FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION
RUSSIAN FEDERATION
OMSK STATE UNIVERSITY
THEM. F.M. DOSTOYEVSKY
DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT
COURSE WORK
in the discipline "Development of management decisions"
on the topic: “The problem of leadership in the development and implementation of management decisions”
Is done by a student
group EM-502
Sumin P.V.
scientific adviser
Kryuchkov V.N.
INTRODUCTION 4
CHAPTER 1. Theoretical foundations of leadership, its concept and essence 5
1.1. Concepts and essence of leadership 5
1.2. Existing approaches to the study of leadership 7
CHAPTER 2. The role of leadership in managerial decision-making 14
2.1. Theoretical aspects decision-making by the head 14
2.2. Leadership decision making concepts 17
CHAPTER 3. Making managerial decisions in ZAO Investment Programs of Siberia 22
3.1. General characteristics of CJSC "IPS" 22
3.2. Decision-making procedure in CJSC Investment Programs of Siberia 23
CONCLUSION 30
REFERENCES: 32
APPENDICES 2
INTRODUCTION
The changes taking place today in Russia and in the world make us take a fresh look at the role of a manager and the dilemma "manager or leader". Not so long ago, one of the researchers of leadership formulated the famous maxim: "Managers do everything right, and leaders do the right things." Now, however, this opposition no longer seems so obvious: as a new management function – innovation – emerges, managers, and not only those occupying top managerial positions, require leadership skills.
In connection with fierce competition today, the problem of leadership is acute. The problem of quick decision-making and responsibility for the implementation of the task, as well as for the effective work of the team, rests with the manager. Leadership qualities and competent management of people is the main "trump card" in the competitive struggle. This is exactly what will make you stand out. How you attract, motivate employees, how you build relationships with your suppliers and customers is more important than your technology.
The main purpose of the work is to study the essence of leadership, the problems of leadership in the development of management decisions, to analyze the relationship between the leader and subordinates, and to give recommendations to improve the performance of the enterprise as a whole.
The object of study is managerial activity, that is, a decision as a product of managerial work, and its adoption as a process leading to the emergence of this product, carried out by a person.
The subject of study is the influence of the human factor on the decision-making process.
An important task of this work is the issue of leadership in Russian management and the possibility of applying global leadership theories in Russian management practice.
In writing this work, I studied the experience of the leaders of large companies, who showed the whole world what leadership qualities a successful leader must have in order to make a successful decision.
CHAPTER 1. Theoretical foundations of leadership, its concept and essence
1.1. Concepts and essence of leadership
To date, there is not a single theory or approach that would unite all research and reflect a common vision of the phenomenon of leadership and the figure of a leader. Similarly, there is no common view on the formulation of leadership:
Leadership is a method of working that aims to help employees do their best work, it is an integral component of the work of teams and groups.
Leadership is the ability to raise a person's vision to the level of a broader outlook, to bring the effectiveness of a person to a level of higher standards, as well as the ability to shape a person, going beyond the usual limits that limit it.
Leadership is a managerial relationship between a leader and followers, based on an effective combination of various sources of power for a given situation and aimed at encouraging people to achieve common goals.
Leadership is not leadership, although a leader can be a leader. Leadership is not management, but charismatic leadership.
Thus, leadership is a multifaceted social phenomenon, an indispensable element of a modern management system and its “trigger mechanism”, the phenomenon of which manifests itself in any more or less organized groups striving for some common goal for the group.
Distinguish between formal and informal leadership. In the first case, the influence on subordinates is from the positions held. The process of influencing people through personal abilities, skills and other resources is called informal leadership. But in all cases, the leader has a social and psychological, emotional support in society or in groups of people who follow him.
employee trust;
ability to communicate;
Thus, it should be concluded that the leader is the dominant person of any society, organized group or organization.
Depending on the direction of influence on the organization in the implementation of the actions of the leader, the following types of leadership can be considered:
functional(constructive) - contributes to the implementation of the goals of the organization;
dysfunctional(destructive) - causes damage to the organization;
neutral- not directly affecting the efficiency of production activities.
However, it should be noted that in real life it is not always possible to clearly draw the boundaries between these types of leadership, because one person can be a leader in more than one environment (at work, in school, in sports section etc.).
Constructive leadership is one of the most important conditions for effective leadership. Optimal, but at the same time difficult to achieve, for a leader is a combination of the qualities of a formal and informal leader. It is much more difficult to achieve the role of a leader and an emotional leader in oneself than a combination of a leader and a business leader, although the latter is enough for effective management.
The position occupied by the leader in the system of emotional relations also affects the effectiveness of leadership. It should not be too low, otherwise it may turn into antipathy. In this case, emotional hostility can significantly undermine both the business and official authority of the manager, and reduce the effectiveness of his activities.
Leadership issues are key to achieving organizational effectiveness. On the one hand, leadership is seen as the presence of a certain set of qualities attributed to those who successfully influence or influence others, on the other hand, leadership is a process of predominantly non-forced influence in the direction of achieving a group or organization of its goals. Leadership is a specific type of managerial interaction based on the most effective combination of various sources of power and aimed at encouraging people to achieve common goals.
Leadership as a type of management relationship is different from management itself, and the relationship scheme should more resemble the “leader-follower” type than the “boss-subordinate” type. However, not every manager uses leadership in his behavior, especially in Russian companies of the “old school”. A productive manager is not necessarily an effective leader, and vice versa. Success in management does not compensate for poor leadership.
It is also necessary to distinguish between management and leadership. Management is a phenomenon that still takes place in the system of formal relations, and leadership is a phenomenon generated by the system of informal relations.
Thus, leadership is a multilateral social phenomenon, an indispensable element of a modern management system, which can be both formal and informal in nature, suggesting that the leader has several key qualities and a “leader-follower” relationship scheme.
1.2. Existing approaches to the study of leadership
Approaches to the study of the concept of "Leadership" differ in the combination of three main variables:
leadership skills,
leadership behavior
the situation in which the leader operates.
An important role is played by the characteristics and behavior of the followers. Each of the approaches offers its own solution to the problem of effective leadership.
At the same time, leadership issues are closely related to employee motivation. So early behavioral concepts offered to define effective leadership based on the qualities of a leader and his behavior styles. The situation in these cases was not taken into account. These concepts eventually sank into an endless array of revealed qualities and patterns of behavior, never producing a complete theory. However, it is worth briefly considering their contribution to the development of approaches:
So to the theories behavioral character include:
theory D. McGregory, in which he clearly outlined two main types or styles of leadership: authoritarian leadership (theory "X") and democratic leadership (theory "Y").
According to Theory X:
people do not like to work and avoid work whenever possible;
people who do not have ambition try to get rid of responsibility, preferring to be led;
people want security;
to force people to work, it is necessary to use control, coercion or the threat of punishment.
Based on these assumptions, the autocratic leader centralizes authority, structures the work of subordinates, giving them little freedom to make decisions, and exerts psychological pressure to ensure that work is done.
According to the "Y" theory:
labor is a natural process, and if conditions are favorable, people take responsibility and even strive for it;
if people are attached to organizational goals, then they use self-management and self-control;
inclusion is a function of reward;
the intellectual potential of the average person is partially used.
The democratic leader prefers mechanisms of influence that appeal to high-level needs: the need for belonging, high purpose, autonomy, and self-expression. The task of the leader is to create an atmosphere of openness, trust and benevolence.
2) Likert theory. He identified two types of leaders: a leader who wants to increase productivity, a task-oriented leader, and a leader focused on a person. The first is characterized, first of all, by concern for the design of the task and the development of a reward system, for the second - the improvement of human relations and the involvement of workers in management. Four systems of leadership style have been proposed:
advisory- tactical decisions are made by subordinates, and strategic decisions are made by the leader;
democratic- full trust between managers and subordinates, decision-making is decentralized, that is, the so-called group leadership;
Thus, Likert rigidly divides the types of leadership, believing that it is impossible to focus on both work and a person at the same time, and believes that the most optimal behavior is a person-oriented leader.
3) The management grid of Blake and Mouton, who ranked the degree of "concern for a person" and "concern for production" on a 9-point scale, highlighting 5 main leadership styles.
organization
Holiday House
fear of poverty
team
Degree of production care
1-1 - the manager needs a minimum of effort to achieve such a quality of work that will avoid dismissal;
1-9 - the leader is focused on warm human relationships, but cares little about the effectiveness of completing tasks;
9-1 - the leader cares about the efficiency of the work performed, not paying attention to the morale of subordinates;
5-5 - the leader finds a balance of efficiency and good morale;
9-9 - The leader ensures that subordinates consciously join the goals of the organization, which ensures both high morale and high efficiency;
Approaches based on situational Ideas have already been proposed to explain the effectiveness of leadership through various situational variables, while not taking into account the leader as a person.
1) Mitchell and House theory
This theory is called "path-goal" and attempts to explain the impact that the behavior of the leader has on the motivation, satisfaction and productivity of the subordinate. The leader can encourage subordinates to achieve the goals of the organization, influencing the way to achieve these goals:
clarify what is expected of the subordinate;
support, help eliminate interference;
direct the efforts of subordinates to achieve goals;
meet the needs of the subordinate when the goal is achieved.
The model is based on the following leadership styles:
support style focused on human relations;
task-oriented instrumental style;
a style that encourages the participation of subordinates in decision-making;
a style focused on the achievement of subordinate tasks.
Leadership style, according to this model, depends on two situational factors: the personal needs of subordinates (self-respect, autonomy, belonging, self-expression) and demands and influences from outside. external environment(the conviction to influence others).
2) Vroom-Yetton model
According to the authors of the model, there are five leadership styles that a leader can use, depending on the extent to which subordinates are allowed to participate in decision-making, as well as on the characteristics of the situation or problem, which can also be divided into groups:
autocratic styles
A I - you yourself solve the problem and make a decision;
A II - The role of subordinates in decision-making - to provide the necessary information, and not to seek a solution;
Advisory styles
C I - Work with your subordinates individually, without gathering them in a group. Your decision does not reflect the influence of your subordinates.
C II - You work with the team, but your opinion may not reflect the opinion of the team.
Group style
G II - style full participation: joint problem solving.
This model differs from others in that it focuses on decision making, but it also highlights the absence of a universally optimal method of influencing subordinates. The optimal style depends on the changing variables of the decision situation.
3) Fiedler's theory
Fiedler's model was an important contribution to the development of the entire theory of leadership, as it first focused on the situation and identified three factors that influence the behavior of the leader:
Relationship between leader and team members.
Task structure.
3. Official powers.
The author believes that although each situation has its own leadership style, the leader's style remains unchanged, and since a person cannot adapt his leadership style to the situation, he must be placed in situations that best suit his leadership style. This will ensure a balance between the requirements put forward by the situation and the personal qualities of the leader, which leads to high performance and satisfaction. To determine the leadership style, Fiedler conducted a survey to find out the portrait of a manager whose personal qualities would be least preferred by employees of a certain group (CPC - the least preferred colleague).
Managers with a high CPD rating build relationships with subordinates on a personal basis and mutual assistance, a low one focuses on the task and focuses on production. Based on the fact that team relations can be good or bad, the task is constructed or not, and the official power is large or small, Fiedler suggests eight potential leadership styles. The approach warns against the simplistic view that there is one, optimal leadership style - independent of circumstances.
Thus, leadership in the organization is closely related to the motivation of labor, as can be seen from the theories of motivation, which are considered here in a slightly different light from the leader-manager. The evolution of approaches went from simple to complex, from determining the qualities and styles of a leader to considering situations in which a leader has to be.
CHAPTER 2. The role of leadership in managerial decision-making
2.1. Theoretical aspects of decision-making by a manager
The result of the manager's work is a managerial decision, although this is not only his prerogative. The whole activity of the organization depends on what this decision will be, it also depends on whether the goal will be achieved or not. Therefore, the adoption of a decision by a manager always presents certain difficulties. This is due both to the responsibility that the manager takes on and to the uncertainty that is present when choosing one of the alternatives.
Most of the problems that occur in the work of a manager are not so often repeated, and therefore their solution is also a kind of problem - a problem of choice, which is not always easy to make.
Solution is the choice of one of the alternatives that are available to solve a certain problem.
In its turn, problem- This is a situation that represents an obstacle to the achievement of the goals set by the organization. Making ineffective decisions is often due to a lack of skills to think logically. It is essential to approach decision making as a rational process. The goal of decision-making is to make the best choice from several available options in order to achieve a certain, most beneficial result.
