All our dignity lies in thought. It is not space or time, which we cannot fill, that elevates us, but it is she, our thought. Let us learn to think well: this is the basic principle of morality.
Fyodor Mikhailovich was born in Moscow (1821) into the family of a doctor who served at the Mariinsky Hospital. 1837 becomes a landmark year for young Dostoevsky, who is grieving the death of his mother. In the same year, the father sent his eldest sons (Fyodor and his brother Mikhail) to St. Petersburg, where Fyodor Mikhailovich entered engineering school. Thanks to this education, Dostoevsky gets the opportunity to continue his literary creativity, which inspired the writer upon his arrival in St. Petersburg.
After graduating from college in 1841, Fyodor Mikhailovich entered military service, soon reaching the rank of officer. In 1843, Dostoevsky, having retired, began to work closely literary activity. In the same year, the writer completed the translation of O. Balzac’s work “Eugenie Grande”. To which class did Dostoevsky belong? This translation became his first published literary experience.
His first independent works"Poor People", published in 1844, attracted attention close attention the most “venerable” critics of the time.
Nekrasov and Belinsky enthusiastically welcomed the aspiring writer, who managed to portray very touchingly and vividly emotional drama characters of your work. This time of Dostoevsky's life is characterized by the most heartfelt participation in the lives of all the suffering and disadvantaged. He joins the Petrashevites society, as he is strongly influenced by socialist ideas. As a result of such hobbies, in April 1849, Fyodor Mikhailovich was arrested and sentenced to death penalty. Standing already on the scaffold, Dostoevsky heard the announcement of the highest royal mercy, and the execution was replaced by hard labor. While traveling to the place of hard labor in Tobolsk, Fyodor Mikhailovich meets the wives of the Decembrists, who give him a small book “ scripture”, preserved by writers until their death. From hard work and malnutrition, Fyodor Mikhailovich fell ill (epilepsy manifested itself), from which he was transferred to a soldier, and subsequently was amnestied, and returned back to St. Petersburg in 1854.
IN hometown Dostoevsky, having completely devoted himself to his favorite work, in a fairly short period of time again won the name of one of the most outstanding Russian writers.
Passion for socialism, which Dostoevsky “suffered” in his youth, has become more mature age developed into an extremely hostile attitude towards the socialist idea itself, which in turn was clearly reflected in his the most famous work"Demons."
In 1965 Dostoevsky loses his brother, after which Fyodor Mikhailovich lives extremely poorly. In order to improve his financial situation, the writer sends the first chapter of “Crime and Punishment” to the Russian Bulletin magazine, where it begins to be published in every issue. To which class did Dostoevsky belong? At the same time, Dostoevsky wrote the novel “The Gambler,” but physical health, undermined by hard labor, prevents work. Having hired Snitkina's young assistant Anna, the writer nevertheless finished the novel in 1866, and soon went abroad, marrying Anna Grigorievna.
Returning to Russia, last years The writer spends his life very fruitfully. From the pen of Dostoevsky came “The Brothers Karamazov”, “The Diary of a Writer”, “Teenager”, etc.
On January 28, 1881, the writer dies, having had time to say goodbye to his family. What class did Dostoevsky belong to?
Nature told the woman: be beautiful if you can, wise if you want, but you must certainly be prudent.
The originality of the political situation in post-February Russia, which V.I. Lenin spoke about a lot at that time, really existed and consisted not only in dual power. An even more prominent role here was played by the position taken by the leading political forces countries. An analysis of the very first weeks of the activities of the bourgeois and socialist parties allowed the leader of the Bolsheviks to draw a conclusion that was fully justified later: about their unpreparedness for a quick and radical solution to the most pressing issues Russian life- give land to the peasants, bread to the hungry, freedom to the oppressed peoples, end the war.
IN SHORT IT WAS EXPRESSED LIKE THIS; THE BOTTOM BOTTOM NO LONGER WANT TO LIVE IN THE OLD WAY, AND THE TOP DO NOT WANT TO, OR MORE EXACTLY CAN'T FIND A WAY OUT...
source; http://oldhat.ru/20vek/83.htmnormal for February. Stolypin carried out reforms, society accepted them, and after the revolution it was necessary to continue them. the tsar would have been left as in England. It’s a pity that by February Stolypin was no longer alive; he was killed in Kyiv in 16 or something.
With a similar alignment of ideas and values, people are undoubtedly on the side of the Reds
The novel "Fathers and Sons" is considered one of best works author. And for good reason. The novel is unusually multifaceted. It can be called psychological, everyday, social, and philosophical. It is impossible to give any one characteristic. The problems that the author raises in the novel are deep and complex. They are still relevant today.
Generation Conflict
From the very title of the novel the theme of this work is already clear. The eternal problem that Turgenev raises in his work is fathers and sons. Bazarov represents a new generation and is confident that the old foundations are outdated and outdated.
The outgoing generation thinks that they are smarter, kinder, better. And they were replaced by young people who do not have clear moral ideals. Complete misunderstanding between the previous and next generations. It has always been this way.
The outgoing generation in the novel is represented by the Kirsanov brothers. The conflict arises at the beginning of the novel, as soon as Arkady and Evgeny arrive at the Kirsanov estate.
