactivity as their conditionality by the previous situation; arbitrariness, i.e., the conditionality of what is done by the actual goal of the subject, in contrast to field behavior; supra-situational, i.e., going beyond the boundaries of the pre-established, in contrast to adaptability as the limitation of actions within the framework of the given; effectiveness, i.e., stability in relation to the goal being realized, in contrast to passivity as a tendency of non-resistance to circumstances that must be met in the future. The phenomenon of A. as a unity of spontaneity, arbitrariness, supra-situation and effectiveness cannot be comprehended within the framework of the traditional "causal" scheme, as well as the scheme of "target causality". Apparently, it is necessary to single out a special type of causality, determined by the specifics of the actual state of the individual at the moment of action. Such causality can be called actual. Unlike determination from the side of the past (usual causal relations) or from the side of a possible future (target determination), in this case the determining meaning of the "moment" is emphasized. The correct form of the description of this type of causality is contained in the works of Kant - in his ideas about the "interaction" (or "communication") of substances.
V.A. Petrovsky
Update[lat. actio - action, activity] - the process and result of arbitrary (intentional) or involuntary (unintentional) mental actions, consisting in extracting learned information or experience from memory and preparing them for immediate use. For example, in order to recognize, recall, recall or directly reproduce any information, it is necessary to extract (actualize) from long-term or short-term memory the corresponding thoughts, images, feelings, desires, movements that were already in the experience of the subject. At the same time, A. can be easy or difficult, complete or incomplete, generalized or selective, depending on the level of preservation in memory of the extracted information. By modern ideas, the A. process is provided by excitation of previously formed systems of temporary connections in the nervous system.
L.A. Karpenko
allusion[lat. alludere - make fun, hint] - an expression with which the speaker hints at the well-known historical event, literary work, image, etc., i.e. "reference to cultural tradition"(R. Bart). A. can consist in a direct mention ("the real Wilhelm Tell", "a new Moses is required", etc.), in a hint through a similar-sounding word ("Genialissimus" by V. Voinovich) and be Hidden A. are often periphrastic (“like a biblical strongman, he lifted the Gaza gates” (A.P. Chekhov) - meaning Samson) or arranged as a riddle (for example: “Another poet with a luxurious style / Depicted the first snow for us "(A.S. Pushkin) - we are talking about P.A. Vyazemsky). According to the purpose of creation, A. neutral and parodic (ironic) are distinguished; in terms of distribution - well-known and contextual. The latter are understandable only in a certain era, in a certain circle, etc., such as, for example, "curly Mitreyki, wise Kudreyki" - a hint of V.V. Mayakovsky on contemporary poets K.N. Mitreikin and A.A. Kudreiko. Admission A. was widely used to mask the meaning in the censored press ("Aesopian language"). It is possible that the perceiver sees A. where, according to the author's intention, she is not there: for example, the saying "Here you are, grandmother, and St. George's Day" can be perceived as a hint of serfdom.
S.A. Shapoval
Ambivalence of feelings[Greek amphi - around, around, on both sides, dual + lat. valentia - strength] - an internally contradictory emotional state or experience associated with an ambivalent attitude towards a person, object, phenomenon and characterized by simultaneous acceptance and rejection (for example, the experience of jealousy, which can combine feelings of love and hate). The term A. h. was proposed by the Swiss psychologist and psychiatrist E. Bleiler to refer to the contradictory attitudes and reactions inherent in schizophrenics, which quickly replace each other. The term soon gained wider usage in psychology and psychiatry. Ambivalent began to be called complex conflicting feelings that appear in a person in connection with the diversity of his needs and in connection with the versatility of the phenomena of the surrounding reality themselves, which simultaneously attract and at the same time scare away, cause both negative and positive feelings. A. h. appears early enough in children in relation to surrounding objects and people. In particular, A. h. manifests itself in the phenomenon of ambivalent behavior, which is observed in many young children.
E.O. Smirnova
Analysis[Greek analysis - decomposition, dismemberment] - the process of dividing the whole into parts. A. is included in all acts of practical and cognitive interaction of the organism with the environment. On the basis of practical activity, a person has developed the ability to carry out A. at the level of operating with concepts. A. as a necessary stage of cognition is inextricably linked with synthesis and is one of the main operations that make up the real process of thinking.