Ben Hiers in his book "The Philosophy of Professional Decision Making" suggests the following algorithm of actions for rationalizing decision making:
correct wording of the question. Where the manager needs to make sure that, first, the question is not too simplistic in order to help himself make a simple decision; secondly, that short-term considerations dominate over medium-term and long-term ones; thirdly, that this problem has been thought out comprehensively and deeply
Choice of alternatives. Here it is necessary to put forward as many ideas as possible. The wider the choice, the more opportunities for making an effective decision. During this stage, the decision maker is forced to make certain commitments to the future course of action. Further analysis of alternatives allows narrowing the scope of choice. When choosing an alternative, three approaches can be used: taking into account past experience; conducting an experiment; research and analysis.
Effects. Any decision is based on risk and probability, because you cannot foresee everything that will happen. However, it is necessary to calculate the consequences of possible alternatives as realistically as possible. We can reliably assess the potential effectiveness of one solution in relation to another when the results have already been identified and evaluated.
Solution. Experience, imagination and reason all play a role in decision making. Experience gives us patterns and precedents. Imagination is the ability to choose, and the ability to foresee the consequences.
Follow-up activities. Often new, unique problems arise, the solution of which does not fit into the usual and standard framework. In e that case creativity is needed. There are many methods of creative search for alternatives: “brainstorming”: a method of putting forward proposals; group analysis of the situation; causal diagram; opinion map. It is important to understand that the creative environment when looking for alternatives is created by the leader himself. It helps to make the search for alternatives more creative: motivation for the search; providing more information that allows a comprehensive and deeper knowledge of the problem; free discussion and admission of any ideas to solve the problem; creating conditions for insight; testing the idea by other people for its compliance with the established criteria.
All proposed alternatives at subsequent stages should be compared with each other to evaluate the subsequent choice of the best of them. Evaluation involves determining the negative and positive aspects of the alternatives under consideration and establishing a certain level of compromise between them. For this, both quantitative and qualitative measures are used.
Drawing on past experience is the most commonly used approach in choosing an alternative. Experienced managers not only use this approach, but also strongly believe in it. This underlies the assertion that the higher the level of leadership, the more experience is required. To a certain extent, experience develops the manager's skills and abilities, the time spent on decision-making. Experience in problem solving and decision making develops skills in judgment and intuition. However, it is believed that relying on past experience to plan for the future can be very dangerous. The right decision is based on future events, and experience is based on the past. Experience becomes a useful and powerful tool in decision making if it is carefully analyzed. In this regard, it is of great interest to the manager to study the experience of successful companies, as well as companies that have failed.
Experiment as a method of selecting an alternative is based on taking one or more alternatives and trying them out in practice to determine what might happen. There is a fairly strong opinion about the need for widespread use of this method in management and, in particular, in decision-making. It is believed that this is the only way for the manager to achieve confidence that the decision being made is correct. However, the monetary side of the experiment should be taken into account. Also, the complexity of using the experiment is that even after its completion, the manager may still have doubts about the correctness of the choice, since in the future the situation will not necessarily copy the situation in the present.
It is believed that the most common and perhaps the most effective method for selecting alternatives is through research and analysis. This method involves solving the problem based on the search for relationships between its most important variables, constraints and fundamentals, which are considered in relation to the goals.
2.2. Leader decision making concepts
The effectiveness of managerial decision-making is primarily influenced by the leader's leadership qualities. Without the ability to select, prepare, organize, interest and evaluate people, not a single managerial decision will achieve its goal.
Categories of Leadership Behavior Garry Yukla. He developed nineteen categories of manager behavior. Yukla's work allows managers to create the right image of a leader, to calculate the correctness of various actions. And all this is done in order to bring the management process to a qualitatively new level:
Emphasis on production. Including all measures to increase the productivity and efficiency of the production process.
sensitivity, attentiveness. A manager must give some support to people who believe in him.
Inspiration. The ability of a leader to stimulate enthusiasm.
Praise and recognition. The head expresses gratitude, confidence in maintaining such an attitude to work in the future.
Reward for activities for the benefit of the company. Appreciation in the form of a cash bonus, promotion, and so on.
Participation in decision making. The manager consults with subordinates on important issues of doing business in the company.
Broadcast powers. The leader transfers part of his functions and responsibilities, while the team members themselves decide how to most rationally approach the performance of the work assigned to them.
Clarification of roles. The manager communicates to subordinates their duties and responsibilities.
staging goals. Pays attention to each of the tasks performed, explains the overall task.
Education. The manager determines the need for retraining and advanced training for his subordinates.
Spread of information. The manager keeps subordinates informed of all events taking place in the company
Solution of problems. The manager takes the initiative to solve problems that arise in the process of work.
Planning. The leader draws up a clear program of actions to implement the goals set.
Action coordination. The manager must ensure clear coordination between the various departments of the organization.
Making work easier. The leader provides subordinates with support, supplying the necessary raw materials, providing additional amenities.
Engagement of consultants. The manager maintains contacts with specialists in various fields, resorts to their help, advice, and consultation.
Establishing a favorable climate in a collective. The leader does everything to maintain an atmosphere of trust and mutual understanding, cooperation and mutual assistance among his subordinates.
Conflict Management. To do this, he can carry out certain preventive work.
Discipline and criticism. A situation when it is necessary to restore discipline, criticize subordinates for dishonesty, violation of instructions, poor-quality work.
Thus, the work of Yukla allows us to trace the strong influence that the activities of the leader have on subordinates, the atmosphere in the team and the results of the organization as a whole.
2) The human factor in Belbin's theory of team roles. In modern conditions, team decision-making is practiced, i.e. make full use of the human factor. Each team manager has a specific role. Three closely interrelated groups stand out in particular: roles related to interpersonal relationships and interaction between employees of the organization, informational, and decision-making. Often you have to change and combine roles. There is an interesting approach to using roles in managing and making effective decisions. [ Milner B.Z., "Organization Theory": Textbook, M .: INFRA-M, 2004, 132 p.]
It is well known that the composition of the leadership and the approach to managing an organization directly affects its success. The main thing is to correctly define the role of each team member. The theory itself is built on the fact that any, even the smallest organization, should take advantage of teamwork, where everyone plays a role. There are nine such roles in this theory..
Each manager has his own role, while taking into account that the role has advantages and disadvantages. To recruit a successful team, you need to balance the roles. Moreover, the choice of the position of each employee directly depends on the problem being solved and the specific situation.
According to Belbin, there are three categories of roles in a team:
Action people: shaper, implementer, pedant;
Socially oriented: coordinator, resource researcher, soul of the team;
Intellectual roles: idea generator, analytic strategist, specialist.
Roles are complemented by specific content depending on the organizational environment in which people work. It is not necessary to combine all roles to create a successful team. The main thing is that they are compatible.
Once you have decided on the roles, you need to carefully select a good team. In this question, it is very important to understand the difference between a team and a group:
the team has a limited size, optimally 4-6 people. The even number is not accidental - it is associated with role-playing couples. If there are many talented and strong managers in the company, then it is best to divide them into 2-3 teams and set one goal for them. This will allow you to find several ways to solve the problem and ultimately lead to a successful result;
the team is more likely to identify the roles of employees, they are capable of mutual understanding and support. While in the group everyone is focused on himself, does not tolerate competition and more often goes to confrontation;
cohesive teamwork allows for joint leadership or delegation of authority. The group retains sole control.
Thus, in order to succeed in the implementation of solutions, it is necessary to use the management of the "new age", where not one leader dominates, but a well-balanced and creative team.
3) The Vroom-Yetton Model of Executive Decision Making. The model focuses on the decision-making process. According to her, there are five leadership styles that a leader can use, depending on the extent to which subordinates are allowed to participate in decision making.
The manager himself solves the problem using the available this moment information.
The manager receives the necessary information from his subordinates and then solves the problem himself.
The manager presents the problem individually to the subordinates concerned, listens to their ideas and suggestions, but does not collect them together in one group. Then he makes his own decision.
The manager presents the problem to a group of subordinates, and the whole team listens to all ideas and suggestions. Then he decides
A manager poses a problem to a group of subordinates. Together they find and evaluate alternatives and try to reach an agreement. He doesn't influence the group to make "his" decision.
Criteria for the problem according to the Vroom–Yetton model
The value of the quality of the solution.
Availability of information and experience to make a quality decision.
The degree of structure of the problem.
The importance of subordinates agreeing with the goals of the organization and their involvement in the effective implementation of the decision.
A certain probability, based on past experience, that an autocratic decision by a leader will be supported by subordinates.
The degree to which subordinates are motivated to achieve the goals of the organization if they fulfill the tasks formulated in the problem statement.
Probabilities of conflict between subordinates when choosing an alternative.
A similar situation can arise, as it often does, if the leader is transferred from a unit with highly structured tasks to a unit with unstructured, creative tasks. Research has shown that effective leaders respond to situations flexibly by changing styles.
A leader who wants to be as efficient as possible cannot afford to adopt one style of leadership throughout their entire career. Therefore, an effective leader is one who can behave differently depending on the requirements of reality. (Attachment 1)
Thus, in some situations, leaders can achieve their effectiveness by structuring tasks, planning and organizing tasks and roles, showing care and support, in others they can influence by allowing subordinates to participate in decision-making to some extent, rather than structuring working conditions. But the main thing is that there is no universal leadership style, and even in the conditions of one organization, as the staff changes, the leader must change his approach.
CHAPTER 3. Making managerial decisions in CJSC Investment Programs of Siberia
3.1. General characteristics of CJSC "IPS"
Closed Joint Stock Company "Investment Programs of Siberia" began its work in the regional market in 1994. Advertising activities, as one of the areas, she began to engage in at the end of 2007.
Today, Siberian Investment Programs unites both qualified employees with decades of experience and young, promising professionals who are able to bring new ideas and make the company's work more dynamic.
Consistently high quality of services provided and flexible pricing policy are the main postulates on which the company's work is based. Therefore, in a relatively short period of work in the field of advertising, IPS CJSC has acquired reliable partners and regular customers.
Corporate identity development based on a completely new concept of optimized brainstorming. When developing a corporate identity, the creative group includes designers, journalists, marketers, sales managers, promotional managers, directors of mass cultural programs, KVN attendees, all this allows us to approach the development of corporate identity professionally and as creatively as possible. As a result, the customer is provided with several options, the opportunity to conduct a "pilot" study on the perception of each version of the corporate identity, the development of an office interior in the style and colors of the company.
Carrying out BTL events. Which includes all the main BTL technologies. Thanks to its own capacities and reliable partners, the company is ready to solve complex tasks such as: production of the necessary advertising materials, implementation of the entire advertising company as a whole (BTL + ATL). Thanks to the presence of its own creative team, it is ready to offer both standard events, such as tasting or distribution of leaflets, as well as completely new individually developed advertising concepts.
Printing Services.
Development of electronic presentations.
Development and production of CD business cards.
3.2. Decision-making procedure in CJSC Investment Programs of Siberia
The decision-making procedure in CJSC "IPS" is carried out taking into account the official powers of employees. Decisions are made at the level of the meeting of shareholders, as well as the executive director and heads of departments. Further decisions are transferred to the specialists of each department, who act on the basis of job descriptions.
Decisions are made on the basis of the goals and objectives of CJSC IPS. Therefore, to justify decisions, methods of economic analysis and verification of compliance with development goals are used.
Based on a survey of employees of the advertising department and its head, 2 main problems of the organization were identified: the head put in the first place the insufficiency of the customer base, and the employees - the high turnover of the design staff. Thus, there is disagreement in the department about the main problem, so it is worth considering all existing problems to determine their degree of importance, the consequences of each of them if they are not solved, and the possibility of solving them (on a scale of 1 to 10).
Table 1. Definition of the main problem
|
Problem |
Importance of the problem |
Solvability of the problem |
The severity of the problem |
Sum of points |
|
1 – High turnover of design staff |
||||
|
2 – Lack of an established base of active customers |
||||
|
3 - Deficit of current assets |
||||
|
4 - Forced low wages |
||||
|
6 - Delays in fulfilling orders |
||||
|
7 - Shortage of funds |
||||
|
8 - Risk of deterioration of the image |
||||
|
9 - Risk of losing customers |
Thus, the most important issue at the moment is "High turnover of design staff". This is most likely partly due to the fact that design employees do it on a contract basis and do not have a regular income. As a result, the advertising department has to spend a lot of time searching for suitable candidates for design positions, but there is no way to provide decent motivation for them to solve this problem.