Pavel Petrovich
Pavel Petrovich immediately experiences hostile feelings towards the guest, without finding out what kind of person he is or what class he belongs to. Bazarov also feels hostility - Kirsanov’s appearance alone disgusts him. Besides, he considers him an eccentric. A quarrel immediately breaks out between them.
Kirsanov's words are just words, not backed up by action. His life is a series of continuous successes, the reason for which is his origin. The very first difficulties made him a weak man and incapable of anything. He doesn't even have his own beliefs. Discussing with Bazarov about principles, by them he understands only external decency and the ability to remain a gentleman.
Nikolai Petrovich
Nikolai Petrovich Kirsanov is Bazarov’s real opponent. His attitude and spiritual breadth are opposed to the theory of the nihilist. He could argue with Evgeniy, but he realizes that his arguments will not convince young man. Everything he tells him about the harmony of life, about the charm of poetry, will be an empty phrase for him.
Relationship between Bazarov and Arkady
Bazarov in the novel appears to be Arkady's friend. They study at the university together. It seems that they are like-minded people. Arkady tries to imitate Bazarov in everything, admires his views, character, and behavior. Arkady wants to be like him. In a word, he falls under his influence.
But they are completely different people. Bazarov is a convinced democrat. In any situation, in any conditions, Evgeny Bazarov is always busy with business. The image of Arkady is the image of a spoiled sloth, for whom only peace and comfort are important. Nothing seriously interests him. Their views differ in relation to art, in relation to people.
Arkady cannot live without principles. He is always neat, well dressed, and has excellent manners. Bazarov does not consider it important to adhere to the rules good manners. What class does Bazarov belong to? He is a commoner. Moreover, he is possessed by the spirit of nihilism.
And this affects his habits, actions, and speech patterns. Their views differ on the main thing - in the purpose of man and in ideas about life. Relationships develop into conflict. And the heroes say goodbye forever.
Main character's family
The author describes the origin of Evgeny Bazarov with only one word - raznochinets. Bazarov proudly declares that his grandfather plowed the land - he was a serf. His father, Vasily Ivanovich, is a former regimental doctor. Mother, Arina Vlasevna, is a noblewoman. According to him, the parents did not marry for love. But judging by their relationship, we can say that they respect each other.
They are united by a strong love for their son. And they made every effort to raise him with dignity and give him a good education. Bazarov is studying medicine at the university, which means his father somehow influenced his choice. But the reader clearly realizes that medicine will not become the subject of Bazarov’s future activities.
The author of the work does not focus on the past of his hero. Perhaps because the essence of the hero is determined not by his past, but by his present, which can be clearly seen throughout the entire work “Fathers and Sons.”
Bazarov: characterization of the hero
The author focuses on the origin of the hero. Bazarov is a commoner. From this alone it becomes clear that he does not belong to any of the classes. He is a man of action and a self-made man. From his ancestors he learned hard work and moral character. This distinguishes him from the soft-bodied, lazy and flabby inhabitants of the Kirsanov house and their environment.
Bazarov is an integral and hardworking person. The author emphasizes that Arkady is idle and sybaritic, while Evgeny works. In order to achieve something in life without outside help, without ranks and regalia, as evidenced by the origin of Evgeny Bazarov, he has to constantly work and work on himself. This hardened him even more. He not only talks about the benefits of work, but he himself works tirelessly.
The hero of the novel is very strong man. Everyone feels it characters novel. His inner strength is felt in everything: in his attitude towards people, in his categorical statements and, of course, in unhappy love and death. People like Bazarov do not speak empty words, but express only what they have realized and what they have reached through scientific and life experience.
Bazarov is kind in his own way. This can be seen from Bazarov’s meeting with Fenechka. When her child walked calmly into his arms, the mother notes that children feel what a person really is like. It doesn’t matter what class Bazarov belongs to and what his beliefs are.
The important thing is that his kindness is manifested in many ways: he naturally relates to ordinary people, and they respond to him with love; After the duel, Evgeniy immediately rushes to the aid of the wounded Pavel Petrovich. The relationship with Odintsova, his beloved, after their explanation, evokes sincere respect. He treats his parents touchingly; before his death, he first of all thinks about them.
Essentially, these are the traits and feelings of the main character that the author does not focus on. But what does the author want to convey to the reader with these episodes? How does Bazarov change throughout the novel “Fathers and Sons”? The characteristics of the person we see in this work indicate that, rejecting love and moral standards, main character by and large lives by them.
Bazarov's beliefs
First of all, Bazarov is a materialist and nihilist. Doesn't exist for him general principles, faith and ideals. Bazarov is sure that natural moral principles do not exist in humans; everything is determined only by our views and actions.
This man doesn't admit anything. He is sure that there are no feelings, there is only physiology. Love does not exist, there is just physical attraction. In his opinion, needs are the only thing that motivates action. Only facts and needs - and no ideals. He acts because of what he considers useful. He is sure that the most useful thing for his time is denial. And that’s why he denies everything.
From these statements it is clear that Bazarov rejects what cannot be researched. The criterion of truth for him is practice. He doesn't believe in anything. For him, a chemist is more useful than “any poet.” Natural science is everything to which Evgeny Bazarov devotes his life. The image of the practical hero shown in the novel tries to convince the reader that the only acceptable way to study nature is experiment. Actually, Bazarov considers this the only important activity.
