They try to make the wedding magnificent, but elegant, without vulgarities and unnecessary fuss. Many European wedding traditions are adopted by other countries to make the celebration just as elegant and stylish.
Many beautiful wedding traditions were borrowed from European countries. For people in England, Germany, France, Spain and other countries, marriage is a reverent and romantic event, which is intertwined with many customs and memorable moments.
The essence of the rituals
Peoples with a rich history have accumulated a whole storehouse of different traditions, signs and superstitions, some of which relate specifically to weddings. Whatever the culture of the country, marriage has a special role, and since ancient times there have been special procedures for its preparation and conduct.
Many of the wedding traditions in Europe were forgotten, others were modified, and only a small part has survived to this day in its original state. With the advent of Christianity, the isolated features of peoples began to be forgotten, and general patterns began to appear in the customs of different cultures. This does not mean that people lost their individuality - they only interpreted the same faith.
Now even those wedding rituals in Europe that have been preserved from ancient times can rarely be seen at holidays. Conservative Europeans, too, began to give preference to holding the celebration.
Old customs can be found only in cases where the bride and groom want to pay tribute to their ancestors, and even then such rituals are only a formality and do not carry any sacred meaning.
Most often, the observance of wedding traditions can be found if the future newlyweds decide to organize their wedding in a specific style. For example, French, and are popular. 
Which ones exist and where?
Among all European countries, the richest in customs related to marriage are England, Greece, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Ireland and Sweden. Most often, stylized weddings are organized in accordance with these concepts.
In England, for example, a bride must wear four mandatory things to her wedding - something new (the dress itself, underwear), something old (family jewelry, shoes), something borrowed from a friend or relative (clutch, bracelet) and something blue (garter, hairpin). It is believed that in this case the girl will attract good luck and favor. higher powers. According to another English tradition, a little girl from among those invited to the wedding walks ahead of the bride and strews her path with rose petals.
In Greece, there is a wonderful custom of presenting gifts to guests, and they are purchased with money from the groom’s family. Another wedding tradition in Europe is the wedding, which takes place on Sunday, and on Friday they bake bread, showering flour on everyone who wants to receive a little happiness and good luck. Children invited to the celebration are given a special role - they are allowed to jump on the newlyweds’ bed so that they have many strong and healthy children.
In Germany, there is a wonderful custom: when newlyweds get married, they drink a glass of wine together. The groom drinks first, then the bride, after which she throws the glass behind her. If it breaks, the spouses will face a long and happy life. According to another tradition, any of the male guests may try to “steal” the hero of the occasion during the banquet. If he succeeds, he will have as many as three dances with the bride.
Wedding planner
In order to create an unusual and bright atmosphere at a wedding, in addition to external similarity with the style, you can also adopt some wedding traditions of European countries.
Elena Sokolova
Reader
Majority European traditions are aimed at bringing happiness, good luck, financial well-being and healthy children into the married life of young people.
Karina
In France, they are very sensitive to pre-wedding preparations. Literally every detail of the newlyweds’ outfits, including even a belt or tie, is hand-sewn to individual measurements, and there are practically no wedding salons in this country. The entire French wedding is divided into three stages: a wedding in a church, a cocktail party and the main banquet. Not all guests are invited to each of these events; instructions to this effect are included in the invitation envelope.
Many Italian customs are observed to this day. For example, the custom of carrying the bride over the threshold of the family home in his arms originated in this country. Name honeymoon Italians also came up with this idea - back in ancient Rome, newlyweds used honey for 30 days after the wedding to make life together sweet and pleasant.
Interesting! An Italian groom asks his beloved's hand from her mother, not her father. If you are planning a European wedding, you can follow the tradition.
In Spain, despite the ardent nature of its inhabitants, young people who decided to get married were treated strictly. After the engagement, the bride and groom were under constant surveillance; the most they were allowed was to hold hands, and then not in public.
The Spaniards created their own male and female communities, one might say, according to their interests. Then such groups intersected with each other, and the girls could meet the boys, and the main criterion for choosing the second half on both sides was thriftiness.
The Irish are used to celebrating weddings on a royal scale. It is noteworthy that matchmaking in most cases takes place in early January, as lovers try to get married before Maslenitsa. Then Lent begins, and according to the laws of this country it is impossible to have a wedding.
An interesting tradition in Ireland is the “Aitin Gander” ritual. On the appointed day, the groom comes to the house of the bride's parents, where the young man is treated to baked goose. Everyone who is involved in organizing the wedding is invited to the party, right down to the priest, and everyone together discusses pressing issues in preparing the celebration.
Sweden has fairly loose wedding traditions. Girls and boys met at dances on weekends, after which the latter accompanied their chosen ones home and did not hesitate to stay overnight. Because of this, weddings often took place when the bride was already pregnant, or even after the birth of the child. It is interesting that society did not condemn this, but, on the contrary, supported it, because it served as proof that the girl was healthy and capable of giving her husband heirs.
Interesting! Find out what they are. This could be a nightmare...
Other countries
There are no less interesting and funny traditions in other European countries. If desired, such customs can be observed at your own wedding in order to surprise the guests and make the celebration individual.
For example, there are following traditions related to marriage.
Such customs do not bring anything bad, so if you want to bring them to life, you can safely experiment.
Intersections with Russian customs
In every culture, a wedding will acquire new details and customs borrowed from other peoples. The most striking confirmation of this is that it is believed that the unmarried girl who catches him will be the next to marry.