OK. Tikhomirov
Analysis through synthesis- the term of the late S.L. Rubinshtein, which characterizes the initial universal "mechanism" (or main form) of thinking studied by him and his students. A.h.s. means that in the process of thinking the cognizable object is included in ever new connections and therefore appears in ever new qualities, which are fixed in new concepts; from the object i.e. it is as if all new content is scooped out; it seems to turn every time with its other side, all new properties are revealed in it. For example, the same straight line segment included in different geometric figures, appears in correspondingly different qualities: as a bisector, median, diagonal of a parallelogram, etc. A. h. ensures the continuity of thinking and the mental as a process in general, since in the course of the latter the cognizing subject continuously interacts precisely with the object, and not with the signs, words, concepts, meanings, meanings, etc. (all of them express the content of this object). Thus A. h. provides not only the continuity of thinking as a process ("the same" object is included in all new connections), but also mental neoplasms (it also appears in new qualities). One and the same cognizable object is an inseparable unity of already known (for a given subject) and still unknown, new properties and their relations, that is, the old and the new do not belong, respectively, to two different objects, but to one object. A.h.s. and all thinking as a whole as a process is formed by a person mainly unconsciously, unconsciously inside and in the course of thinking as an activity carried out by the subject mainly consciously (under the control of always conscious goals, etc.). A.h.s. - this is the mechanism of thinking as a process not only of an individual, but also of a group subject. When, in the course of a group solution of a problem, an object, being included in different systems of connections, appears in correspondingly new qualities, then these systems of objective essential relations are first singled out by correspondingly different individuals. Then a discussion may arise between the latter. Consequently, different systems of relations and the qualities of the object appearing in them are, as it were, personified by different individuals and therefore are correlated (synthesized) with each other in subjects and through subjects. The composition of these relations also includes the attitude of a person to a cognizable object that changes in the process of thinking, because, discovering new qualities of an object, the subject at the same time more and more adequately determines their significance for his activity and communication. In the course of thinking as a process, motivation is formed for its further course. With this approach to the problem, meaning and meaning appear primarily as different qualities of the same object, revealed and experienced by the subject, to varying degrees. Thus A. h. - this is a mental, and not actually a speech mechanism of human thinking, always inextricably linked with language and speech. This is an alternative position in relation to the one according to which not only communication, but also thinking is a function of speech, and therefore the latter is the mechanism of mental activity. There is no reason to absolutize speech so strongly, although it, without being separated from thinking, is undoubtedly the most important means of communication. Thinking and its mechanism "A.ch.s." - this is not a function of speech, but of a subject carrying out activities (including cognitive), communication, behavior, contemplation, etc.
A.V. brushlinsky
Analytical psychology- the system of views of the Swiss psychologist K.G. Jung, who gave her this name in order to distinguish her from a related direction - the psychoanalysis of Z. Freud. Giving, like Freud, the unconscious the decisive role in the regulation of behavior, Jung singled out, along with its individual (personal) form, the collective form, which can never become the content of consciousness. The collective unconscious forms an autonomous psychic fund, in which the experience of previous generations is transmitted by inheritance (through the structure of the brain). The primary formations included in this fund - archetypes (universal prototypes) underlie the symbolism of creativity, various rituals, dreams and complexes. As a method for analyzing ulterior motives, Jung proposed a word association test: an inadequate response (or delay in response) to a stimulus word indicates the presence of a complex. aim mental development A. p. considers individuation as a special integration of the contents of the collective unconscious, thanks to which the personality realizes itself as a unique indivisible whole. Although A. p. rejected a number of Freudian postulates (in particular, libido was understood not as sexual, but as any unconscious mental energy), however, the methodological orientations of this direction have the same features as other branches of psychoanalysis, since the socio-historical essence of motivating forces is denied human behavior and the predominant role of consciousness in its regulation. The typology of characters proposed by Jung, according to which there are two main categories of people - extroverts (aimed at the outside world) and introverts (aimed at inner world), received, regardless of A. p., development in specific psychological studies of personality.
M.G. Yaroshevsky
Analogy[Greek analogos - appropriate, commensurate] - the similarity between objects in some respect. The use of A. in cognition is the basis for putting forward conjectures and hypotheses. Arguments according to A. often led to scientific discoveries. Arguments based on A. are based on the formation and actualization of associations. A targeted search for A is also possible. Tasks for establishing A. are included in the content of psychodiagnostic examinations. Difficulties in finding similarities between objects on an abstract basis can serve as an indicator of insufficient development of thinking or its violation.
OK. Tikhomirov
Questionnaire[fr. enqukte - list of questions] - a methodological tool for obtaining primary sociological and socio-psychological information, designed as a set of questions logically related to the central task of the study. Questionnaires are conducted in order to find out biographical data, opinions, ratings, value orientations, settings, dispositions, etc.
IN AND. Slobodchikov
Anticipation[lat. anticipatio - anticipation] - the ability of the system in one form or another to foresee the development of events, phenomena, results of actions. In psychology, two semantic aspects of the concept of "A." are distinguished: 1) the ability of a person to imagine the possible result of an action before its implementation (W. Wundt), as well as the ability of his thinking to imagine a way to solve a problem before it is actually solved; 2) the ability of the human or animal body to prepare for a response to an event before it occurs. This expectation (or "anticipatory reflection") is usually expressed in a certain posture or movement and is provided by the mechanism of the acceptor of the results of the action (P.K. Anokhin). A. is especially significant in creative, research activities.