Art, love, beauty are nonsense for him. The position of practicality is clear from his statement, where he claims that nature is not a temple, but a real workshop, and man is destined to work in it.
In his opinion, the individual should not live in the name of societies and their ideals. Every person must put his “self” above everything else. And these “self-sufficient” creatures must each fight for their existence, everything weak and unnecessary will perish, and only that which will take humanity to “super heights” will remain. Bazarov calls this destructive theory and denial of everything nihilism.
The author's attitude towards his hero
Turgenev wrote that Bazarov in the novel “Fathers and Sons” is his favorite brainchild. But on the other hand, everything suggests that as a nihilist he is alien to the author. Turgenev shows that Bazarov's entire philosophy collapses as soon as it comes into contact with reality. He wins arguments with the power of conviction, but does not prove the opposite.
His hero in the novel is lonely. Arkady, who tries to imitate Bazarov in everything, marries Katya and immediately forgets his teacher. The point of the novel is to show the absurdity of the idea of nihilism. The test of love made a hole in this theory. Bazarov begins to realize the romance in himself, he already sees something special in Odintsova. Before his death, he, persuading Arkady not to speak poetically and beautifully, himself speaks in the language of poets.
Refuting Nihilism
If the first part of the work tells about the hero as an adherent of the ideas of nihilism, then the second reveals his human essence: his relationships with people change. Even his eternal rival in disputes, Pavel Petrovich, recognizes his nobility after the duel.
The death scene also shows his strength of character. Firstly, death cannot be denied, since this is a dispute between nature and human theory. Secondly, on his deathbed he becomes sensitive, poetic, and courageous. It is in this scene that his humanity is revealed.
The author does not openly express his attitude towards Bazarov. The character of his hero is manifested in the attitude of other characters towards him, their reviews, in the portrait of the hero, in his habits and speech. Even in his origin. What class does Bazarov belong to? He, as we have already said, is a commoner. And this more fully reveals the character of the hero.
There is something unnatural in Bazarov's appearance - long hair and sideburns, dressed in a robe with tassels. With all his appearance he expresses protest to the passing world of his fathers. His behavior and cheeky manners also look unnatural. He wants to express the spirit of nihilism. In the description of the hero, the author’s somewhat ironic attitude towards this new trend is clearly felt.
Trying to show a nihilist and materialist, Turgenev more than once turns his hero into a yearning person. Bazarov’s speeches boil down to one thing - he wants to serve people, but he doesn’t know how and doesn’t know how. At times, he admits that a person cannot escape compassion, connection and solidarity with other people. Because instinct and selfishness alone are acceptable only in the animal world. More than once he admits that it is difficult for him to implement his theories.
Fathers and Sons
Throughout the entire novel, Bazarov defends his beliefs. He was confident that victory would remain his. But at the end of the work, Bazarov not only changes his philosophy, but also does not remain the same. He was overcome by the very feelings he had denied.
His beliefs conflict with human nature. He cannot refuse them, but he also cannot strangle the “new man” within himself. There is no way out of this situation. Therefore, the author leads to the fact that Bazarov is dying. His tragic death- this is the death of his beliefs.
The author's position in this work is clear - a person should not develop one-sidedly. It is necessary to train the soul, not just the brain. Humanity needs renewal, but we also need to remember the lessons of the past. Pavel Petrovich's worldview is meaningless and empty. Bazarov is so dry that he looks less like a person and more like a machine.
Nikolai Petrovich, speaking in the novel from the position of the author, understands that one cannot only destroy and deny. The basis of life lies in the harmony of the physical and spiritual. Bazarov's theory is incorrect, but the era of the Kirsanovs is ending. A new generation of strong and ideological people is ready to replace them.
The description of Evgeniy Bazarov in I. Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons” is unique and multifaceted for Russian literature. The author portrays the type of literate Russian commoner. This fact explains the massive popularity work of art for young people in late XIX century. as a writer, he continued the tradition of Pushkin and Lermontov in depicting the hero of our time. In this article we will tell you which class Evgeniy Bazarov belongs to.
Conflict of two generations
The title of the work clearly makes the reader understand the theme of the novel. Fathers and sons are eternal categories of one problem that Turgenev considers. In his novel, the writer introduces the image of Yevgeny Bazarov, who represents a completely different, that is, a new generation, confident that old customs are outdated and extremely unpopular. Representatives of the adult, established generation think that they are better in everything. They are kinder and smarter! The old people are outraged that they have been replaced by young people who do not have a clear idea of However, there has always been misunderstanding between the elders.
The first in the eternal is represented by the Kirsanov brothers. The reader sees the conflict at the very beginning of the novel. As soon as the youth, represented by Arkady and Evgeny, enter the Kirsanov estate. Pavel Petrovich instantly feels hostile feelings towards his nephew's friend. Not being sure what kind of person he is and what class Bazarov belongs to. At the same time, the young man experiences similar feelings for Kirsanov Sr. A conflict immediately arises between the two generations.
Friendship between Evgeniy Bazarov and Arkady Kirsanov
Bazarov's analysis shows: Evgenia and Arkady have a friendly relationship. They study at the university together. The reader gets the impression that the guys are like-minded people. Kirsanov imitates Bazarov everywhere and in everything. He is admired by Eugene's views, he is flattered by his behavior and character traits. Moreover, Kirsanov Jr. wants to be like his friend. In other words, Arkady is under his influence.