Nevertheless, it is also important for the leader to understand not only the importance of solving or not solving the problem, its prospects, but also the ways to solve it. To do this, he needs to know the following characteristics of it: the degree of formalization (whether the problem is structured or semi-structured), the priority or urgency of the need for a solution, as well as the scale of the problem (organization as a whole, structural unit, separate branch).
Table 2. Classification of existing problems in the advertising department
|
Problems |
Classification |
||
|
According to the degree of formalization |
In order of importance |
By the scale of the problem |
|
|
Structured |
very important, urgent |
Structural unit |
|
|
Unstructured |
Very important, medium urgency |
Organizational |
|
|
3 - Deficit of current assets |
Structured |
important, not urgent |
Organizational |
|
Structured |
Important, medium urgency |
Organizational |
|
|
Structured |
important, urgent |
Structural unit |
|
|
Unstructured |
important, urgent |
Structural unit |
|
|
7 - Shortage of funds |
Unstructured |
Important, medium urgency |
Organizational |
|
8 - Risk of deterioration of the image |
Unstructured |
important, not urgent |
Organizational |
|
9 - Risk of losing customers |
Unstructured |
important, not urgent |
Organizational |
It is equally important for the manager to understand which problems are interconnected, because it may turn out that when solving one problem, some of the remaining ones will be resolved by themselves. To do this, you need to build a table that reflects the causal characteristics of existing problems:
Table 3. Causal relationship
|
PROBLEM |
CONSEQUENCE |
|
|
1 – High turnover of design staff |
||
|
2 – Lack of an established base of active customers |
||
|
3 - Deficit of current assets |
||
|
4 - Forced low wage |
||
|
6 - Delays in fulfilling orders |
||
|
7 - Shortage of funds |
||
|
8 - Risk of deterioration of the image |
||
|
9 - Risk of losing customers |
Thus, the block diagram of the main problem will look like this:
Symptom Cause Effect
The target orientation of solving this problem will be determined by the head of the advertising department, which primarily focuses on the quality of services provided. Thus, the goal of solving this problem is to reduce the staff turnover of the design staff.
During the interview with the staff and the head of the advertising department, the following alternatives were put forward as a solution to the existing problem:
Set up freelance designers as a separate department within the advertising department.
To increase the number of attracted designers at the expense of design students, for part-time jobs and internships.
However, the following limitations were identified for the considered alternative solutions:
For the first alternative:
insufficient financial independence of the department;
lack of funds for expansion;
For the second alternative:
insufficiency of funds;
complicating the process of hiring new, possibly temporary, designers.
For the third alternative:
ignorance of the opportunities and potential of students at the primary level;
weak interest and attachment of student interns to the advertising department.
Due to the lack of competence in making decisions on the creation of a new department, the first alternative is not possible to implement. For the remaining alternative solutions, the following qualitative and quantitative criteria can be distinguished:
Table 4. Evaluation criteria
|
Criterion |
Specific weight of the criterion |
|
|
Effect gain speed |
||
|
Changing the level of control over design activities |
||
And in accordance with the criteria obtained, an assessment of alternatives was made.
Table 5. Evaluation of alternatives
|
Criterion |
2 alternative |
3 alternative Increase the number of designers attracted by design students for part-time jobs and internships |
|||
|
Effect gain speed |
5*0,4 = 2,0 |
3*0,4 = 1,2 |
|||
|
Solution Implementation Costs |
2*0,35 = 0,7 |
1,4*0,35 = 1,4 |
|||
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The need to attract additional resources to implement the solution |
3*0,2 = 0,6 |
3*0,2 = 0,6 |
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4*0,05 = 0,2 |
2*0,05 = 0,1 |
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Thus, according to the assessment, from the existing alternatives, it is better to choose alternative No. 2 "Decoration of designers as employees of the advertising department." The head of the department also decided to carry out a similar procedure for identifying and evaluating alternatives for other key problems, such as “Lack of an accumulated base of active customers” and “Shortage of funds”, which is primarily due to the fact that these are external problems, as well as or "Decreased motivation of the advertising department staff", as it is closely related to the high turnover of the design staff.
CONCLUSION
Leadership is a multifaceted social phenomenon, an indispensable element of a modern management system and its “trigger mechanism”, the phenomenon of which manifests itself in any more or less organized groups striving for some common goal for the group.
Often the leader's leadership is recognized by followers when he has already proven his competence and value for individuals, groups and the organization as a whole. In this case, as the most characteristic features of an effective leader, one can single out:
employee trust;
the ability to see the situation as a whole;
ability to communicate;
flexibility in decision making, etc.
Leadership in an organization is closely related to the motivation of labor, as can be seen from the theories of motivation, which are considered here in a slightly different light from the leader-manager. The evolution of approaches went from simple to complex, from determining the qualities and styles of a leader to considering situations in which a leader has to be.
In some situations, leaders can achieve their effectiveness by structuring tasks, planning and organizing tasks and roles, showing concern and support, in others they can influence by allowing subordinates to some extent participate in decision-making, rather than structuring the conditions for the implementation of work. . But the main thing is that there is no universal leadership style, and even in the conditions of one organization, as the staff changes, the leader must change his approach.
After analyzing this company, 2 main problems of the organization were identified: the head put in the first place the lack of development of the client base, and the employees - the high turnover of the design staff.
According to the evaluation of the existing alternatives, it is better to choose alternative No. 2 "Decoration of designers as employees of the advertising department." The head of the department also decided to carry out a similar procedure for identifying and evaluating alternatives for other key issues, such as “Lack of an accumulated base of active customers” and “Shortage of funds”
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Bialiatsky N. “Management. Fundamentals of Leadership” // series “Economic Education”, ed. New knowledge, 2004, 250 p.
Drucker P. Effective management / Per. from English. M.: FAIR-PRESS, 2000.
Evlanov L.G., "Theory and practice of decision making." M.: "Economics", 1998, 110 p.
Krasnov A.V., “Four components of management. Library of financial management”, M., 2001, 96s.
Krichevsky R. L. "If you are a leader ... Elements of the psychology of management in everyday work", "Delo", 1998, p.9
Litvak B.G., "Management decisions", M .: EKMOS, 1998, 92-94 pp.]
Lobanov V. USA: Competence Models for Managers public institutions. Problems of theory and practice of management. N1, 2000.
Land P.E. Management is the art of managing. M., 2001, p.185
Meskon M.Kh., Albert M., Hedouri F. Fundamentals of management / Per. from English. M.: Delo, 2002.
Milner B.Z., "Organization Theory": Textbook, M.: INFRA-M, 2004, 132 p.
Senge P. How to learn to change. Interview with Alan Weber // The Art of Management, March 2000.
Elliot Jack. Leadership in management: the key to a good organization // Reading Management Learning. The Open University. MIM "LINK", 2000.
Leiman Ya.A. "Management by results" / under. ed. Leimann Ya.A., M.: Progress, 2005, 87 p.
Porshnev A.G., Efremov V.S. 21st century manager Who is he.//Management in Russia and abroad. No. 4. 2003.
Sidnev S., “Decision-making under uncertainty”.// Business-inform., M., 2005, No. 15.,28s
Evgafova E. Why women do not want to be at the very top // http://www.rb.ru/comments/leadership/2007/12/04/181245.html#commfrm
Zaleznik A. Leadership and management in the company // http://psyfactor.org/lib/lider5.htm
Ovanesov A., Idrisov A. Strategic management will help to take the lead in the competition. http://www.aup.ru/articles/management/4.htm
Leadership Fundamentals. Leadership. Psychology of leadership. Leadership efficiency. Corporate leadership and leadership. Gender and leadership. http://psyfactor.org/lib/lider2.htm
Tunik A. "Leadership and leaders in the organization: what theory and practice say" // "Personal-Mix", 2007 http://www.hrm.ru/db/hrm/4F27462346DACE4AC3256F390028A33D/category.html
Successful leader: what is he? // http://psyfactor.org/lider4.htm
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APPSAnnex 1. Decision-making model for the head of Vroom-Yetton |
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Are there requirements for the quality of a solution that make it possible to determine the degree of preference for one solution over another? |
Does the manager have enough information to make a good decision? |
Is the problem structured? |
Is the agreement of subordinates with the chosen decision essential for its effectiveness? Problem leadership and efficiency skills Course work>> Psychology In the discipline "Corporate psychology" Topic " Problem leadership and efficiency skills” Completed by a day student... phrases such as leader, leadership, theory leadership, personal qualities leadership And so on. I use them... Leadership and group leadershipAbstract >> Psychology... (be it an organization, a political association). Problem leadership historically most prominently manifested in such ... the works of Russian scientists affecting Problems leadership. The study Problems leadership necessary to develop methods for effective... | |||
13.2. Basic approaches to the problem of leadership.
It is possible to name quite a large number of conceptual understandings of the problem of leadership. Among the most famous of them are the "theory of personality traits" of the leader, as well as behavioral and situational approaches. We will elaborate on these three interpretations and then briefly look at some of the other contemporary leadership concepts.
The theory of personal qualities.
The personal approach to the study of leadership focuses on the personal qualities of a leader. This research method proceeds from the assumption of the existence of a certain set of personality traits, the possession of which is an indispensable condition for successful leadership. On the contrary, a significant deficiency of these qualities indicates an insurmountable barrier to the development of the individual as a leader. Thus, this approach actually draws a sharp line separating those who are capable of becoming a leader from those for whom leadership career opportunities are minimized.
However, a more “softer” interpretation of the personal theory of leadership is possible, linking the formation of an effective leader with the process of directed in a certain way. education. Required Qualities can either be vaccinated outwardly, or become the goal of conscious cultivation of personality in oneself. There is an extensive (but, unfortunately, far from always high-quality) literature containing specific recommendations for developing leader traits in oneself.
What properties should leaders have from this point of view? Obvious answers - a high intellectual level, strong-willed composure and purposefulness - are far from the only ones. Also called such personality traits as extroversion, the ability to empathize ( from the Greek empatheia - empathy, the ability of a person to parallel experience those emotions that arise in another person in the process of communicating with him) etc.
Theories of personality traits had a certain practical significance. Their conclusions were the basis of some ways of forming the personnel of companies. Various kinds of testing, according to the intention of their authors, should contribute to the selection of individuals who could reveal themselves as effective heads of departments.
Generally speaking, the problem of leadership is not specific to theoretical management. It is a problem area in many humanities, especially psychology and sociology. And here it should be noted that the theory of personal qualities reveals itself as a theoretical anachronism. This largely refers to the very idea of typology as a tool for explaining social phenomena. It has long been replaced by much more subtle analytical techniques. The problem of “psychological types” was relevant for psychological science the first half of the twentieth century. And, for example, E. Spranger, developing the concept of ideal types of individuality, in the list of such types he names a “political person”, for whom “power in itself” is the leading value. Such people, by virtue of their very “nature”, strive for personal superiority over others and, accordingly, to occupy leadership positions.
However, this understanding of leadership has been replaced in social psychology by concepts of a different kind. For example, in the “group development theory” developed in the 1950s W. Bennis and G. Shepard, the problem of leadership is considered in the context of group dynamics. Leaders are those who, due to certain personal characteristics, provide effective group communication at a given phase of group development. However, such an understanding of the meaning of leadership in a group is meaningfully close to the situational approach to the problem of leadership, which will be outlined below.
On the other hand, empirical studies do not confirm the main assumption of the "personality theory" about the special emphasis of the figure of the leader according to certain criteria (such as, for example, according to the intellectual criterion). According to psychologist E. Jennings, in almost every group there are members who are superior in intelligence, abilities, but they do not have the status of a leader. There is no doubt that leaders, as a rule, are endowed with some special qualities: a developed intellect, a desire for knowledge, a sense of responsibility, social mobility, and so on. At the same time, in different situations, effective leaders revealed different personal qualities.
All these observations have led to the fact that at present the theory of "personal traits of a leader" has largely lost its scientific appeal.
Behavioral theories of leadership.
This type includes concepts that refuse to explain the phenomenon of leadership by appealing to some special properties of the leader and instead offer models for describing leadership behavior. The key term of these concepts was the concept leadership style. The classification of leadership styles made it possible to significantly clarify the picture of the relationship between the leader and subordinates and raise the question of effective leadership in a new way.
This classification was based on the idea of the dominant feature of the leader's interaction with subordinate employees. This dominant attitude is reflected in the leading orientation of the leader: either he is aimed at awakening the creative initiative of his subordinates and at creating a favorable psychological climate in the team, or he builds his relations with employees, based mainly on the “interests of the cause”, and focusing primarily on only to solve specific practical problems. Of course, each of these dominants can be represented in the behavior of a particular leader to varying degrees. AT Eventually, any organization is a unique combination of individuals, goals and objectives. Each manager is also a unique person with his own psychological make-up. However, practice shows that most leaders gravitate toward one or another leadership style.