L.A. Karpenko
Apperception[lat. ad - to, perceptio - perception] - the dependence of perception on past experience, on the general content of a person’s mental activity and his individual characteristics. The term A. was proposed by the German philosopher G. Leibniz, who interpreted it as a distinct (conscious) perception by the soul of a certain content. According to W. Wundt, A. is a universal explanatory principle, "an inner spiritual force" that determines the course of mental processes. In contrast to these ideas about A. as an internal spontaneous activity of consciousness, modern scientific psychology interprets A. as the result of an individual’s life experience, which ensures the advancement of hypotheses about the features of the perceived object, its meaningful perception. Distinguish stable A. - the dependence of perception on the prevailing characteristics of the individual (worldview, beliefs, education, etc.) and temporary A., in which situationally arising mental states affect (emotions, expectations, attitudes, etc.).
A.V. Petrovsky
Aristotle's experience (Aristotle's illusion)- an illusion of touch, the essence of which lies in the fact that if a small round object (for example, a pea) is placed between two crossed fingers (forefinger and middle or others), then there is a sensation of touching not one, but two objects. The illusion is enhanced by the light sliding of crossed fingers over the object. There are known references to this phenomenon in the 17th - 19th centuries. Over time, A. o. has been described for other parts of the body: lips, tongue, ears. A. o. due to the unusual, artificial, unnatural position of the fingers. In modern studies that consider a modified version of the A. o., a search is made for the point of transition from the normal position of the fingers to the crossed one, that is, the border where adequate tactile sensations are replaced by illusory ones. Now there are no convincing explanations And. It is also unclear at what level nervous system(peripheral or central) this illusion arises.
N.L. Morina, T.S. Pogoreltseva
Artifact[lat. artefactum - artificially made] - a fact that is not characteristic of the natural course of this process and is caused artificially. In experimental psychology, A. is understood as data generated by the method itself or by the conditions of studying the process and, in fact, not peculiar to it. In criminal psychology, A. is called artificially evoked (for example, for the purpose of simulation) processes and states.
A.A. brudny
Archetype[Greek archetypos - prototype, literally "ancient sample"] - a way of organizing the psyche through forms that pass from generation to generation. A. is the central concept of analytical psychology. According to K. Jung, A. is the structural elements of the human psyche, which are hidden in the collective unconscious, common to all mankind. They are inherited just as the structure of the body is inherited. A. sets overall structure personality and sequence of images that pop up in the mind upon awakening creative activity Therefore, the spiritual life bears an archetypal imprint.
A.A. brudny
Associative psychology (associationism) - common name for a number of concepts and schools that considered association the main (or even the only) mechanism for the functioning of consciousness and the psyche, striving for a strictly deterministic way of explaining mental phenomena. In the development of A. p., the following stages can be distinguished. 1. Prerequisites for the emergence of AP: the allocation of association as an explanatory principle for a limited range of mental phenomena and behavioral processes (4th century BC - early 18th V.). Plato and Aristotle explained the processes of recall by the mechanism of association. Subsequently, the principle of association was used to explain the processes of mastering one's passions (R. Descartes), gaining experience (T. Hobbes), some features of the "movement of thought" (B. Spinoza), the formation of prejudices and "false ideas" (J. Locke), perception space (J. Berkeley). In D. Hume, association becomes an explanatory principle for the entire cognitive sphere of the psyche. During this period, the term "association" itself appears (Locke). 2. "Classical associationism" (mid XVIII - early XIX V.). During this period, complete systems of A. p. arise, in which association becomes the explanatory principle of the entire psyche in general (D. Hartley, T. Brown, James Mill). Calling his associative concept "mental mechanics", Mill thereby emphasized the most feature associative theories of this time: the desire to derive all the laws of mental life from inherently mechanical connections (associations) further indivisible elements (sensations or ideas). 3. mid XIX- the beginning of the twentieth century. The beginning of the crisis of AP in theory and the development of individual ideas of AP in experimental and practical research. The theory consolidates the proposition that it is impossible to reduce the "laws of the spirit" to mechanical laws and puts forward the requirement for a "reverse" introduction into the concept of AP of the activity of the subject, the Self ("mental chemistry" by John Stuart Mill, "creative associations" by A. Bain); attempts are being made to consider associations in the biological (evolutionary) aspect (G. Spencer). In experimental research and practice, the ideas of A. p. are used to explain the laws of memory (G. Ebbinghaus), in the diagnosis of pathological changes in the psyche (E. Kraepelin, Z. Bleuler), in motivation studies (S. Freud), in the practice of forensic examination ( associative experiment) and others. 4. 1920s. The final disappearance of A. p. as a direction and the assimilation of his ideas in various branches of psychological theory and practice. The idea that "association is generally not so much a "mechanism" as a phenomenon, of course, a fundamental one, which itself requires an explanation and disclosure of its mechanisms" (S.L. Rubinshtein) becomes generally recognized. A critical analysis of the various ideas of A. p. was contained in almost all the main psychological trends of the 20th century.