In fact, friends are completely different people. From Bazarov’s description it becomes clear that he is a democrat. No matter what situation Bazarov is in, he will always find something to do.
Black and white
Arkady himself is a spoiled nobleman who requires peace and comfort. He has no serious hobbies, and his friends’ views differ not only in art, but also in their attitude towards people. Kirsanov Jr. lives by principles. He is very neat, dresses well, and is trained in manners. Evgeniy, on the contrary, does not consider it necessary to adhere to etiquette. What class does Bazarov belong to?
Evgeniy belongs to the commoners, he is also possessed by the spirit of nihilism. These facts affect the actions, habits and even speech of the character.
The views of friends also differ on the most important thing - in the purpose of a person and his ideas about life. Their friendly relations end with an escalation of conflict. Former friends say goodbye forever.
I. Turgenev “Fathers and Sons.” Bazarov Evgeniy: portrait of a hero
Before characterizing the hero, we will answer the main question of the article. There is a misconception that Bazarov belonged to the bourgeois class. However, it is not. Already at the very beginning of the novel it becomes clear that Bazarov is a commoner. This means that he does not belong to any class. He believes that he is self-made. He inherited hard work from his parents. This is precisely why he differs from the soft-bodied and lazy residents of the Kirsanov estate.
Bazarov is a hardworking person. Turgenev emphasizes that Evgeny works, and Arkady suffers from idleness. In order to achieve something in life without anyone’s help, Bazarov constantly works and works on himself. This strengthens him as a person even more. He not only talks about the benefits of work, he himself constantly works.
Bazarov - very strong personality. Every hero of the work feels this. Power manifests itself in everything: in interpersonal relationships, in evidence and statements, in unrequited love and even in death. Bazarov does not utter empty words, he voices only what humanity has realized thanks to life experience.
He is kind in his own way. This can be seen in the episode of the meeting with Fenechka. When the baby asked to be held by Evgeniy, the mother noted that small children feel what kind of person is in front of them. And here it no longer matters what class Bazarov belongs to.
It should be noted that his kindness manifests itself in many traits and facets. He is easy to communicate with ordinary people, and they respond to him with love. During the duel, Evgeniy rushed to the aid of the wounded Kirsanov. Relations with Odintsova evoke in the reader a feeling of sincere respect for the hero. Bazarov treats his mother and father with love and reverence, and before his death he thinks about them.
The turning point of nihilistic views
In the first part of the novel, the author says that Bazarov is a supporter of the ideas of nihilism. In the second, the reader sees Eugene’s human essence. Here they change it social relations. Surprisingly, even Kirsanov Sr. recognized his nobility after the duel. Turgenev does not fully show his attitude towards the main character. His character is seen in his interpersonal relationships with other characters; in the way they speak about him; in the portrait of the hero itself; in his manner of speech.
Conclusion
What class does Bazarov belong to? As mentioned above, he is a commoner. And this reveals his character even more. Older generation in his appearance sees a lot of unusual things: long hair, sideburns, a robe with tassels.
In other words, Evgeny expresses his protest to them with his entire appearance. His behavior and mannerisms are also unnatural. After all, by doing this he shows the spirit of nihilism.
When accessing the archive, you must indicate which class your ancestor belonged to. This is not a whim - all classes were taken into account in completely different ways and the documents on which a genealogical search can be conducted are also completely different.
Estate - social group, having rights and obligations enshrined by custom or legal law and inheritable. In Europe in X-XIII centuries There were three main classes: the clergy, the nobility and the peasantry; in the 14th-15th centuries, society was divided into the upper classes (nobility and clergy) and the unprivileged third class (artisans, merchants, peasants). In Russia, as always, everything was much more complicated.
Before Peter, our people were diverse and anarchic; scientifically speaking, there were numerous class groups with a poorly developed corporate organization and unclear boundaries in rights. With Peter everything became clearer, but still in Russia there were more opportunities than in other countries to move from one class to another, it was possible to increase class status through public service, and the nobles of the countries annexed to the empire often became Russian nobles. Women could increase their class status by marrying a member of a higher class. For serfs, sending their children to educational institutions meant a free fortune for them in the future.
All classes Russian Empire were divided into privileged and taxable. Class status was determined by origin (by birth), official position, education and occupation (property status).
The functions of protecting and certifying the rights and privileges of all classes belonged exclusively to the Senate. He considered cases of proving the class rights of individuals and the transition from one state to another.
We will consider one class after another, of course, I will not tell you everything that is possible and necessary about them, but I will give basic information. If there are a lot of questions about a certain class, I will make a special newsletter for it. And if you are interested in what representatives of different classes looked like, you can go to this page: www.all-photo.ru/empire/index.ru.html?id=4861 .
The ruling class
Nobility
The basis of the nobility was made up of the privileged class groups of the so-called " ranks serving in the country" (i.e. by origin). They inherited their service and had hereditary estates, or, upon reaching adulthood, they established estates, which were the reward for their service.
Duma officials The state apparatus was headed by Duma boyars, okolnichy, nobles and Duma clerks.
Moscow officials carried out court service, formed the so-called “sovereign regiment” (a kind of guard), were appointed to leadership positions in the army and in the local administration, had significant estates or were endowed with estates near Moscow: stewards, solicitors, Moscow nobles and tenants.