Based on the given dominant characteristics of leadership behavior, three main leadership styles are usually distinguished: authoritarian, democratic and liberal.
authoritarian leader(who is also sometimes called an "autocratic leader" or simply "autocrat") tends to be one-man decision-makers. It is peculiar to him high degree self-confidence. He builds relationships with subordinates as a kind of “tools” for solving practical problems. The autocrat has a somewhat skeptical view of "human nature." The well-known leadership researcher Douglas McGregor described the position of an authoritarian leader in relation to employees as a theory "X". The main provisions of this theory are reduced to the following theses:
1. People initially do not like to work and avoid work whenever possible.
2. Most people are afraid of responsibility and prefer to be led.
3. A sense of security is a basic human value.
4. To force people to work, it is necessary to use coercion, control and the threat of punishment.
Proceeding from such beliefs, the autocrat refuses to delegate his powers to his subordinates, strives to tightly control their work, not only outlining the scope of his duties to each employee, but also prescribing ways to fulfill them. An authoritarian leader is always ready to exert psychological pressure on a subordinate, often not neglecting a direct threat (threat of dismissal, demotion, etc.).
However, some authoritarian leaders seek to replace negative coercion with rewards. Leaders of this kind have been labeled "benevolent autocrats." A benevolent autocrat usually shows concern for the mood and well-being of subordinates. He may even go so far as to allow or encourage their participation in task planning. However, he does not allow the participation of subordinates in decision-making, retaining this right only for himself. His benevolence does not cancel the authoritarian principle of strict regulation of the behavior of employees.
Stylistics " democratic” (or, in other words, “collegiate”) leadership behavior is the opposite of authoritarian leadership. It is based on the views that MacGregor called Theory “Y”:
1. Labor is an organic way of existence for a person. In a normal situation, people not only do not avoid responsibility, but also seek to impose it on themselves.
2. Involving employees in organizational goals awakens self-control and promotes effective self-management.
3. Many people are capable of creative solution problems, and this potential should be exploited.
Democratic and authoritarian leaders differ sharply in the way they influence the motivational structure of subordinates. In accordance with his beliefs, the "autocrat" refers mainly to lower-level needs, such as the desire for security and material well-being. On the contrary, the goal of the "democrat" is to awaken the employees' sense of involvement in the common cause and personal responsibility for it. This means that he builds his working relationships, taking into account human needs of a higher level: the need for belonging, awareness of his belonging to a high goal, the craving for self-expression.
Democratic leadership style significantly transforms organizational culture. Employees of such organizations are actively involved in decision-making and are not constrained by strict regulations in the performance of tasks. Giving subordinates the right to largely organize their own working regime, a democratic leader usually waits for the task to be completed in order to then evaluate it. In fact, he acts as a link between various departments of the organization. He is primarily concerned with the overall coordination of activities, attaching great importance to maintaining the mission of the organization and maintaining a strategic perspective.
Because the democratic leader assumes that people are motivated by higher-level needs, he tries to make subordinate responsibilities more attractive. In essence, he tries to create a situation in which people motivate themselves to some extent, because their work (in the case when it is not reduced to a routine and is not done “under duress”) is itself a reward for them. He also strives to ensure that subordinates understand that they will have to solve most of the problems themselves, without seeking approval or help. At the same time, such a leader puts a lot of effort into creating an atmosphere of openness and trust, so that a subordinate can, if necessary, feel free to ask for help or advice.
Sometimes, along with these two leadership styles, they also talk about liberal style. In fact, this style of leadership is bringing "to its logical conclusion" some of the features of the democratic style. Partial separation of powers with subordinates is replaced by their full delegation. If a democratic leader is very preoccupied with establishing channels of bilateral communication and is looking for new forms for it, then for a liberal leader this problem loses its significance in many respects. After all, he proceeds from the belief that employees themselves will cope with emerging difficulties, they do not need not only guardianship, but even simple confidence in the ability to receive the necessary assistance.
A serious scientific problem is the question comparative efficiency characterized leadership styles. One of the first studies of this topic was carried out within the framework of Gestalt psychology by a working group led by Kurt Lewin. Authoritarian leadership has been found to lead to greater productivity than democratic leadership. However, at the same time, psychological losses can be quite significant: outwardly loyal (and even submissive) behavior of employees often has hidden aggressiveness as its “background”, and anxiety spreads and grows. With liberal leadership, the game element is enhanced, the amount of work is reduced, and the quality of work is reduced. Curiously, the polls show a preference for a democratic leader over a liberal one.
At the same time, later studies were not so unequivocal in recognizing the higher productivity of authoritarian leadership. In addition, the research methodology itself has been improved. Indicative in this respect is the analysis of the relationship between labor productivity and leadership style, carried out by Ransis Likert and his colleagues at the University of Michigan. Likert identifies two main leadership styles represented by figures “ work-focused leader" and " people-centered leader". The classic example of the first type is Frederick W. Taylor, who built the management system on the technical principles of efficiency.
The characteristics of another of the types identified by Likert are, in general, close to the above description of the democratic leadership style. Such a leader seeks to achieve an increase in labor productivity by improving human relations. Research results led Likert to conclude that leadership style will invariably be or to work, or per person. There are practically no examples of mixing these two behavioral leadership attitudes in a sufficiently developed form. It has also been found that a person-centered leadership style has been found to increase productivity in almost all cases.
In his further research, Likert proposed a more detailed classification of leadership styles. He developed the concept of four systems of leadership: “exploitative-authoritarian”, “benevolent-authoritarian”, “consultative-democratic”, and also a system “based on participation”. In contrast to the first of these types, for which the above characteristics of a rigid autocrat are true , the "favorable-authoritarian" leader allows, albeit limited, the participation of subordinates in decision-making. Avoiding, if possible, obvious psychological pressure, such a leader prefers that the motivation factor is reward and only in some cases - punishment.
The third, so-called "advisory" management system is characterized by significant, but not complete trust in subordinates. There are no administrative and psychological barriers between managers and subordinates that prevent two-way communication. Although the most important decisions are still made at the top, the initiative of subordinates is fully manifested in concrete actions.
Finally, the last, “participatory” management system involves the direct participation of employees in decision-making. According to Likert, it is the most effective. There is an atmosphere of trust in the organization. This style of leadership requires the complexity of the organizational structure due to the decentralization of the decision-making process.
Likert's research showed that the most effective low-level managers paid attention, first of all, to the problem of creating a favorable psychological climate in the units entrusted to them. The very setting of tasks for subordinates implied the actualization of their creative potential. Instead of traditional individual conversations with subordinates, different methods of group leadership were used.
Further studies of leadership styles abandoned their unambiguous typology, and even more so from the dichotomous division, such as “theory X” / “theory Y”. In this sense, of interest are studies conducted since 1945 by a group of scientists who were part of the Bureau of Business Research at Ohio State University. They developed 2D model leadership, according to which the behavior of the leader was classified according to two parameters: “structure” and “attention to subordinates”. The value of the first parameter reflects the desire of the leader to plan the activities of the group, rationally distribute powers, etc. The second parameter shows his preoccupation with the problem of humanization of intra-group relations. Depending on what - high or low - the value of each of these parameters, four leading behavioral orientations of the leader were identified.
This concept has been improved Blake and Mouton, who proposed a two-dimensional model, where the vertical axis on a scale from 1 to 9 ranks “concern for a person”, and the horizontal axis - on the same scale - “concern for production”. Such a model, in principle, allows the description of a very significant number of styles, but the authors of the study themselves characterized in detail five of them: four, determined by the extreme values of these parameters, and a style determined by their average values (“style 5-5”, which they called “organization '). Blake and Mouton considered the “9-9” style to be the most optimal leadership style, that is, the way the leader behaves, which is maximally oriented both to the structural element and to human relations. This style of leadership is called "team". However, the authors of the study acknowledged that the typology of leadership styles has tangible limits to its applicability, since there are quite a few activities where it is difficult to clearly and unambiguously identify the leadership style.
Today it has become clear that the controversy between the supporters of autocratic leadership and leadership that emphasizes the improvement of human relations cannot come to its final resolution. We need to look at the problem of effective leadership from a new perspective. This is what proponents of the situational approach are trying to do.
Situational Theories of Leadership
In the early 60s. 20th century most researchers are coming to the realization that the behavioral approach to the problem of leadership, very popular in the previous two decades, is limited in its capabilities. The reason is that, by breaking the unified system of "leader-subordinates", these approaches extract the first element from it and subject it to analysis for effectiveness. This methodological flaw is largely associated with irresolvable disputes between supporters of authoritarian and democratic leadership styles. Both sides find arguments in defense of their position, as well as an empirical base confirming its correctness.
Therefore, the behavioral approach is beginning to be superseded situational approach refusing a priori to decide on the most effective behavior of the head of the organization. It should be about choice management style that best suits the situation.
The most famous representative of this direction in the study of the problem of leadership is F. Fiedler. Based on a wealth of empirical material, Fiedler came to the conclusion that the effectiveness of a leader lies not in adherence to any one style of leadership, but in the ability to vary one's behavior depending on the specific situation. He identified three groups of factors that are significant in terms of the effectiveness of the work of the head and the unit as a whole:
Relationships between the leader and subordinates (degree of trust in relationships, mutual respect);
The degree of task structuring;
The scope of official powers, expressed, in particular, in the ability of the manager to influence the work of subordinates through various incentive mechanisms - remuneration, promotion, etc.
Fiedler's conclusions were very interesting. He was able to show that a task-oriented style of leadership will be most effective in the most or least favorable situations for the leader (assessed in the light of the above parameters) and that, on the contrary, a person-oriented style will give the best results in moderately favorable situations.
Fiedler's model allows for two ways to improve the effectiveness of leadership: a) the leader's adaptation to the situation (through his selection, training and retraining, as well as stimulation, and as an extreme measure - replacing one leader with another that better meets the requirements of a given area of production) and b) changing the situation, which, in particular, can be achieved by giving the manager additional powers to stimulate employees and promote them.
Among the parameters of the "situation" in which the leader has to solve practical problems, one of the most important, obviously, is the composition of his subordinates. This makes explainable the wide practical application that the theory of choosing an effective management style by a leader, depending on the abilities of subordinates and their disposition to successfully complete the tasks assigned to them, has received. Usually, four situationally motivated management styles are called: a style based mainly on directives and instructions; a style that combines directive methods of management with various forms of participation of subordinates in decision-making; a style based primarily on democratic methods of management (discussion and group decision-making, participation of subordinates in evaluating the work of all members of the team, including the leader); and, finally, the delegation of authority (the almost complete absence of instructions and directives, the maximum expansion of the independence and responsibility of subordinates).
Which of these leadership styles is the most effective? In order to give an answer to this question, it must be posed in a specific plane. And, above all, one should take into account the degree of maturity of subordinates. There are four different types here:
employees are unable to solve the problem and do not want to take responsibility for its implementation;
employees are not capable of independent problem solving, however, they strive for its successful implementation;
employees are able to independently solve the problem, but avoid responsibility;
employees are capable of solving and want to successfully solve the problem.
Thus, when choosing a management style, one should take into account what capabilities subordinates have and how much they are interested in the successful completion of work. If, for example, employees are capable of solving a problem, but there is a weak degree of their initiative, then a managerial style should probably be chosen to increase their motivation through the introduction of additional incentives, as well as greater involvement in the decision-making process.
It is also worth mentioning the concept proposed J. Graen. It is also based on a differentiated approach to subordinates, whom he conventionally divided into two groups. This division is based on the observation that the leader’s relations with his subordinates are actually always unequal: he is favorable to some, and therefore is ready to give them special privileges, while relations with others are based on purely formal rules and administrative procedures. It is not entirely clear what this practice of “election” is based on. It can, however, be considered established that the special sympathies of the leader, as a rule, are addressed to those subordinates who are close to him in a number of personal qualities (for example, age, gender, assertiveness and aggressiveness, or, conversely, restraint in the manifestation of emotions), as well as those who stand out for special knowledge and experience.
Paul Hershey and Kenneto Blanchard developed a situational theory of leadership, which they called life cycle theory, according to which the most effective leadership styles depend on the “maturity” of the performers. “Maturity” here, of course, is not an age category at all. This refers to such personal qualities as the ability to bear responsibility, awareness of the goal and a purposeful desire to achieve it, as well as the educational level and the amount of accumulated experience.