M.G. Yaroshevsky
association experiment- a term that has established itself in psychology to denote a special projective method for studying personality motivation. Proposed at the beginning of the 20th century. K.G. Jung and almost simultaneously with him M. Wertheimer and D. Klein. The subject must respond to a specific set of stimulus words as quickly as possible with any word that comes to mind. The type of associations that arise, the frequency of associations of the same type, latent periods (the time between the stimulus word and the response of the subject), behavioral and physiological reactions, etc. are recorded. By the nature of these data, one can judge the hidden drives and "affective complexes" of the subject, his attitudes, etc. n. In the 1920s. A.R. Luria proposed for the diagnosis of "hidden traces of affect" the so-called. coupled motor technique, which was a modified version.
HER. Sokolova
Association[lat. associatio - connection] - a natural connection arising in the experience of an individual between two contents of consciousness (sensations, ideas, thoughts, feelings, etc.), which is expressed in the fact that the appearance in the mind of one of the contents entails the appearance of another. The phenomenon of A. was described by Plato and Aristotle, but the very term "A." proposed by J. Locke in the 17th century. In associative psychology, types of A. were distinguished, differing in the ways of their formation: some authors (D. Hume, J. St. Mill) singled out A. by similarity (blue-blue), by contrast (black-white), by contiguity in space and in time (an accidental fright of a child in a dark room then causes a fear of the dark), causal (Hume): a bright flash of light - a painful sensation; others (D. Gartley, J. Mill) reduced all A. to associations by contiguity in space and time, since they denied the activity of the subject in the process of formation of A. In addition to these primary laws of formation of A., "secondary" laws were identified (T. Brown) , i.e., factors contributing to the emergence of a specific A. from the many possible ones in this moment: the strength of impressions that unite in A., their novelty, abilities and / or pathological features of the individual, etc. Subsequently, A. Ben singles out the so-called. creative A., the formation of which is explained by "spontaneous activity of the mind", and not by a combination of ideas obtained in experience, which contradicts the initial principles of associative psychology. Two opposite points of view on the "mechanisms" of A. can also be distinguished: some authors considered A. only a "shadow" of brain processes combined according to certain physiological laws (T. Hobbes, Gartley, Mill, Ben), others attributed the emergence of A. exclusively to laws consciousness itself (J. Mill). Some associationists (T. Brown) took an intermediate position. Subsequently, the physiological mechanisms of A. were studied at the school of I.P. Pavlov, who explained A. by contiguity in time and space by education conditioned reflexes, A. by similarity - their generalization. Pavlov also used the concept of "reinforcement" to explain the selective formation of A. The points of view of psychologists on the role of A. in mental life also differed: some considered A. the only type mental connections, others, along with A., still other types of connections ("reasonable" in Locke, apperceptive in W. Wundt, etc.). The concept of A. is still widely used in psychological literature, although it is no longer given such a broad explanatory meaning.
HER. Sokolova
Affect[lat. affectus - emotional excitement, passion] - strong, explosive, relatively short-term emotional reaction, accompanied by pronounced changes both in the physiological state of the organism and in the behavior of the individual, and developing under critical conditions when the subject is unable to find an adequate way out of dangerous, most often unexpected situations. Possessing the properties of a dominant, A. inhibits mental processes not related to it and imposes one or another stereotyped method of "emergency" resolution of the situation (stupor, flight, aggression), which has developed in the process of biological evolution and therefore justifies itself only in typical biological conditions. Another important regulatory function of A. is the formation of a specific experience - affective complexes (traces), emotionally imprinting individual elements of the situation that gave rise to A. and warning of its possible repetition in the future. In a person, A. can occur when both his biological needs are frustrated (for example, when life is threatened) and social values \u200b\u200b(when insulted, confronted with injustice). Sometimes A. arises as a result of repeated repetition of traumatic events, which creates in a person the impression of hopelessness in relation to specific situation, and all life; in such cases, the so-called. accumulation of A., as a result of which it can arise and lead to uncontrollable behavior in one of the many collisions with injustice, that is, in a situation that is not distinguished by exclusivity. The state of A. is characterized by a narrowing of consciousness, in which the attention of the subject is completely absorbed by the circumstances that gave rise to A. and the actions imposed by them. Impairments of consciousness can lead to an inability to later recall individual episodes of one's behavior and development of events, to a noticeable dulling of sensitivity to pain, and in the case of exceptionally strong A., to result in loss of consciousness and complete amnesia. Since A. limits the possibility of arbitrary regulation of behavior to the utmost, recommendations for overcoming it, used in pedagogical and psychotherapeutic practice, emphasize the importance of avoiding situations that give rise to A., presenting undesirable consequences, performing distracting actions, etc. Resistance to involvement in A.’s state depends both from the natural constitution of a person, and from the level of development of the personality, its moral motivation. A.'s diagnosis is a typical task in the practice of forensic psychological examination; when solving it, in addition to the physiological state of the body and disorders of consciousness, the nature of a person’s actions in a state of A. (impulsivity, stereotyping, lack of preparation) and the degree of their discrepancy with his usual behavior also serve as indicators.
See Psychology. Dictionary / Under the general. ed. A. V. Petrovsky, M. G. Yaroshevsky. M., 1990.