City officials: elected nobles (they were sent in turn to serve at court and in Moscow, went on long campaigns and performed administrative duties far from the district in which their estates were located), children of boyar courtyards (carried long-distance service) and children of boyar policemen (carried out police service or siege, forming garrisons of their district cities).
Service people were free from taxes, which fell with all their weight on taxing people, but none of them, from the city son of a boyar to the Duma boyar, was exempt from corporal punishment and at any moment could be deprived of their rank, all rights and property. “Sovereign service” was mandatory for all service people and it was possible to be released from it only due to illness, wounds and old age.
Belonging to service people in the fatherland - nobles and boyar children - was recorded in the so-called tithes, i.e. lists of service people compiled during their inspections, analyzes and layout, as well as in the date books of the Local Order, which indicated the size of the estates given to service people.
As a result of Peter's reforms, all categories of service people in the fatherland merged into one “noble gentry class”, and each member of this class was equal from birth to everyone else, and all differences were determined by the difference in position on the career ladder, according to the Table of Ranks, secondly , the acquisition of nobility by the service was legalized and formally regulated.
Nobles were required to serve in the army and navy; no more than one third of each “surname” was allowed into the civil service, which only at that time became separated from the military. According to the decrees of 1714 and 1723. Primary education became mandatory for nobles. They had to learn literacy, numbers and geometry until the age of 15 in specially established schools at monasteries and bishops' houses. Anyone who evaded compulsory education lost the right to marry. Upon entering the service, a nobleman became a soldier of the guard or even the army. He served with people from the lower classes of society who were recruited. It depended on his personal abilities and diligence to become an officer; personal merit promoted even a simple peasant soldier to become an officer. No nobleman could become an officer unless he was a soldier; but every officer, no matter who he was by origin, became a nobleman.
The entire mass of serving nobles was placed under direct subordination to the Senate instead of the previous Rank Order, and the Senate was in charge of the nobility through special official"master of arms". The Senate considered the evidence and approved the rights to noble dignity and honorary titles of princes, counts and barons, issued charters, diplomas and other acts certifying these rights, and compiled coats of arms and armorials noble families and cities; was in charge of cases of promotion for length of service to civil ranks up to the fifth grade inclusive.
The charter granted to the nobility, approved by Catherine II in 1785, established the procedure for acquiring and proving the nobility, its special rights and benefits, including freedom from taxes and corporal punishment, as well as from compulsory service. A noble corporate organization was established with local noble elected bodies. For the first time such a category as personal nobles. The basic rights and privileges granted to the nobility by the Charter remained, with some clarifications and changes, in force until the reforms of the 1860s, and, in a number of provisions, until 1917.
Hereditary nobility passed down by inheritance and thus acquired by the descendants of nobles at birth. Women don't noble origin acquired nobility by marrying a nobleman. However, they did not lose their rights of nobility upon entering into a second marriage in the event of widowhood. At the same time, women of noble origin did not lose their noble dignity when marrying a non-nobleman, although the children from such a marriage inherited their father’s class affiliation.
Nobility could be acquired by a special highest award, but in practice such cases were very rare.
The table of ranks determined the procedure for acquiring nobility by the service. Since this topic is voluminous, if there are questions, I will write about it separately. I will also write separately about who was ranked among the nobility in Cossack troops Oh.
Another source of acquiring noble dignity is awarding one of the Russian orders.
They could ask for elevation to hereditary nobility grandchildren of personal nobles(i.e. descendants of two generations of persons who received personal nobility and served for at least 20 years each), eldest grandchildren of eminent citizens(a title that existed from 1785 to 1807) upon reaching the age of 30, if their grandfathers, fathers and they themselves “retained their eminence immaculately,” and also - according to a tradition not formalized by law - merchants of the 1st guild on the occasion of the 100th anniversary of their company. For example, the founders and owners of the Trekhgornaya manufactory, the Prokhorovs, received nobility.
When new territories were annexed to Russia, the local nobility, as a rule, was included in the Russian nobility.
Regardless of the method of receipt hereditary nobility, all hereditary nobles in the Russian Empire enjoyed the same rights. The differences were only depending on the size of the property - the degree of full participation of nobles in noble elections depended on it. From this point of view, all nobles of the Russian Empire can be divided into 3 categories:
- Nobles included in genealogical books and owning real estate in the province enjoyed the full rights and benefits of the hereditary nobility as part of noble societies, and separately belonging to each person. The nobleman had to be registered in the genealogical book of the province where he had permanent place residence, if he owned any real estate there, even if it was less significant than in other provinces. Nobles who had the necessary property qualifications in several provinces at once could be recorded in the genealogical books of all those provinces where they wished to participate in elections.
- Nobles who were included in the genealogical books, but did not own real estate, enjoyed the full rights and benefits that belonged to each person, and the rights within noble societies were limited. Nobles who proved their nobility through their ancestors, but who did not have any real estate anywhere, were entered into the register of the province where their ancestors owned the estate.
- Nobles not included in genealogical books enjoyed the rights and benefits of nobility assigned to each individual and did not enjoy any rights as part of noble societies.