The leader's behavior should be correlated with the level of maturity of the group he leads. Hershey and Blanchard distinguish four styles of leadership in this regard, which they conventionally call "instructing", "selling", "participating" and "delegating". The first style is almost entirely task-oriented and only very slightly human-relationship oriented. It is suitable for subordinates with a low level of maturity.
The second style - "selling" - is expressed in an equal - and at the same time high - degree of orientation of behavior to the task and to the relationship. It is adequate to a situation of some dissonance between the enthusiasm of subordinates and their actual working capabilities: they would like to take responsibility for the work, but do not yet have the necessary experience and knowledge. Therefore, the manager must choose task-oriented behavior that includes specific instruction to subordinates. At the same time, he should not ignore their desire for full professional maturity.
The third style corresponds to a situation where subordinates are capable of independent problem solving, but they are characterized by an insufficiently high level of personal responsibility. The main goal of the manager under these conditions should be to involve employees in active participation in decision-making and their subsequent implementation. Therefore, behavior that is highly oriented and low task oriented will be optimal for him. A program to increase the motivation of employees should be carefully thought out, including both material and moral incentives.
Finally, the fourth style - "delegation" - is effective when subordinates have a high level of maturity. They have the necessary professional skills, are experienced and skillful, and, in addition, the prospect of solving the problem on their own has a personal appeal for them. In other words, they want to be responsible and are capable of it. The delegation of authority by the leader to subordinates means that he gives them the opportunity to act on their own, without control and instructions. At the same time, the function of general coordination of actions remains with the leader himself. This behavioral style is characterized by a low degree of focus on both the task and human relationships.
Thus, efficiency research turned out to be related to the differentiation of business contexts. The search for a style of leadership fit for all times has been replaced by the problem of adapting a leadership style to a particular business situation. Hershey and Blanchard's life cycle model, for example, shows the direction in which researchers are moving in their quest to find a flexible, adaptive leadership style.
Charismatic theories of leadership.
Since the 1970s, a number of new approaches to the problem of leadership have emerged. One of these new directions has become various charismatic leadership theories. They brought to the fore the question of the active-transformative function of leadership. Previous theories spoke of the qualitative characteristics of the composition of subordinates as a given, with which the leadership style should be correlated. On the contrary, charismatic leadership theories emphasize the affective attachment to the leader, which makes it possible for the leader to emotionally influence subordinates and significant change their value orientations. A charismatic personality in the circle of his followers becomes symbolic figure. As for the question of what personal qualities make a person charismatic and whether they are innate or at least partially accessible for conscious “cultivation” of them in oneself, here among scientists there is still no complete agreement of opinion.
Studies have shown that charismatic leadership often leads to a significant increase in the level of motivation and, as a result, to the achievement of outstanding results. However, an analysis of the practice of business organizations has shown that in a normal situation, charismatic leadership is not an indispensable condition for effective business. To a greater extent, he is “subject to” those areas of public life where the importance of the ideological factor is great - politics, military actions, religious movements. In business, charismatic leadership is of particular importance when it is necessary to carry out radical transformations in the organization, significant and decisive changes in the strategic perspective.
Leadership styles
Leadership style in the context of management is the habitual measure of behavior of a leader towards subordinates in order to influence them and encourage them to achieve the goals of the organization. The degree to which the manager delegates his powers, the types of authority he uses, and his concern, first of all for human relations or, first of all, for the performance of the task, all reflect the style of leadership (leadership) that characterizes this leader.
The word "style" is of Greek origin. Initially, it meant a rod for writing on a wax board, and later it was used in the meaning of "handwriting". Hence, we can assume that the style of leadership is a kind of "handwriting" in the actions of the manager.
Leadership style is a typical type of behavior of a leader in relation to subordinates in the process of achieving the goal.
The earliest approach to evaluating management style was a merit-based view. According to personality theory of leadership, also known as the theory of great people, the best of leaders have a certain set of personal qualities common to all of them (intelligence level, knowledge, impressive appearance, honesty, common sense, initiative, social and economic education and a high degree of self-confidence). Therefore, if you can identify these qualities in yourself, then perhaps their development will allow you to become a good leader in the future.
Later, a different, behavioral approach arose, which created the basis for a more precise definition: management style is a relatively stable system of methods, methods and forms of practical activity of a manager, the usual manner of behavior of a manager in relation to subordinates, aimed at influencing and encouraging them to achieve the organization's goals. . The degree to which the manager delegates his authority. The types of authority he uses and his concern primarily with human relations or task performance reflects the leadership style that characterizes this leader. But even this approach was not complete. Further research has shown that situational factors play a significant role in the effectiveness of leadership, which, for example, include the needs and personal qualities of subordinates, the nature of the task, the requirements and impact of the environment, and the information available to the manager. In practice, this means that the head-leader must behave differently in different situations.
Thus, representatives of the behavioral school have developed an approach to identifying significant factors of effective leadership: an approach from the perspective of:
Personal qualities;
Features of human behavior in the organization;
specific situation.
According to the behavioral approach to leadership, in terms of the way and method of dealing with subordinates, each organization is a unique combination of individuals, goals and objectives. And each manager is a unique person with a number of abilities. Therefore, the style of leadership must be correlated with some position of the leader. According to Kurt Lewin's classification, style is one-dimensional and can be authoritarian, democratic, or liberal. Rice. 1 illustrates the authoritarian-liberal continuum.
The autocratic leader has enough power to impose his will on the performers, and if necessary, resorts to it without hesitation. The autocrat deliberately appeals to the needs of the lower level of his subordinates on the basis of the suggestion that this is the level at which they operate.
Autocratic leadership was found to result in higher productivity but lower satisfaction than democratic leadership. Douglas McGregor developed the theory of leadership, highlighting two types of leaders "X", "Y". According to Theory "X":
a) people initially do not like to work and avoid work whenever possible;
b) people do not have ambition, and they try to get rid of responsibility, preferring to be led;
c) most of all people want security;
d) to force people to work, it is necessary to use coercion, control and threat of punishment.
A leader of this type, having sufficient power, imposes his will on the performers, single-handedly makes and cancels decisions, does not allow his subordinates to take the initiative, is categorical, often harsh with people. Always orders, disposes, instructs, but never asks. The main content of his managerial activity consists of orders and commands. Everything new is perceived by such a leader with caution, or not perceived at all; in managerial work, he practically uses the same methods. Thus, all power is concentrated in the hands of such a leader, called an autocrat. Even the placement of employees during the meeting is focused on constant monitoring of their activities. This creates a tense environment, subordinates in this case, consciously or intuitively tend to avoid close contact with such a leader.
When an autocrat avoids negative coercion and uses rewards instead, he "becomes called" a benevolent autocrat.
Although he continues to be an authoritarian leader, a benevolent autocrat shows an active concern for the mood and well-being of his subordinates. He may even go so far as to allow or encourage their participation in job scheduling. But he retains the actual power to make and execute decisions. And no matter how supportive this manager may be, he continues his authoritarian style further, structuring tasks and imposing strict adherence to a huge number of rules that strictly regulate the behavior of an employee.
As a rule, a leader becomes an autocrat when he, in his own way, business qualities is inferior to the subordinates he supervises, or if his subordinates have too low a general and professional culture. This style of leadership does not stimulate the initiative of subordinates, which makes it impossible to improve the efficiency of the organization. This leader imposes strict adherence to a large number of rules that strictly regulate the behavior of an employee.
Supervisor
Rice. 2. The location of the leader-autocrat during business negotiations
Authoritarian leadership sought to do more work than democratic leadership. Accordingly, there was low motivation, less originality, friendliness in groups, lack of collective thinking, more aggressiveness shown both by the leader and towards other members of the group, more suppressed anxiety and, at the same time, more dependent and submissive behavior.
2. Democratic style of leadership.
The idea of a democratic leader or leader MacGregor called the theory "Y", its content boils down to the following positions:
a) Labor is a natural process. If conditions are favorable, people will not only assume responsibility, they will themselves strive for it;
b) if people are attached to organizational goals, they will use self-management and self-control;
c) involvement is a function of the reward associated with the achievement of the goal;
d) creative problem solving is common, and the intellectual potential of the average person is only partially used.
Because of these proposals, the democratic leader prefers mechanisms of influence that appeal to higher-level needs: the need for belonging, lofty goals, the desire for autonomy and self-expression. A true democratic leader avoids imposing his will on his subordinates.
A leader who uses a predominantly democratic style strives to resolve issues collegially, inform subordinates about the state of affairs, and respond correctly to criticism. In communicating with subordinates, he tries to be polite and friendly, is in constant contact with the employees of the organization, delegates part of the managerial functions to other specialists, trusts subordinates. Demanding but fair. Members of the team take part in preparation for the implementation of management decisions. Quite often, having explained the goals of the organization, the leader allows subordinates to define their own goals in accordance with those that he formulated.
A democratic manager during business meetings is usually placed in the middle of the groups. This creates a relaxed atmosphere when discussing the problems of the development of the organization.
Supervisor
Rice. 3. The location of the Democratic leader during business negotiations
3. Liberal leadership style.
A leader with a liberal leadership style practically does not interfere in the activities of the team, and employees are given complete independence, the opportunity for individual and collective creativity. Such a leader with subordinates is usually polite, ready to cancel his earlier decision, especially if this threatens his popularity (Table 1).
Table 1. Styles of management (leadership), main features
|
Democratic |
Liberal |
||
|
The nature of style |
Concentration of all power and responsibility in the hands of the leader. Personal setting of goals and the choice of means to achieve them. Communication streams go mainly from above. |
Delegation with retention key positions at the leader. Decision making is divided into levels based on participation. Communications are carried out actively in two directions. |
Removal of responsibility by the leader and renunciation in favor of the group or organization. Giving the group the possibility of self-government in the desired mode for the group. Communications are mostly horizontal. |
|
Strengths |
Attention to urgency and order, predictability of the result |
Strengthening personal commitment to work through participation in management |
Allows you to start the business as it is seen without the intervention of the leader |
|
Weak sides |
Restrained individual initiative |
Takes a lot of time to make decisions |
The group can lose direction and slow down without leader intervention. |
The influence of management styles on the effectiveness of group work has also been studied by German scientists for a long time. It was found that the productivity of labor was constantly increasing in the team where the democratic style of leadership prevailed, the decrease in efficiency - in the team with a liberal and authoritarian style.
Comparing high and low performance groups in different organizations, it can be said that leadership style explains the difference in performance. It turned out that the person-centered management style, due to the nature of the situation, often did not contribute to increasing labor productivity and was not always the optimal behavior of the leader. Similar to McGregor's Theory X and Y continuum, high-performing and low-performing team leaders were classified along a continuum ranging from one extreme, work-focused (X-theory) to the other, person-centered (Y-theory). "). This continuum is shown in Fig. four.
Rice. four. Continuum on Theories "X" and "Y" by McGregor
Likert's research showed that the most effective grassroots leaders paid attention, above all, to the human aspects of the problems facing their subordinates, and created relationships based on mutual assistance. They thoughtfully divided subordinates into production groups and set complicated tasks for them.
They used group leadership instead of traditional one-on-one conversations with subordinates.
A work-focused leader, also known as a task-focused leader, is primarily concerned with task design and the development of a reward system to improve work performance. The classic example of a work-focused leader is Frederick W. Taylor. Taylor built the task on technical principles of efficiency and rewarded workers who over-fulfilled a quota carefully calculated based on a measurement of potential output.
In contrast, the first concern of a people-centered leader is people. It focuses on increasing productivity through improved human relations: emphasizing mutual assistance, allowing employees to participate as much as possible in decision-making, avoiding petty patronage, and setting a high level of productivity for the unit. He actively considers the needs of subordinates, helps them solve problems and encourages their professional growth.
Based on his research, Likert concluded that leadership style will invariably be either work- or person-centered. There has not been a single leader who has exhibited both of these qualities to a large extent and simultaneously. The results also showed that a person-centered leadership style improved productivity in almost all cases.
Rice. 5.
As an extension of his research, Likert proposed four basic leadership style systems (Table 2).
Table 2. Likert Leadership Styles
|
Leadership style |
Style characteristic |
|
|
Managers motivate people by the threat of punishment, the use of rewards, and they make their own decisions. |
||
|
Managers are self-confident and trust their subordinates, apply the basics of motivation and encouragement. Use the ideas of subordinates. |
||
|
Consultative Democratic |
Managers give a certain amount of trust to subordinates, use their ideas and points of view, and consult with subordinates in the process of making managerial decisions. |
|
|
Participation based |
Managers show full confidence in their subordinates, listen to their opinions, involve them in all types of activities, treat subordinates as equals. |
Later it was found that each of these styles "in its pure form" is rare.