Automatism is an action implemented without the direct participation of consciousness.
Authoritarianism is a socio-psychological characteristic of a person, reflecting his desire to subordinate his partners in interaction and communication as much as possible to his influence.
An algorithm is a prescription that, based on a system of rules, specifies a sequence of operations, the exact execution of which allows solving problems of a certain class.
Apperception - the dependence of perception on past experience, on the general content of a person's mental activity and his individual characteristics.
Attribution - attribution to social objects (person, group, social community) characteristics not represented in the field of perception.
Causal attribution - interpretation by the subject of interpersonal perception of the causes and motives of the behavior of other people.
Attraction is a concept denoting the appearance, when a person is perceived by a person, of the attractiveness of one of them for another.
Autism - extreme form psychological alienation, expressed in the withdrawal of the individual from contacts with surrounding reality and immersion in the world of their own experiences.
Affect is a strong and relatively short-term emotional state associated with a sharp change in life circumstances that are important for the subject.
Verbal (verbal) is a term used in psychology to denote the forms of sign material, as well as the processes of operating with this material.
Attraction is a mental state that expresses an undifferentiated, unconscious or insufficiently conscious need of the subject.
Suggestibility - the degree of susceptibility to suggestion, determined by the subjective willingness to undergo and submit to suggestive influence.
Suggestion is a process of influencing the mental sphere of a person, associated with a decrease in consciousness and criticality in the perception and implementation of inspiring content, with the absence of a purposeful active understanding of it, a detailed logical analysis and evaluation in relation to past experience and the current state of the subject.
Disposition - readiness, predisposition of the subject to a behavioral act, action, deed, their sequence.
Makings - congenital anatomical and physiological features of the nervous system, the brain, constituting the natural basis for the development of abilities.
Infection - the process of transmission emotional state from one individual to another at the psycho-physiological level of contact, in addition to or in addition to the semantic influence itself.
Psychological protection is a special regulatory system for stabilizing the personality, aimed at eliminating or minimizing the feeling of anxiety associated with the awareness of the conflict.
Identification - 1) identification of something, someone; 2) assimilation, identification with someone, something.
Innovation - creation and implementation different kind innovations that generate significant changes in social practice.
Intelligence is a relatively stable structure of the mental abilities of an individual.
Intention - the orientation of consciousness, thinking on any subject.
Intuition is knowledge that arises without awareness of the ways and conditions for obtaining it.
Irradiation - the ability of a nervous process to spread from its place of origin to other nerve elements.
Communication is a semantic aspect of social interaction.
Conformity - a person's susceptibility to real or imagined group pressure, manifested in a change in his behavior and attitudes in accordance with the position of the majority that he initially did not share.
Leader - a member of the group, for whom she recognizes the right to make responsible decisions in situations that are significant for her, i.e. the most authoritative person who really plays a central role in the organization joint activities and managing relationships within the group.
Locus of control is a quality that characterizes a person's tendency to ascribe responsibility for the results of their activities. external forces(external), or one's own abilities and efforts (internal).
Brainstorming (brainstorming) is a technique for stimulating creativity and productivity, based on the assumption that in the usual methods of discussing and solving problems, the emergence of innovative ideas is hindered by the control mechanisms of consciousness that fetter the flow of these ideas under the pressure of habitual, stereotypical forms of decision making.
Intention - a conscious desire to complete the action in accordance with the intended program, aimed at achieving the intended result.
Neuroticism is a condition characterized by emotional instability, anxiety, low self-esteem, autonomic disorders.
Negativism - unmotivated behavior of the subject, manifested in actions that are intentionally opposed to the requirements and expectations of other individuals or social groups.
Ontogenesis is the process of development of an individual organism.
The problem is the subject's awareness of the impossibility of resolving the difficulties and contradictions that have arisen in a given situation by means of available knowledge and experience.
Psychoanalysis - 1) a set of methods for identifying for psychotherapeutic purposes the features of a person's experiences and actions, due to unconscious motives; 2) direction in psychology created 3) by Freud and his followers.
Psychogeny - mental disorders that occur under the influence of mental trauma.
Psychosis is a deep mental disorder, manifested in a violation of reflection real world, the possibility of his knowledge, change in behavior and attitude to the environment.
Psychopathy is a pathology of character, in which the subject has an almost irreversible severity of properties that prevent his adequate adaptation in the social environment.
Rating - a term denoting a subjective assessment of a phenomenon on a given scale.
Relaxation - a state of rest, relaxation that occurs in the subject as a result of stress relief, after strong feelings or physical effort.
Reference is a relation of significance that connects a subject with another person or group of persons.
Reflection is the process of self-knowledge by the subject of internal mental acts and states.
Rigidity - difficulty in changing the program of activity planned by the subject in conditions that objectively require its restructuring.
Self-actualization - a person's desire for the fullest possible identification and development of their personal capabilities.
Sensitivity is a characterological feature of a person, manifested in increased sensitivity to events happening to him, usually accompanied by increased anxiety, fear of new situations, people, all kinds of trials, etc.