Entries in genealogical books were made only at the request of the nobles themselves. Some nobles were not recorded in genealogical books, although they could, at will, financial situation do it. Those who received nobility by rank or order could be entered into the register of the province where they wished, regardless of whether they had real estate there. The same rule also applied to foreign nobles, but the latter were included in the genealogical books only after a preliminary presentation about them to the Department of Heraldry.
The hereditary nobles of the Cossack troops were included: the Don Troops in the genealogical book of this army, and the remaining troops - in the genealogical books of those provinces and regions where these troops were located. When the nobles of the Cossack troops were entered into the genealogical books, their affiliation with these troops was indicated.
Personal nobles were not included in the genealogical books.
The genealogical book was divided into six parts. The first part included “the families of the nobility, granted or actual”; in the second part - the families of the military nobility; in the third - families of the nobility acquired in the civil service, as well as those who received the right of hereditary nobility by order; in the fourth - all foreign births; in the fifth - titled clans; in the sixth part - “ancient noble noble families”.
The first three parts were considered less honorable than the fifth and sixth, and there were differences within the parts. For example, the Baltic barony meant belonging to an ancient family, a barony granted Russian family- his initially humble origin, occupation in trade and industry. Count's title meant a particularly high position and special imperial favor, so that sometimes it was even more honorable than princely. Princely title spoke about the antiquity of the origin of the family; there were much more princely families than count families. About the greatest nobility and high position the family was evidenced by the title of the most serene princes, which distinguished the bearers of this title from other princes and gave the right to the title “Your Grace” (ordinary princes, like counts, used the title “Your Lordship”, and the barons were not given a special title). Only the sons of nobles recorded in the fifth and sixth parts of the genealogical books were enrolled in the Corps of Pages, the Alexander (Tsarskoye Selo) Lyceum and the School of Law.
Provincial genealogical books are stored in federal archives (funds of the Heraldry Office (RGADA), Department of Heraldry (RGIA)) and regional archives (funds of provincial noble deputy assemblies, personal funds).
Evidence of nobility was considered: diplomas for the award of noble dignity, coats of arms granted from monarchs, patents for ranks, evidence of the award of the order, evidence “through grants or letters of commendation”, decrees for the award of lands or villages, layout for the noble service of estates, decrees or letters for the award of their estates and estates, decrees or charters for granted villages and estates (even if subsequently lost by the family), decrees, orders or charters given to a nobleman for an embassy, envoy or other parcel, evidence of the noble service of his ancestors, evidence that the father and grandfather “led the noble life or fortune or service similar to a noble title", supported by the certificate of 12 people whose nobility is beyond doubt, deeds of sale, mortgages, deeds and clergy on the noble estate, evidence that the father and grandfather owned villages, as well as evidence of "generational and hereditary , ascending from the son to the father, grandfather, great-grandfather and so on higher, as much as they can and wish to show" (genealogies, generational paintings).
The noble deputy assemblies, consisting of deputies from the district noble societies (one from the district) and the provincial leader of the nobility, considered the evidence presented for the nobility, kept provincial genealogical books and sent information and extracts from these books to the provincial boards and to the Department of Heraldry of the Senate, and they also issued letters for the inclusion of noble families in the genealogical book, and issued to the nobles, at their request, lists of protocols according to which their family was included in the genealogical book, or certificates of nobility. Elevation to the nobility or restoration to the nobility was not within their competence; evidence was considered only of those persons who owned or owned real estate in a given province themselves or through their wives. But retired military officers or officials who chose this province as their place of residence upon retirement could be freely entered into genealogical books by deputy assemblies themselves upon presentation of patents for ranks and certified service records or formal lists, as well as metric certificates for children approved by ecclesiastical consistories.
The district leaders of the nobility compiled alphabetical lists of the noble families of their district, indicating each nobleman's first and last name, information about marriage, wife, children, real estate, place of residence, rank and whether he was in service or retired. These lists were submitted, signed by the district marshal of the nobility, to the provincial marshal. The deputy assembly was based on these lists when entering each clan into the genealogical book, and the decision on such entry had to be based on irrefutable evidence and made by no less than two-thirds of the votes. These lists are stored in regional archives in the funds of provincial noble deputy assemblies.
Determinations of parliamentary assemblies were submitted for revision to the Department of Heraldry of the Senate, except for cases about persons. acquired nobility by way of service. The pedigrees attached to these cases contained information for each person about evidence of his origin, and birth certificates were certified in the consistory. The Department of Heraldry considered cases of nobility and genealogical books, considered rights to noble dignity and the titles of princes, counts and barons, as well as honorary citizenship, issued charters, diplomas and certificates for these rights in the manner prescribed by law, considered cases of change the names of nobles and honorary citizens, compiled the armorial of noble families and the city armorial, approved and compiled new noble coats of arms and issued copies of coats of arms and genealogies.
When considering cases of Greeks and Mohammedans seeking nobility, in case of insufficiency or absence of evidence required by general legislation, deputy assemblies were obliged to send their negative conclusions, without carrying them out and without announcing them to the petitioners, to the governor, who had the right if, despite the lack written evidence, nobility of this person“there is no doubt, it was announced by general and simultaneous fame among the people or proved by some special events,” send your ideas about this to the Minister of Justice, the latter submitted them for consideration to State Council(to the Department of Civil and Spiritual Affairs).