Managers belonging to system 1 (exploitative-authoritarian) have the characteristics of an autocrat.
System 2 is called benevolent-authoritarian. These leaders may maintain authoritarian relationships with subordinates, but they allow subordinates, albeit in a limited way, to participate in decision making. Motivation is created by reward and in some cases punishment.
The leaders of system 3, called advisory, show considerable, but not complete, trust in their subordinates. There is two-way communication and some degree of trust between supervisors and subordinates. Important Decisions are made at the top, but many specific decisions are made by subordinates.
System 4 implies group decisions and participation of workers in decision making. According to Likert, it is the most effective. These leaders have complete trust in their subordinates. The relationship between the leader and subordinates is friendly and mutually trusting. Decision making is highly decentralized. Communication is two-way and unconventional. In addition, they are people-oriented, as opposed to system 1 managers who are work-oriented.
Several differences in the approach to determining the optimal way to achieve the effectiveness of the organization.
Autocratic approach. In addition to the Theory X proposals, advocates of the autocratic and work-oriented method argue:
An autocratic leadership style (especially benevolent autocracy) is more effective because it reinforces sole power by motivating subordinates to achieve organizational goals;
Concentration on work gives maximum productivity, because the manager can do a lot to improve labor efficiency, while he is powerless to change human nature.
Approach from the standpoint of human relations. In addition to the Theory Y proposals, proponents of a democratic, people-centered leadership style believe:
If action is not taken in time, then the power of the executor can increase to such an extent that it undermines the influence of the leader and creates additional problems in the organization;
A human-centered approach maximizes productivity because the people directly doing the work are the most capable of redesigning it in such a way as to achieve the greatest efficiency. Efficiency, artificially imposed by experts from above, often meets with such resistance that it negates its benefits. In addition, a human-centered leadership style increases employee satisfaction.
Those who believe that a democratic or person-centered style is always preferable to an authoritarian style assume that there is a causal relationship between satisfaction and performance.
Control
Management, consulting and entrepreneurship
A significant contribution to the study of political leadership was made by many prominent figures in science and politics. In Russia, the problem of leadership has always been one of the most urgent problems. However, in the 1990s, due to fundamental changes in the political, economic and social life of the country, the problem of social leadership acquired particular relevance.
Introduction.
An important figure in the life of any organization and in its management is the leader.
The concept of "leader" - from the English. to lead (lead), a leader (leading) - is defined in the literature as “an authoritative member of an organization or small group, whose personal influence allows him to play a major role in social processes, situations" Concise Dictionary in sociology. - M., 1998. - p. 141..
Interest in leadership and attempts to comprehend this complex and important social phenomenon date back to ancient times. A significant contribution to the study of political leadership was made by many prominent figures in science and politics.
In Russia, the problem of leadership has always been one of the most urgent problems. However, in the 90s of the twentieth century, in connection with the fundamental changes in the political, economic and social life of the country, the problem of social leadership acquired particular relevance. That is why social leadership, being an actual scientific and practical problem in modern Russian science management, is put forward among its priority topics and deserves special study.
1. The problem of leadership: new trends.
1.1 Development of the concept of leadership in a historical perspective.
The world has been studying leadership qualities for a long time, as a result of which three approaches to the study of leadership have emerged: traditional leadership concepts, situational leadership concepts and new leadership theories.
Traditional concepts are historically earlier.
They are based on the concept of leadership qualities and the concept of leadership behavior. The similarity of these concepts and the possibility of combining them in one direction lies in the fact that they are based on the consideration of the leader as a person endowed with unique qualities inherent in him either from birth or specially brought up, i.e. each theory tries to identify common aspects of the leader's behavior.
The concept of leadership qualities considers leaders as special people with an innate set of certain character traits that are unique to them. The main idea of this theory is that leaders are not made, they are born. The most famous adherents and researchers of the concept of leadership qualities are Ralph Stogdill, Warren Beninet and Edwin Ghiselli. But as a result of their work, no behavioral traits inherent exclusively in leaders were revealed. However, this theory served as a prerequisite for the emergence and development of other concepts of leadership, in particular the concept of leadership behavior.
The concept of leadership behavior implies the possibility of training leaders in special programs by cultivating the appropriate qualities in them. This concept served as the basis for the development of training programs for leaders. But, despite numerous and in-depth studies, the relationship between the character traits of a leader, on the one hand, and production efficiency and job satisfaction, on the other, has not been identified. There is no universal type of leader, which served as a prerequisite for the development of other approaches to the theory of leadership.
Based on the traditional approach, the situational concept of leadership, proposed by Frank Fiedler, appeared. He assumed that the leader reveals his unique qualities under certain prevailing conditions, and under various circumstances he manifests them in different ways. In situational concepts of leadership, special attention is paid to the impact of external factors that have a significant impact on a person's ability to lead a team.
Common to traditional and situational concepts of leadership is the assumption that the result of managerial activity is interconnected with the leader's leadership qualities, and, therefore, both can be changed. As a result, new concepts of leadership were created. The most famous of these concepts are: the concept of attributive leadership (analyst), charismatic leadership and transformative leadership (reformer).
These concepts give great attention spiritual qualities of the leader and his ability through the inner world to influence subordinates (followers).
All these concepts have the right to exist, none of them fully reflects the phenomenon of leadership, which to this day remains a mystery.
1.2 The dilemma "manager or leader".
Leadership is not management. Management focuses on getting people to do the right thing, while leadership focuses on getting people to do the right thing.
In modern management science, leadership is characterized ambiguously, but the following main approaches to its interpretation can be distinguished:
Leadership is a kind of power, the specificity of which is the direction from top to bottom, as well as the fact that its carrier is not the majority, but one person (a group of persons);
This is a leadership position, managerial status, social position associated with decision-making;
This is the ability to exert a constant, leading, priority over others and based not on the direct use of force, but on the authority (recognition of the legitimacy) of the leadership;
It is a symbol of community and a model of group behavior.
Leadership is the process of influencing a group of people in order to bring them along for the joint implementation of management decisions to achieve certain goals.
The changes taking place in the world force us to perceive the role of a manager in an organization and the dilemma “manager or leader” in a new way. One of the researchers of leadership formulated, which became famous, the maximum: "Managers do everything right, and leaders do the right things." To date, such a contrast is not obvious, since as the innovative function of management became established, it became necessary to form leadership skills.
Based on his professionalism, abilities and skills, the manager concentrates his efforts in the field of decision-making, minimizing the options for solving the problem, taken on the basis of experience, and the leader attempts to develop new and ambiguous ways to solve the problem. Once a problem is solved, leaders take on the risk and burden of new problems, especially if they can be rewarded accordingly. Most managers have leadership qualities, but they do not show them in practice.
Management in an organization as a process of interpersonal communication includes the relationship "manager - employee", as well as all areas of life of individuals, teams, societies in the state and the state itself. At the same time, those who manage and those who are managed are in interaction. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the nature of leadership, taking into account the interaction between people, since the managed interacts with the manager.
Modern management is impossible without an individual, innovative approach to changing circumstances in order to achieve new promising development directions, i.e. management is impossible without leaders. In modern management, leadership integrates the interpersonal factors of the organization to orient them towards achieving the goals of the organization. Management and leadership are not synonyms, but the ability to be a leader is a key condition to become a manager. A leader is someone who manages to turn an employee into a like-minded person or follower.
The organization can be considered in two aspects: as formal and informal.
Accordingly, it is legitimate to talk about two types of human relations inherent in them (formal and informal), the features of which are as follows:
1) relations of the first type - official, functional; relations of the second type - psychological, emotional;
2) leadership occupies a special place in the system of formal (official) relations, and leadership is a phenomenon generated by the system of informal (informal) relations. Moreover, the role and functions of a manager in an organization are predetermined, while the role of a leader arises spontaneously without its formal definition and description;
3) the head of the team is appointed from the outside, by the higher management, receives the appropriate authority, has the right to apply sanctions, the leader is nominated from among the people around him, equal in status (official position).
Thus, leadership, management is a social phenomenon in its essence, and leadership is a psychological one. And this is the main difference between them, although at the same time there is a lot in common. Firstly, both management and leadership are a means of coordinating, organizing relations between members of a social group, a means of managing them. Secondly, the manager, together with the leader, implements the processes social influence in a group (team). Thirdly, these phenomena are inherent in the moment of subordination of relations, which manifests itself quite clearly in the activities of the manager and less clearly - in the leader.
According to the concept of power and the theory of a group approach to the activities of a leader, the following main functions are distinguished that distinguish him from a formal leader:
Forms, establishes and maintains standards of acceptable group behavior; management leadership manager decision
Having established norms, customs, traditions, it motivates the behavior of each member of the group, forcing him to follow the standards of group behavior.
Thus, the difference between the concept of a leader and a manager is quite large. Leadership does not replace the manager (leadership), but complements it. The greatest effect of management is achieved in a situation where the tools of leadership and informal leadership are concentrated in the same hands. At present, a good leader of an organization is a person who is both a manager and a leader, therefore, effectively manages the organization, its formal and informal environment.
One of major achievements modern leadership theory is the understanding of the fact that universally effective style leadership is a utopia. Leadership these days is fundamentally situational. The most important problem is which parameters of the situation are key at one time or another. In general, the problem of leadership in modern management can be represented as a "cognitive map", shown in Fig. 1.1.
Rice. 1.1. "Cognitive map" of leadership
An important factor in the implementation of the leader of his functions are his personal qualities. However, it is not in vain that they say that each era puts forward its own leaders: the specific situation and the dynamics of the external environment to a large extent determine the success or failure of this or that leader. The behavior of the leader and the results he achieves largely depend on the maturity of the followers, their skills and experience. In addition, the fate of the leader is influenced by both situational factors (for example, a successful or unfortunate set of circumstances) and the results of the activities of followers. The behavior of the leader is also a decisive factor on which the work of the organization and its success depends. The distinction between a leader and a manager is made in many positions (Table 1.1). An effective manager is not necessarily an effective leader and vice versa. Their main characteristics are, as it were, in different dimensions.
Table 1 1. The difference between a manager and a leader
|
Manager |
Leader |
|
|
Administrator |
innovator |
|
|
Instructs |
inspiring |
|
|
Works for the goals of others |
Working towards your goals |
|
|
The plan is the basis of action |
Vision is the basis of action |
|
|
Relies on the system |
Relies on people |
|
|
Uses arguments |
Uses emotions |
|
|
Controls |
Trusts |
|
|
Keeps moving |
Gives impetus to movement |
|
|
Professional |
Enthusiast |
|
|
Makes decisions |
Turns decisions into reality |
|
|
Does the right thing |
Does the right thing |
|
|
We respect |
We love |
|
A manager is a person who directs the work of others and is personally responsible for its results. A good manager brings order and consistency to the work done. He builds his interaction with subordinates more on facts and within the framework of established goals. The leader inspires people and instills enthusiasm in employees, conveying his vision of the future to them and helping them adapt to the new, go through the stage of change.
Managers tend to take a passive stance towards goals. More often than not, they rely on someone else's goals out of necessity and rarely use them to make changes. Leaders, on the other hand, set their own goals and use them to change people's attitudes.
Managers tend to develop their activities in detail and in time, plan to attract and use necessary resources in order to maintain organizational efficiency. Leaders achieve the same or more by developing a vision for the future and ways to achieve it, without getting into operational details and routine.
Managers prefer order in their interactions with subordinates. They build their relationship with them according to the roles that subordinates play in a programmed chain of events or in a formal process of making and implementing decisions. This largely comes from the fact that managers see themselves as part of an organization or members of a particular social institution. Leaders select and retain people who understand and share their views and ideas reflected in the leadership vision. Leaders consider the needs of employees, the values they perceive, and the emotions that drive them. Leaders tend to use emotions and intuition and are always ready to challenge their followers strong feelings like love and hate. Leaders do not associate self-respect with belonging to a particular organization. Managers ensure that subordinates achieve goals by monitoring their behavior and responding to every deviation from the plan. Leaders build their relationships with subordinates on trust, motivating and inspiring them. They put trust at the core of group work.
Using their professionalism, various abilities and skills, managers concentrate their efforts in the field of decision-making. They try to narrow down the set of ways to solve a problem. Decisions are often made on the basis of past experience. Leaders, in contrast, are constantly trying to develop new and ambiguous solutions to a problem. Most importantly, once they have solved a problem, leaders take on the risk and burden of identifying new problems, especially in cases where there are significant opportunities for rewards.