Syndrome - a certain combination of signs (symptoms) of a phenomenon, united by a single mechanism of occurrence.
Synesthesia is a phenomenon consisting in the fact that some stimulus, acting on the corresponding sense organ, in addition to the will of the subject, causes not only a sensation specific to this sense organ, but at the same time also an additional sensation or representation characteristic of another sense organ.
Socialization is the process and result of the assimilation and active reproduction of social experience by an individual, carried out in communication and activity.
Stenicity is a characteristic of an individual's high working capacity, resistance to various interferences, and the ability for long-term uninterrupted activity, even with sleep deprivation for several days. The opposite of sthenicity is asthenia.
Tolerance - the absence or weakening of response to any adverse factor as a result of a decrease in sensitivity to its effects.
Charisma is the endowment of personality with properties that cause admiration for it and unconditional faith in its capabilities.
Egocentrism is the inability of an individual, focusing on his own interests, to change the initial cognitive position towards some object, opinion or idea, even in the face of information that contradicts his experience.
Euphoria is an increased joyful, cheerful mood, a state of complacency and carelessness that does not correspond to objective circumstances.
Expectations - a system of expectations, requirements regarding the norms of the individual's performance of social roles.
Expression - expressiveness; the power of expressing feelings, experiences.
Extraversion - introversion - a characteristic of individual psychological differences of a person, the extreme poles of which correspond to the predominant orientation of the individual either to the world of external objects, or to the phenomena of his own subjective world.
Empathy - comprehension of the emotional state, penetration - empathy with the experiences of another person.
An erratic system is a complex goal-oriented system that includes a person (a group of people), a technical device (means of activity), an object of activity and the environment in which a person is located.
Ergonomics is the general name of a group of sciences dealing with a comprehensive study of a person in production activities and optimization of means and working conditions.
Ethnic stereotypes are relatively stable ideas about the moral, mental, and physical qualities inherent in representatives of various ethnic communities.
The edge effect is a phenomenon in which, from a row of memorized material, elements at the beginning and end are remembered faster than elements in the middle.
The effect of an unfinished action (the Zeigarnik effect) is a phenomenon that characterizes the effect of interruptions in activity on memory processes.
The halo effect is the distribution, in conditions of a lack of information about a person, of a general evaluative impression of him on the perception of his actions and personal qualities.
- famous domestic psychologist Artur Vladimirovich Petrovsky was born on May 14, 1924 in Sevastopol. His fate is complex and interesting. When did the Great Patriotic War He volunteered for the front. After demobilization, Petrovsky, after working for some time at a military factory, entered a vocational school. The next stage of his education was the school of working youth, where the young Petrovsky became interested in philology and, after graduating from school, entered the philological faculty of the Moscow City Pedagogical Institute named after V.P. Potemkin, and then - to graduate school. The topic of his Ph.D. scientific work Psychological views of A.N. Radishchev.
In the future, Petrovsky conducted serious research in the field of the theory of psychology, he works at the departments of psychology of the Volgograd Pedagogical Institute, the Moscow City Pedagogical Institute, the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute. IN AND. Lenin. The result of his work is the book Conversations about Psychology published in 1961. In parallel, Petrovsky is studying the history of psychology; this topic will interest him throughout his life, therefore it is no coincidence that his doctoral dissertation, defended in 1965, was called Ways of Forming the Foundations of Soviet Psychology. Exploring the history of the development of psychological thought in Russia, Petrovsky for the first time raises the question of the need for an objective scientific evaluation pedology, so popular at the beginning of our century, as well as psychotechnics, reflexology, reactology and the works of V.M. Bekhtereva, V.A. Wagner, P.P. Blonsky and others.
In 1966, a significant event took place in Petrovsky's career: he received the title of professor and became head of the department of psychology at the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute. In 1967, Petrovsky's book History of Soviet Psychology was published. In 1968, he became a corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, then - Academician-Secretary of the Department of Psychology and Developmental Physiology, and since 1971 - a full member of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In parallel, he works on the editorial boards of the journals Questions of Psychology and Vestnik MGU. In 1972, Petrovsky left the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute and became the head of the laboratory of personality psychology at the Scientific Research Institute of General and Pedagogical Psychology of the APS of the RSFSR. This laboratory will work under his leadership from 1972 to 1993. Analyzing the works of the laboratory, two main scientific trends can be identified. The first is the historical and psychological direction already known to us, the roots of which go back to the 60s. 20th century Research in this area is continued by Petrovsky and his followers to the present. During this period were published following books A.V. Petrovsky: Questions of the History and Theory of Psychology (1984), History of Psychology (1994, co-authored with M.G. Yaroshevsky), Questions of the History and Theory of Psychology (1984), History and Theory of Psychology (1996, co-authored with I.G. Yaroshevsky ), Fundamentals of Theoretical Psychology (1997, co-authored with I.G. Yaroshevsky). During this time, more than 20 candidate and doctoral dissertations devoted to the development of these ideas were defended.