Privileged class
Clergy
The Orthodox clergy was divided into black (all monastics) and white, and the latter included both the clergy themselves (protopresbyters and archpriests, presbyters, priests, protodeacons and subdeacons, as well as clerics in the rank of psalm-readers), and church ministers (sacristans, sextons and etc.). The black clergy could not have property, had no offspring, or ceased all civil ties with children, parents and all relatives, and persons of the upper classes who entered monasticism could not enjoy any class privileges.
In the 18th century the practice (not formally legitimized by any civil code or church canon) of actual inheritance of church parishes was established, when the diocesan bishop, upon the “retirement” of a parish priest, assigned, at the request of the latter, a place for his son or son-in-law. As a result, the applicant could most often receive a parish by marrying a priest’s daughter, for which spiritual consistories kept lists of brides and recommendations were given to those interested.
At the same time, the principle of the need for spiritual education to occupy a clergy position, enshrined in the Spiritual Regulations, was finally established.
The clergy from the very beginning was free from state taxes, first of all, from the poll tax, the recruitment tax (from the moment of its establishment until the introduction of universal conscription), and from 1874 - conscription and military registration. But the freedom of clergy (priests and deacons) from corporal punishment was proclaimed only in 1747.
Persons of clergy were deprived of the right to own serfs (before secularization, this right was exercised corporately by monasteries, bishops' houses and even some churches), but for priests who joined the clergy from the nobility, as well as those who received orders, this right was recognized. The clergy could own uninhabited lands and houses. When owning houses for clergy, there was one restriction: taverns and drinking establishments could not be located in these houses. Clergymen could not engage in contracts and supplies and act as guarantors for them. In general, persons of clergy rank were prohibited from engaging in trades “uncharacteristic of them,” which entailed their inclusion in the trade category (i.e., registration in guilds and guilds). This prohibition was in the same vein as the prohibition for the clergy to attend “games”, play cards, etc.
Belonging to the clergy class was acquired at birth and upon entry into the ranks of the white clergy from other classes. Persons of all classes were allowed to enter the clergy, except for serfs who had not received a leave of absence from their owners, but persons of tax-paying classes could join the ranks of the clergy only with certification from the local diocesan authorities about the lack of persons of clergy rank to fill the corresponding position, with “approving” behavior and presence of a dismissal certificate from a peasant or urban society. The transition to the white clergy of persons of the noble class until the beginning. XX century was uncharacteristic for Russia, but was quite common in Ukraine.
Children of clergy and clergy inherited their class affiliation and did not have to choose their own line of life upon reaching adulthood, but those who remained with their fathers until the age of 15 without going to theological schools and appropriate training, or who were expelled from theological schools for lack of understanding and laziness, were excluded from the clergy. and had to choose their kind of life, i.e. to be assigned to any community of the tax-paying class - bourgeois or peasant - or to enroll as a merchant. The children of clergymen who voluntarily evaded the clergy also had to choose their type of life. Until the 1860s, so-called “debriefings” were periodically organized for the “surplus” children of the clergy, during which the children of clergy, who were not recorded anywhere and were not assigned anywhere, were given up as soldiers.
Belonging to the clergy class was preserved upon reaching adulthood only upon entering a priestly and ecclesiastical position. Belonging to the clergy could be combined with innate or acquired (for example, by order) rights of nobility and honorary citizenship.
Children of the clergy had the right (and initially this right also meant an obligation) to receive an education in theological schools. Graduates of theological seminaries and theological academies might wish to choose for themselves secular career. To do this, they had to resign from the spiritual department. Those born into the clergy upon admission to civil service enjoyed the same rights as the children of personal nobles, but this applied only to clergy children. When entering military service - voluntarily or by examination - children of the clergy who graduated from the secondary department of the seminary and were not dismissed from the seminary for vices enjoyed the rights of volunteers. But for persons who voluntarily resigned from the priesthood and wished to enter the civil service, such entry was prohibited for priests for 10 years after the removal of the priesthood, and for deacons - 6 years.
In practice, the most common option for changing class status for children of the clergy in the 18th - early. XIX centuries there was entry into the civil service as clerical servants before reaching the first class rank, and later - into universities and other educational institutions. The prohibition in 1884 for seminary graduates to enter universities significantly limited this path to class and social mobility clergy. At the same time, greater openness of spiritual educational institutions(according to the statutes of 1867 and 1884) for persons of all classes, as well as the formal prohibition of inheritance of parishes, contributed to greater openness of the clergy.
The wives of clergymen adopted their class affiliation and retained it after the death of their husbands (until their second marriage).
Persons who belonged to the Orthodox clergy were subject to trial by the ecclesiastical department.
Evidence of membership in the clergy was metric certificates, clergy records compiled in consistories, as well as letters of appointment.
Clergy records are stored in federal archives (funds of the Synod, synodal institutions) and in regional archives (funds of spiritual consistories, diocesan administrations, spiritual boards, monasteries, parish and regimental churches).
The clergy did not have a special corporate class organization.
In Russia, clergy of the Armenian-Gregorian Church enjoyed rights basically similar to the Orthodox clergy. The Protestant clergy enjoyed the rights of honorary citizens. Clergy of non-Christian confessions either received honorary citizenship after a certain period of fulfillment of their duties (Muslim clergy), or did not have any special class rights other than those that belonged to them by birth (Jewish clergy), or enjoyed the rights specified in special provisions on foreigners (Lamaist clergy).