It is obvious that in practice there is no perfect observance of these two types of control relations. Research shows that a significant group of managers have leadership qualities in many ways. However, the opposite option is less common in real life.
1.3 Qualities of a modern leader-manager.
A leader is a person who effectively manages a group.
The manager must be a leader, this is necessary in order to:
To win psychological (not formal) authority in the team.
To develop your own management style.
To create effective employee motivation.
To have power, a leader must:
1. Know your subordinates well.
2. Be able to analyze the situation well, determine the immediate and distant prospects for certain actions.
3. Understand the psychological characteristics of others and skillfully use them in official and non-official contacts.
4. Possess extensive knowledge and erudition.
The American researcher Likert developed the principles of maintaining relationships - leaders should ensure that all actions within a certain organizational structure are considered as complementary and are aimed at shaping and maintaining the personal dignity and significance of employees. Subordinates want the interests of the person, and not the interests of production, to be in the foreground for their leader. Not every manager manages to become a real leader. This can be a person with the following qualities:
1. Honesty - complete clarity about the observance of the norms of universal morality.
2. Intelligence - speed, flexibility, pragmatism of the mind, curiosity, ability to speak.
3. The ability to understand people - the ability to understand the behavior of the interlocutor, the ability to see a person in a person, the desire to enrich others spiritually.
4. Stability of views - an adequate reaction to the situation, control over emotions, constancy of actions.
5. Self-confidence - the desire to take responsibility, awareness of one's own strengths and weaknesses.
6. Modesty in everyday life - the absence of excessive striving for luxury, rationalism in dealing with things.
7. The tendency to self-service.
8. Erudition - the breadth and depth of knowledge in various fields of science and technology, good knowledge of philosophy, political science, history, knowledge in the field of human psychology.
Specified qualities serve as a foundation for building leadership potential. Identification of the degree of manifestation of these qualities is carried out by methods of monitoring the activities of the leader and the use of personality tests.
Today, 2 points of view on the leadership abilities of an individual compete:
1. Leaders must be born, that is, it is not possible to educate a leader.
2. Leadership abilities develop, but this requires certain inclinations of a psychological plan, such as keen attention, good memory, and a tendency to productive thinking.
This is typical for many activities of a manager.
Leadership abilities develop in the process of purposeful activity. When appointed or elected to a position, a young leader should familiarize himself with the arsenal of knowledge that the leader of this group should possess. In this regard, information on interaction with people can be of help.
The applicant for the role of leader must constantly, hard work on himself. Here, books on communication, persuasion, counseling can help, but this is only one side; the other side is a practical internship, which is carried out through the actual use of leadership functions. The basis of this practice is often considered the concept of leadership styles by the famous psychologist K. Levin - the whole complex range of leadership develops between 2 extremes: autocracy and non-intervention, that is, in the space of democracy. This range is considered a classic, as all research on leadership style is based on his ideas.
Practical training for the development of leadership potential for managers is based on Levin's models, each person has a natural inclination or a strategy developed over the years in dealing with people.
Once in the role of a manager, he is inclined in most cases to carry out any 1 management style: authoritarian, democratic (collegiate), non-interference style. In this regard, leaders operate within the framework of only one style. Reduces the effectiveness of its activities, since the choice of management style should depend on specific situation. The authoritarian is used in a situation where a leadership crisis has emerged, the state of affairs is out of control.
In this case, other styles will not be useful. Democratic - the working group is at a high level of maturity, that is, there is a steady pace of activity, order and discipline. Non-intervention style - the working group has matured in its development to the point that it can operate effectively in self-government mode. The most common today is democratic.
To be effective, a manager must be able to sense the situation and choose the leadership style that subordinates need.
Leadership is the ability to manage people according to their needs, leadership skills are developed in the process of practical activities.
3. Types of leaders in management
Each leader managing an organization has its own unique leadership traits, in other words, each leader has his own behavioral type.
This is due to both subjective factors (education, type of character, etc.) and objective (environmental factors). But it should also be noted that depending on the prevailing qualities of the leader, all managers can be divided into five types. Let's consider these types in more detail.
1. Manager-father. Such a leader manifests, above all, caring and a sense of superiority. He takes care of the needs of subordinates, educates and trains them, based on his own idea of \u200b\u200binterests and needs. The opinion of his subordinates plays a secondary role, and their independence is limited.
2. Manager-despot. He is dominated volitional qualities, self-confidence and aggressiveness. Subordinates must meekly obey him, the main thing for them is the accurate and timely implementation of the detailed instructions of the manager. The slightest manifestations of independence are suppressed.
3. Manager-locomotive. His main quality is high efficiency, competence and meticulousness in trifles, energy. Working more than others, knowing the smallest details of the case, he involves subordinates in the work, makes them work with the same productivity and quality.
4. Manager-team captain. The most important qualities for him can be considered initiative, flexibility, organizational skills, the ability to convince. His role is to organize the effective work of subordinates, coordinate their actions, and carry out the necessary strategy. The manager-captain of the team actively uses the intellectual potential and experience of his subordinates in making and implementing managerial decisions.
5. Manager for a minute. He practically does not interfere in the operational work of subordinates, only from time to time corrects their actions and sets new tasks for the performers. This style of management is effective if it is based on high informal authority, the ability to understand people, prudence and the manager's ability to change.
4. Features of the thinking of leaders
Unfortunately, just good managers, as a rule, cannot become true leaders capable of reforming the activities of corporations. The reason for this state of affairs is the peculiarities of their thinking.
Ordinary managers strive to maintain order and control, to ensure that tasks are completed within the allocated budgets and available resources. Their main motivation is a personal career, and they often delegate the tasks they receive to subordinates.
Managers-leaders, on the contrary, are aimed at shaking everything and everything and try to involve as many employees as possible in solving the most important problems. They consider the growth of the company as a whole to be the main measure of their success, and they like to get into everything themselves.
Ordinary managers could learn to act according to new principles by changing their thinking, but few are capable of this. Change leaders are distinguished by a number of features, the main of which are the following:
the ability to establish backbone links between the three factors that determine the success of the transformation - market realities, the aspirations of top management and the capabilities of the company's personnel;
the ability to influence higher and lower employees, as well as colleagues of equal rank, awakening in them the strongest incentives to participate in reforms;
a talent for inventing new tools that ensure the practical implementation of the intended changes based on constantly revised approaches;
the ability to change leadership style (similar to the ability of baseball players to hit from different ends of the court).
1.4 Ideology of the engine of leadership N. Tichy.
If you look at the history of business, you will notice that two types of leaders often occur. The first - those who were able to create a truly successful company, which subsequently lost its position and fell apart. The second - those who not only achieved success, but also keeps it for a long time. The American researcher N. Tichi called the latter the winners. The idea of his concept is that the long-term success of an organization depends on how much attention the leaders of the "top echelon" pay to the formation of leaders at all levels. That is, the leader not only has a set of all the specific qualities that lead the company to success, but is also able to prepare worthy successors for himself. Based on a study of 14 organizations that have been successful over a long period of time, Tichy has come to the following conclusions, summarized in The Leadership Engine:
· in organizations - winners leaders are present at all levels;
· to ensure effective leadership at all levels of the organization, top leaders must educate leaders of lower levels of management;
To educate new leaders, current leaders must have a so-called "teachable point of view" (a clearly formulated and structured value system that is based on the leader's knowledge and value system. This system is recognized by the leader's followers));
· current leaders must have a certain methodology for educating new leaders.
Tichi characterized his findings, accurately defining each of the formed concepts and offering specific methods for developing the relevant skills. In particular, the "transmitted point of view", according to Tichy, is a system of three interrelated elements: business ideas, values and emotional energy, as well as determination.
Tichy emphasizes that the elements of the "transmitted point of view" must be consistent with each other. For example, the values that underlie a company's corporate culture should be consistent with business ideas; otherwise, the leader's emotional energy will be wasted.
Tichy, in this regard, suggests that the leader adhere to the "emotional" theory, which includes the following parameters:
The leader must recreate a sense of urgency for the necessary changes;
· clearly formulate the mission of the company, this mission should inspire followers and be worth the effort that will be directed to its implementation;
the goal must require all forces;
The leader must create an atmosphere of teamwork;
The leader must inspire confidence that the goal is achievable.
Based on Tichy's book, the American company Pritchett & Associates from Dallas developed a special training "Leadership Engine Coaches Clinic". Now the "Building the Engine of Leadership" seminar is being held by the University of Michigan's Senior Management Training Center, where Tichy himself works.
In addition, now many companies are trying to nurture a leader. For example, one large centralized oil company approached the issue of growing a leader in this way: the head of the company, who holds the position of chairman of the board of directors and CEO selects one talented university graduate and appoints him as his assistant. They work closely together throughout the year. Upon completion of training, a young specialist becomes a valuable candidate for a managerial position in one of the functional units. That is, he is offered to take a responsible post, and not the position of an intern. In the process of training, a young employee observes the exercise of power. He learns how much honest work and honesty in communication mean. Thus, this company is also struggling with another problem - the lack of arrogance of the leader.
1.5 The problem of national leadership style.
Among the main and most important problems community development in the modern world, especially in Russia, in the first place is the problem of political leadership - the search for and promotion to decisive political and state posts of new people capable of transforming the state into better side and on the implementation of policies that improve the lives of the population of the country.
It is known that in history the leading role is played not individuals, and the masses. In the life of society and, consequently, in history, there is nothing but acting people with their desire to realize their interests. And when some of them look at the world in a special way and begin to think about the coincidence and difference of their interests with the interests of other contemporaries, then the first prerequisites for the formation of parties appear. But these individual breakthroughs through everyday life would remain a private manifestation if people did not appear who shoulder the burden of uniting thousands and thousands of their contemporaries, whose place in society coincides, and whose interests are similar. This, perhaps, is the origin of leadership.
The problem of political leadership arises only in the presence of certain political conditions and political freedoms. Its indispensable prerequisites are: political pluralism0, multi-party system, as well as intra-party and intra-parliamentary activity (factional). When there is an intellectual continuous political struggle of people belonging to certain parties and factions, reflecting certain social interests and aspirations, of certain groups of people.
The absence of the conditions necessary for the emergence of the problem of political leadership precludes the emergence of new political leaders through democratic means. A striking example of this are Totalitarianism and Authoritarianism.
1.6 Features of leadership in Russian business.
Leadership development is currently receiving considerable attention due to the fact that the qualities of a leader are inherently unique and peculiar, and most importantly, so necessary for the implementation of effective management. For Russia, this topic is particularly relevant, since the need to build leadership is associated with the process of globalization. Russia's position in the global space forces us to look for new ways of effective management and improvement of leadership qualities.
In Russia, leadership qualities for a long time little attention has been paid, but today, in the era of globalization, the expansion of social and cultural ties, our country needs not only not to leave its positions, but also to comprehend new heights. Features of the national Russian character largely determine the trend in the development of modern Russian leadership. Research in this area does not complete picture modern leader, but still the need to study the inherent Russian system qualities of a manager is obvious.
Identified on the basis of various studies and features of the mentality of the Russian people, the main characteristics of the Russian leader make it possible to judge possible way further development of leadership qualities in Russia. At the same time, it is important, based on the results of world-class research, to highlight distinctive features Russian manager along with world-famous models for building effective management. The systematization of the studies carried out in this area makes it possible to compare previous results with the real situation.
The Russian management model has its own specifics and is rapidly developing. This process is carried out under the influence of the management systems of other states, since one way or another at the global level all models of building an organization collide and their mass integration takes place. In this regard, it is important to determine the position of the Russian management model in the world community.
Conclusion.
A leader is an authoritative member of an organization, a small group or society as a whole, whose personal influence allows him to play a significant role in social processes and situations. Leadership is one of the mechanisms for integrating group activities. Leadership,like power, there is influence over other people. But it has three features: first, the influence must be permanent; secondly, the influence of the leader must be carried out on the entire group, organization, society; thirdly, the leader is distinguished by a clear priority in influence.
Leadership has been studied by scientists for many decades.
The first studies of leadership tried to identify those qualities that distinguish the outstanding, "great" people in history from the masses, which allows the first to become leaders. The researchers believed that leaders have some unique set of fairly stable and unchanging qualities that distinguish them from non-leaders. Based on this approach, scientists have tried to define leadership qualities, learn how to measure them and use them to identify leaders.
Approaches based on the situational nature of leadership have proposed explaining the effectiveness of leadership in terms of various situational variables. In their conclusions, these concepts are based on an analysis of the leadership character and its relationship with the existing situation.
Modern synthetic concepts of leadership try to combine the advantages and achievements of both traditional and situational approaches.