The second direction is connected with the problems of personality and interpersonal relations in groups. different type and belongs to the field of social psychology. The theory of activity mediation of interpersonal relations, developed by A.V. Petrovsky, or rather, its stratometric concept formed the basis of this direction. This concept makes it possible to differentiate groups according to the level of development and to explore the structure of intragroup ties. Petrovsky studied the connections between members of different groups and showed the illegitimacy of the distribution of dependencies identified in groups of one level of development to other groups. The three-phase concept of personality development formulated by Petrovsky revealed the pattern of changing the stages of adaptation, individualization and integration when entering into new group or when changing the status in the previous one. On this basis, Petrovsky proposed age periodization, the essence of which is that for each developing individuality, the path to social maturity goes through the macrophases of childhood (mainly adaptation of the personality), adolescence (mainly individualization) and adolescence, leading to the integration of the individual in society.
From these positions, Petrovsky subjected the concept of leading activity to a critical reassessment. IN general theory interpersonal relations Petrovsky, exploring the factors that determine the significance of another person for the subject, proposed a three-factor model of a significant other. As a basis for this model, Petrovsky considers power, attraction (attractiveness) and referentiality (authority). Complex relationships and quantitative changes of these factors form the reflected subjectivity of a significant other. In the early 1980s, Petrovsky develops the concept of personalization, which is theoretical basis research laboratory in the field of problems of developing personality. On the basis of the above concepts, the following works were created: a collective monograph - The Psychological Theory of the Collective (1979) and Petrovsky's books Personality, Activity, Collective (1982), Popular Talks on Psychology (1981), Psychology of a Developing Personality (1987) and a number of others. The main data obtained in the studies were included in the content of textbooks and teaching aids, edited by Petrovsky: General Psychology (1970), Age and Educational Psychology (1973), Social Psychology of the Collective (1978), Social Psychology (1987), Introduction to Psychology (1995).
In 1976, Petrovsky received the title of vice-president of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, and from 1978 to 1985 this amazingly hard-working person, without stopping managing the laboratory, also became the head of the department of pedagogy, psychology and teaching methods in high school at the faculty of advanced training of Moscow State University. But still, his main hobby was the laboratory of personality psychology, he devoted most of his time and effort to it. Petrovsky creates it, as an artist paints a picture, carefully selecting employees. In the early 1990s the laboratory undergoes a significant reduction and in 1993 it is transformed into a group of personality psychology, which in January 1999 again receives the status of a laboratory, but, having changed the profile scientific research, is now called the Laboratory of Theory and History of Psychology. The emphasis is shifting to the development of the foundations of theoretical psychology, and above all the categorical-conceptual system of psychological knowledge: after all, back in 1996, Petrovsky began to develop a special area of psychology - theoretical psychology. The subject of this science was the reflection of psychology, which reveals in its categorical system the key problems of the basic principles of research. In order to resolve these problems, Petrovsky proposed a multi-level categorical system. With the help of such a system, one can more fully characterize the human psyche at the protopsychological, basic, metapsychological and extrapsychological levels, as well as show interlevel and intralevel connections. Thus, Petrovsky actually succeeded in constructing a system psychological theories, each of which is based on one of the categories included in the general categorical system.
In the late 1990s Petrovsky and his students are also developing a special area of historical and psychological research - political history psychology. The subject of study here is the development psychological science depending on the political situation that developed in totalitarian states. The studies of L.A. Karpenko, dedicated to the problems analysis of the concepts of numerous areas of psychology and interdisciplinary relationships. Simultaneously with the research work, the laboratory staff has been working on dictionary and reference books on psychology, which have been published since 1983. During this period, they were published under the general editorship of A.V. Petrovsky and M.G. Yaroshevsky when compiled by L.A. Karpenko the following reference publications: A Brief Psychological Dictionary (1985); Psychology. Dictionary (1990). Work is underway to create a Psychological Encyclopedia and a series of reference publications Lexicon, which is a series of eight dictionaries compiled according to the thematic principle. For almost 30 years of research carried out by the laboratory staff under the direction of A.V. Petrovsky, 63 doctoral and master's theses were defended. Petrovsky was the editor and co-author of a number of textbooks on general, social, developmental, pedagogical and theoretical psychology. Together with M.G. Yaroshevsky, this scientist developed multilevel system psychological preparation in universities, for which in 1997 he was awarded Government of the Russian Federation in the field of education. He was a consultant for famous films, like Seven steps beyond the horizon, Me and others, Scarecrow. During his scientific activity he published over 1500 articles, textbooks, manuals, monographs, reference books, many of which were translated into foreign languages, and all these are the fruits of the great Russian scientist Artur Vladimirovich Petrovsky.
NEW REFERENCE EDITION ON PSYCHOLOGY
N.N. PODDIAKOV
Moscow
A Brief Psychological Dictionary / Ed. A.V. Petrovsky, M.G. Yaroshevsky. - M.: Politizdat, 1985. - 431 p.