It is incredibly difficult to research the genealogy of clergy, in my opinion, because upon entering the seminary they changed their surnames, and the children of the same father could be given different ones. All these surnames were harmonious and similar to each other and therefore... Therefore, I will not write on this topic, but if you ask me, I will find a specialist and he will tell you.
Registration of urban classes, until 1870
A decree of 1698 established the obligatory nature of “trade trade” for the acquisition of urban wealth. A decree of 1699 centralized the management of merchants and townspeople in the Burmister Chamber established for this purpose. Lists of those admitted to the Posads were to be sent to the Moscow City Hall. A decree of 1705 required compiling a census of merchants, townspeople and suburban people with “showing the wealth and trades of each,” that is, compiling census books.
Urban class in the 17th century. consisted of trading people(merchants) and townspeople (urban tax-paying inhabitants). At the beginning of 1720, Peter established the Chief Magistrate in St. Petersburg, who was entrusted with the responsibility of the city estate everywhere, and the following year he gave the Magistrate regulations that set out the foundations of the city structure. Cities were divided according to the number of inhabitants into 5 classes; The citizens of each city are divided into two main classes: regular and irregular citizens. Regular citizens were divided into two guilds: the first guild included bankers, merchants, doctors and pharmacists, skippers, painters and jewelers, artists and scientists. Although they paid taxes, they were exempt from compulsory conscription; in 1722 Peter also removed from them personal service for government needs. Finally, townspeople received the right to own serfs and land on an equal basis with the nobility if they were factory owners or factory owners. The second guild consisted of small traders and artisans, united in workshops.
Irregular citizens were “mean”, i.e. people of low origin (laborers, hirelings, day laborers).
Persons of other classes(clergy, nobles, peasants) living permanently in the city were not included in the number of citizens, they were only “listed as citizens” and did not participate in city government.
The city was governed by an elected board - the magistrate. She was elected from among herself only by regular citizens. The vile people elected their own elders, who represented their interests in the magistrate. The magistrate, subordinate to the Chief Magistrate, was in charge of the city's economy and kept order. His main goal was the development of trade and crafts.
The classification of the classes of the urban population was made by the Regulations, or Charter of the Chief Magistrate, approved in 1721, where in Chapter 3 it was ordered to keep a detailed description of all residents in the cities, and who has what trade, namely: merchant people, skippers (or shipowners), artists or craftsmen and others according to the attached form ¦.
The distinction between the merchant and petty bourgeois classes was made by the manifesto of 1775, more details about merchants and townspeople are written separately.
According to city regulations in city philistine book entered: “the name and nickname of every citizen who has a house, or a building, or land in that city, or who is registered in a guild or guild, or who earns a living in the trades of the petty bourgeoisie.”
In the first part of the book, the “state and names of real city inhabitants” were entered in alphabetical order (i.e. those “who have a house, or other building, or place, or land in that city”). The second part was intended to include those who signed up for the guild. In the fourth part it was required to enter “out-of-town and foreign guests in alphabetical order.” The fifth part was intended for recording eminent citizens (also in alphabetical order). The sixth part served to include “posadskie”, by which they meant “old-timers in that city, or those who settled, or those born, who are not included in other parts of the book..., who feed themselves in that city by fishing, handicraft or work.”
The form of the city philistine book was stable throughout the 19th century until its abolition in 1870. Philistine books are stored in regional archives (funds of six-voice councils, deanery councils).
The legislation provided for the issuance of documents confirming the condition of each individual urban citizen and his family. So, “upon being included in the philistine register,” each family had to receive a “sheet” confirming their condition, signed in the Deputy Assembly, with the seal of the city society attached. Craftsmen who had the right to permanent registration in the guild state received certificates for the title of craftsmen. In the second half of the 19th century, the presence of a merchant’s certificate was considered sufficient for merchants. Belonging to the category of honorary citizens, according to the law, was confirmed by letters and certificates.
After 1870, the management of the affairs of individual estates was transferred to the exclusive jurisdiction of the corresponding estate administrations: merchant, petty bourgeois and craft.
Semi-privileged classes
Semi-privileged classes in late XVIII century accounted for about 2.5% of the population:
- merchants (1st, 2nd and 3rd guilds)
- military service class (Cossacks, Kalmyks and part of the Bashkirs)
- foreign colonists
- commoners
- soldiers and soldiers' children
Merchants
In Muscovite Rus', merchants stood out from the general mass of townspeople, divided into guests, merchants of the Living Room and Cloth Hundreds in Moscow and " the best people"in the cities, and the guests constituted the most privileged elite of the merchant class.
In 1724, the corresponding principles for dividing merchants into guilds were formulated. “In the 1st guild there are noble merchants who have large trades and who trade various goods in rows, city doctors, pharmacists and healers, ship industrialists. In the 2nd guild who sell small goods and all kinds of food supplies, craftsmen of all kinds of skills and people others, the like; others, namely: all the vile people who find themselves in hired jobs, in menial jobs, and the like, although they are citizens and are counted among citizens, they are not counted among noble and regular citizens.”
In 1775 it was established that merchants should be divided into 3 guilds in accordance with the declared capital and pay 1% to the treasury on their declared capital, and on the capitation tax