The basis of foreign theories of leadership is currently based on the psychological approach. In Russia, however, a sociological analysis of leadership has become widespread, which proceeds from the existence in society of a complex interaction of subjective and objective factors that are unequal in terms of the strength of their influence, the leader is formed in a system of specific social conditions, not in isolation, but in close dependence on their development.
The distinction between a leader and a manager is made in many positions. An effective leader is not necessarily an effective leader, and vice versa. Their main characteristics are, as it were, in different dimensions. It is obvious that in practice there is no perfect observance of these two types of control relations. Research shows that a significant group of managers have leadership qualities in many ways. However, the opposite option also occurs in real life.
In modern conditions, the development has received new type organizations are self-learning. In such a changing environment, it is no longer enough for a leader to make the right decisions and inspire subordinates. He must design and create self-learning organizations, recognize and use systemic relationships. New leadership roles require new qualities from him: the ability to form an image of the future, understandable and perceived by his followers, the ability to identify and refute outdated postulates, the ability to teach people a systematic approach to thinking. Therefore, leaders in learning organizations are responsible for creating an environment in which employees continuously develop their abilities to create their own future.
New Feature leadership in an organization is to build an effective organizational culture. This function is an essential component of the design of organizations. The design and construction of organizations, or "social architecture" as it is sometimes called, is an invisible activity. Anyone who seeks leadership out of a lust for power, fame, or simply a desire to be in the center of events will find little attraction in the quiet and inconspicuous work of a design leader.
Another important function of the modern leader is to develop policies, strategies, and organizational structures that allow ideas to be translated into concrete solutions.
The traditional view that policy making and implementation is the function of a small group of senior leaders is being challenged. The dynamic nature of today's business requires the inclusion of middle management in policy making. These new requirements for leadership leaders, which are put forward by changes in the environment, initiate new scientific problems in the study of leadership.
Bibliography:
1. Goleman D. Emotional intelligence / Daniel Goleman; per. from English by A.P. Isaeva.-M.: AST: AST MOSCOW; Vladimir: VTK, 2010. - 478, p.
2. Avramenko E. S., Avramenko E. S. Leadership: Russian context // Proceedings of the Ural State University. Ser. 3, Social Sciences. 2010. No. 2 (77). 2010
3. Prokhorov A. Russian management model. Studio Art. Lebedev, 2011.
4. Druzhelauskaite E.V. The art of correct decision making. M.: FORUM, 2009, 176 p.
5. Political psychology: Textbook / E.S. Luchenkov. Mn.: Higher. school, 2010. 160 p.
6. Ratmanova E.V. Political leadership in modern Russia: style of managerial activity: Ph.D. dis. for the competition scientist step. cand. floor. Sciences. - Yaroslavl, 2009. - 25 p.
7. Soloviev A.I. State Decision Making: Textbook. 2nd ed., revised. and additional M.: KNORUS, 2009. 344 p.
8. http://www.library.by/shpargalka/belarus/psychology/002/psy-074.htm
9. http://www.links.proocenka.ru/3kurs/disk/umm/dopmat/tlider.pdf
10. http://www.master-x.com/article/article/30/page/1/
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Allocate sociological and psychological theories of leadership. Sociological theories include: "feature theory", "situational theory", "the theory of the determining role of followers", "relational theory" (G.K. Ashin, G.M. Andreeva). Each theory gave rise to the growth of the next.
"Damn Theory": leadership is a phenomenon born of the specific features of a leader such as the art of persuasion, nobility, love of risk, enthusiasm, impartiality, courage, will, honesty, justice, sincerity, etc. There is even special term to indicate such specific traits leader - charisma- exceptional talent of a person, which makes a special impression on the people around him. A person with charisma looks in the eyes of his adherents as infallible, having supernatural power. From this point of view, the influence of prominent political figures, rulers, and prophets was considered. Indeed, there are people who are called "born leaders." They are so in most groups and in many social situations. However, most often the leader is associated with specific group and typical social situations.
The "feature theory" has received quite a lot of rebuttals due to the fact that different types of life of a social group require different qualities of a leader. But this does not apply to specific activities. So, highlighting the features of the most successful teacher-leader, they note:
-qualities that contribute to successful communication- sociability, focus on others, a tendency to cooperate, empathy, tact, patience, emotional stability, flexibility in learning new roles, artistry.
-specific pedagogical work - high intellectual flexibility, criticality and quickness of thinking, ability to improvise, self-criticism, independence, initiative and some others.
An interesting fact is that the most successful teacher is the one who does not strive for leadership.
It can be argued with credible evidence that there are different types of activities that require opposite traits from leaders. In this way, it is impossible to create a universal scale of leader traits. Exactly given fact led to a rapid decline in the popularity of the "theory of traits". However, in concrete psychological research we can quite often meet with the "theory of traits". It was especially widespread in the 1950s and 1960s, when the problems of the subjective conditions of stressful labor were most actively developed.
D. Myers highlights the features of the most effective leaders in modern conditions:
Self-confidence that generates support from followers;
Having a convincing idea of the desired state of affairs and the ability to communicate them to others in simple and clear language;
A sufficient supply of optimism and faith in your people to inspire them;
originality; energy; conscientiousness; complaisance; emotional stability.
"Situational Theory": proclaims the significance of the situation in the process of nominating a leader. Leader is a function of the situation. If the social situation of the existence of the group changes dramatically, then the leader is likely to change.
T. Shibutani identified two psychological factors that depend on changes in the situation: the degree of formalization of the group and the degree of autonomy of the members of the group. He made these two psychological factors the criteria for creating a typology of social situations. Was allocated five types social situations depending on the change in the degree of formalization of relations and the autonomy of subjects.
1) sudden critical situations. They are unpredictable, appear as a spontaneous process and, as a rule, contribute to the nomination of a new leader. In such situations, the leader acting earlier in this group becomes incapable of making decisions and acts unproductively. Therefore, in such a situation, a new leader usually appears, who was previously an ordinary member of the group.
2) critical recurring, predictable situations. Since the possibility of such situations is known in advance, leaders and leaders are specially trained for certain actions in such situations. In most cases, such leaders act as "backup" and do not lead groups until the appropriate situation occurs.
3) typical recurring situations based on conventional norms(for example, the situation of buying and selling in a store). Such situations usually do not require the presence of a leader. However, people who tend to dominate in communication (dominant) often act as a leader in such social situations.
4) typical repetitive conventional situations that arise in institutions different kind (everything that is connected with the work of most people). In such situations, managers and informal leaders usually act. The scope of each activity is very clearly defined.
5) group rituals. These are informal relationships that determine the patterns of social behavior of most members of the group. Here the role of the informal leader is great.
Let's analyze these situations from the point of view of formalization of relations:
§ sudden critical situations;
§ critical recurring situations;
§ typical recurring conventional situations;
§ typical recurring bureaucratic situations;
§ group rituals.
It's obvious that the degree of formalization and the pressure of social control increases from the first type of situations to the last type. Group rituals involve very strong social control.
The degree of autonomy of group members decreases from situations of the first type to situations of the fifth type. The independence of the subject's behavior is influenced by the degree of formalization of group action, which is completely different in the situations discussed above.
"Theories of the determining role of followers": leadership is a function of the expectations (expectations) of followers. A leader cannot exist without a social group. If the group does not support the leader, then he loses the opportunity to influence its activities. Followers can accept or reject the leader. In this regard, it is necessary to study the requirements and interests of the group, public opinion and other psychological characteristics of groups. The group will support the leader until then. as long as he shares the values that matter to her.
In the modern world, many significant managers and leaders have specialists in their staff who deal with the problems of their image. In the context of this theory, the leader is seen primarily as a person who leads others, so his ability to impress others and convince them to act in a certain way is especially important. The theory of the determining role of followers is one of the most popular in modern public life, and especially in political life, due to the need for politicians to maintain their popular image and influence supporters.
Outcome: Trait Theory, Situation Theory, and Follower Determination Theory have explored various issues of influence and leadership. All three theories were criticized only if any of them claimed to be universal. Since the traits of the leader, the situation in which he acts, and the opinion of followers are significant in almost all conditions of the leader’s activity, a “complex (relational) theory” of leadership was developed, which includes the main ideas of all three of the above theories.
Psychological theories of leadership, unlike sociological ones, were not specially developed, but were a side effect of research into personality phenomena. In the concepts of psychoanalytic direction leadership was considered as the effect of some human inclinations unrealized in social life. Suppressed drives become a source of high social activity, leading a person to leadership. There is a social compensation of psychological dissatisfaction due to influence on others (S. Freud). Leadership was also seen as a consequence of an inferiority complex. that occurs in some people childhood and being universal driving force in overcoming obstacles and personal development.
A. Adler believed that the desire for power is generated by fear. He who is afraid of people sees the need to rule over them.
In behaviorism, leadership has been studied as a result of the struggle for survival, which most often occurs at an unconscious level. Here, leadership was associated with such human qualities as dominance, initiative, assertiveness and aggressiveness.
Many psychologists of various directions are united by the idea that leadership is a phenomenon that is associated with new directions in social life. Directions are set by leaders who lead individuals who imitate them.
In modern social psychology, psychological theories of management aimed at developing the problems of managers of the so-called middle level have gained wide popularity. They pay special attention to the issues of organizing group activities, correcting intra-group relations, managerial functions, and individual factors for effective group management.
Leadership Styles (Manuals)
Back in the 30s, K. Levin identified three styles of leadership: authoritarian (directive), democratic (collegiate) and conniving (anarchist). Leadership Style- this is a typical leader system of methods of influencing group members (subordinates or followers).
Authoritarian style manifests itself in harsh methods of management, suppression of the initiative of group members, lack of discussion of decisions made, management of the group by only one person - the leader, who himself makes decisions, controls and coordinates the work of subordinates.
Democratic style is distinguished by collegial discussion of problems in the group, encouragement by the head of the initiative of subordinates, active exchange of information between the leader and members of the group, decision-making at the general meeting.
conniving style expressed in voluntary renunciation manager from management functions, removal from management, transfer of management functions to group members.
Each style has its advantages and disadvantages, and in this sense, there are no "bad" and "good" leadership styles. Consider the advantages and disadvantages of each style.
With an authoritarian style The quality of a manager's decisions depends on the information he has and on his ability to interpret it correctly. However, an authoritarian leader does not always have sufficient information to make decisions, since there is a large social distance between him and his group. Subordinates are not too frank with the authoritarian leader, and he may not know about many events in the group. The authoritarian style promotes an increase in hierarchical levels that give rise to the formalization of relations. In general, with this style, decision-making and their support by group members depend on the authority of the leader. The decisions themselves are communicated to subordinates in a clear, concrete and precise manner. However, an authoritarian leader never gives his subordinates complete information about the progress of affairs, which can cause frustration among group members and accelerate the formation of informal microgroups. authoritarian leader is very attentive to control, which is the predominant managerial function. The authoritarian style presupposes a clear planning of work, the implementation of all cases in accordance with the deadlines, prompt decision-making on important issues of the functioning of the group.
With a democratic style the leader has more information about group processes, which makes it easier to make decisions and make them more appropriate to the situation. However, the adoption itself is slower due to democratic procedures. In addition, the leader must have special qualities: flexibility of behavior, tolerance towards subordinates, patience and restraint with a high level of sociability. This style contributes to a more favorable psychological climate in the group than the authoritarian one. There is a relatively high degree of satisfaction of group members with their activities and position among colleagues. However, the manager may have problems in connection with the control of activities.
conniving style is much less common than authoritarian and democratic. With this style, the group exists independently and determines the main directions of its life. Gradually, there is a complete rejection of formal relations, the social distance between members of the group is sharply reduced, familiarity in dealing with each other increases. In such a situation, interest in the case may decrease, and the joint goal may not be achieved. Only a high level of personal or professional development of group members can contribute to the normal operation of the group under such management. At the same time, an indulgent style can contribute to the growth of responsibility and independence of ordinary members of the group.
So, each style has some advantages and disadvantages. Each style may be appropriate in some circumstances and inappropriate in others.
The democratic style makes it possible for everyone to participate in management, but hinders, if necessary, quick decision-making.
The conniving style focuses on the independence of the members of the group, but this is possible only with their highest qualifications.
It is quite clear that the most successful leaders and managers are guided by all three styles, depending on the conditions of activity. One and the same leader can change the system of methods of influencing subordinates. The main factors in changing the leadership style can be: the degree of urgency in making a decision, the confidentiality of the task, the size of the group, the personality of the leader, mental capacity subordinates or their level of professionalism.