At present, hundreds of books are published in our country every year on psychological issues, three psychological journals are published, psychologists are being trained at the faculties of universities and other higher educational institutions, six representative all-Union psychological congresses have been held, Soviet psychologists take an active part in the activities of international scientific organizations and play a prominent role at international psychological congresses, etc. All this gives rise to the need to comprehend and generalize the accumulated psychological knowledge, evaluate developing scientific concepts, and critically review theoretical directions and schools that have developed in Western non-Marxist oriented psychology. The satisfaction of this need is largely the responsibility of those who have gone beyond last years monographs by leading Soviet psychologists on historical, methodological and theoretical problems psychological science. The publication of psychological dictionaries is a natural and necessary addition to this important for the development and further development of Soviet psychological science. In 1985, to the previously published reference books (Platonov K.K. Brief System Dictionary psychological knowledge. - M., 1981; Psychological word i k. - Ki i in, 1982; Psychological Dictionary / Ed. V.V. Davydova and others - M., 1983, etc.) was joined by the "Concise Psychological Dictionary".
This dictionary reflects the basic concepts of modern psychological science, characterizes the leading branches of psychology, theoretical trends and concepts, presents a brief summary of the history of psychology, and highlights the methods of psychological research. The very name "A Concise Psychological Dictionary" presumably determined the nature of the material selection. More fully it presents the terms related to social psychology. In addition, the editors and the compiler abandoned the desire, characteristic of past dictionary publications, to include in the text, if possible, all the terms more or less frequently encountered in the psychological literature. Indeed, being at the junction of many public and natural sciences, psychology often uses in its everyday life the vocabulary adopted in philosophy, medicine, pedagogy, law, sociology, ethics, etc. However, it should be borne in mind that these related branches of knowledge have their own dictionary-encyclopedic editions, which the reader of any psychological monograph or article can easily refer to. It seems to us that the thesaurus of psychology as a science is quite fully presented in the reviewed dictionary.
The indisputable advantage of the dictionary is the clarity of its methodological and theoretical positions and the resulting thoughtful and convincing interpretation of the categories, concepts and methods of psychology, the justified criticism of non-Marxist psychological concepts and the conceptual apparatus adopted by them, the presentation of Soviet psychological science as essentially ideologically opposed to psychological trends and schools, dominant in the capitalist countries. Criticism of non-Marxist psychology in the dictionary does not have the character of empty denial - in a number of articles, especially those related to social psychology and personality psychology, it is conclusively revealed that the personal characteristics of people living, acting and communicating in bourgeois society are unreasonably considered as supposedly universal.
A positive assessment deserves the way the dictionary presents the achievements of Soviet psychological science, especially in the field of psychophysiology, neuropsychology, general and developmental psychology, social psychology, etc. It is important to note that when compiling the dictionary, attention was paid to virtually all the most important concepts developed by leading Soviet psychologists (L.S. Vygotsky, S.L. Rubinshtein, B.G. Ananiev, A.N. Leontiev, A.R. Luria, V.N. Myasishchev, D.N. Uznadze and others), reflects the used their conceptual apparatus. Of course, editors, authors and compiler
The dictionary had to take into account the fact that in relation to some psychological phenomena and their interpretation in some cases there is a discrepancy between the positions of different scientists, different, sometimes opposing opinions are expressed. Apparently, one should accept and approve the desire of the creators of the dictionary not to obscure, but to reflect in the articles these dissenting views, for example, to give, for example, not one (involuntarily acquiring a canonical character in this way), but two or even three definitions. However, when reading the dictionary, we got the impression that it reflects to the greatest extent precisely the general that is inherent in the fundamental scientific foundations of modern Soviet psychology - reliance on Marxist methodology. The principle of systematic psychological research and the activity approach pass through all the entries of the dictionary, uniting them into a single whole.
It is necessary to take a positive attitude to the organization of the material in the dictionary, to the easily traced interdisciplinary connections of articles: by using the system of references from one article to another, you can get a fairly complete impression of the range of problems that interest the reader. The well-organized "Thematic Index of Articles" contributes a lot to this. Definitions, as a rule, are distinguished by their clarity; in the articles, for all their conciseness, meaningful material is selected that corresponds to modern scientific psychological ideas. The dictionary is not without certain shortcomings. Some articles are unduly, in our opinion, short and vague. So, obviously, it was necessary not only to expand the article “Psychological Service”, but also to include in the dictionary a number of “subsidiary” articles covering psychological service at school, law enforcement agencies, at work, etc. Proportions are not always maintained in terms of the completeness of the presentation of one or another section of the dictionary (for example, engineering psychology is represented in the dictionary by only 16 entries). We can note unjustified omissions of individual terms (although there are not many of them), which, as it seems to us, simply could not be dispensed with (for example, there is no article "Deed"). The article “Age Psychology” is not informative enough. In general, one gets the impression that the creators of the dictionary were constrained by the limiting word "short" to a greater extent than would be desirable and useful.
The publication of the Brief Psychological Dictionary is a very noticeable phenomenon in the life of Soviet psychological science.