Previously, there was no such tradition in Rus', although it was similar in meaning. All the girls who had not yet started a family danced around the newlywed, and she closed her eyes and spun in the opposite direction. Whoever she points to when she stops will be the one she will marry next. And by the way, Russian girls never gave the bouquet to anyone, keeping it in the family for good luck.
Interestingly, in many European countries and in Russia there is a similar The parents of the newlyweds bring fire from their home to help the newlyweds light their own. In the modern interpretation, the hearth is replaced with ordinary candles, since not everyone even has a fireplace.
If a European wedding is being organized, traditions and customs make it possible to make the celebration elegant and romantic. Many couples strive to plan their wedding in the Western style, avoiding vulgar ransoms, vulgar competitions and other inappropriate events. Such customs will not only diversify the celebration, but also make it memorable for guests.
The Advent wreath is of Lutheran origin. This is an evergreen wreath with four candles. The first candle is lit on Sunday four weeks before Christmas as a symbol of the light that will come into the world with the birth of Christ. Every next Sunday another candle is lit. On the last Sunday before Christmas, all four candles are lit to illuminate the place where the wreath is placed (this could be the church altar or the dining table).The ringing of bells on Christmastide came to us from the winter pagan holidays.
When the Earth was cold, it was believed that the sun died and the evil spirit was very strong. To drive out an evil spirit, you had to make a lot of noise. The Christmas tradition of ringing bells, singing and shouting at the same time has survived to this day. At Christmas time in churches all over the world, bell ringing. But not to drive out evil spirits. In this way people welcome the coming of Christ. In Scandinavia, the ringing of bells signifies the end of work and the beginning of a holiday; in England, the ringing of bells at the funeral of the devil and the greeting of Christ.
A Christmas tree for birds is a Scandinavian tradition. People try to share their joy on Christmas Day with other living beings.
Directly on Christmas Day or the day before, seeds or crumbs of bread are brought out to the birds. This is a sign that the new year will be successful. Celebrating outside adds to the fun of celebrating inside.
Playing Christmas carols on wind instruments is one of the delightfully boisterous traditions of Christmas. It probably came from paganism, because... To drive out evil spirits it was necessary to make noise. Currently it is followed in Germany and Scandinavia. A musical quartet performs four Christmas carols near a bell tower or church.
Christmas carols end with a joyful chime, signaling the beginning of Christmas.
Light was an important component of pagan winter holidays. With the help of candles and fires they drove out the forces of darkness and cold. Wax candles were distributed to the Romans on the holiday of Saturnalia. In Christianity, candles are considered an additional symbol of the importance of Jesus as the Light of the world.
In Victorian England, merchants gave candles to their regular customers every year.
In many countries, Christmas candles signify the victory of light over darkness.
The candles in the tree of heaven gave birth to our all-loved Christmas tree.
In Scandinavian countries and Germany, on December 24th, Santa Claus knocks on the door, but in England and America his visit is secret. Santa Claus allegedly enters the house through the chimney.
In 1843, the Englishman Horsley drew the first Christmas card. 1000 copies of the postcard were sold that year in London. Publisher Louis Prang popularized Christmas cards in 1875. He held a nationwide competition in America for the best Christmas card design.
Improvements in the postal system and cheaper postage made it possible to send Christmas cards to many friends all over the world.
The first Christmas carol is believed to have appeared in the 4th century AD, but it was a bit dark. Lighter, more joyful Christmas carols emerged in Renaissance Italy. They were already beginning to live up to their name (Christmas carols - carols (English) - from the French "caroler" - dance to the ringing).
Saint Nicholas is traditionally considered the giver of gifts. In Rome there was a tradition of giving gifts to children on the occasion of Saturnalia. The gift giver can be Jesus himself, Santa Claus, Befana (Italian female Santa Claus), Christmas gnomes, and various saints. According to an old Finnish tradition, gifts are distributed around homes by an invisible man.
It is believed that the first undecorated Christmas trees appeared in Germany in the 8th century. The first mention of spruce is associated with the monk Saint Boniface. Boniface read a sermon about Christmas to the Druids. To convince the idolaters that the oak was not a sacred and inviolable tree, he cut down one of the oaks. When the felled oak fell, it knocked down all the trees in its path except the young spruce. Boniface presented the survival of the spruce as a miracle and exclaimed: “Let this tree be the tree of Christ.”
Later, Christmas in Germany was celebrated by planting young trees.
A German source dating back to 1561 states that no more than one Christmas tree can be in a house at Christmas. In the 17th century, the Christmas tree was already a common attribute of Christmas in Germany and Scandinavian countries Oh. At that time, the Christmas tree was decorated with figures and flowers cut out of colored paper, apples, waffles, gilded items, and sugar.
The tradition of decorating a Christmas tree is associated with the tree of paradise, hung with apples.
The success of the Christmas tree in Protestant countries was even greater thanks to the legend that Martin Luther himself was the first to light candles on the Christmas tree. One evening he was walking home, writing a sermon. The brilliance of the stars twinkling among the fir trees filled him with awe.
To show this magnificent picture to the family, he placed a Christmas tree in the main room, attached candles to its branches and lit them.
The Christmas tree owes its popularity in England to the German Prince Albert, husband of Queen Victoria. In the 17th century, German immigrants brought the Christmas tree tradition to America.
The first street Christmas trees with electric garlands appeared in Finland in 1906.
Every year at Christmas time a carol festival is held in Wales.
Choirs across the country are vying to be chosen as the official Christmas carol. These church choirs travel through towns and cities across Wales singing Christmas carols from both past and present.
The tradition of choosing a national Christmas carol began in the 10th century.
The first guest is the first person to enter the house and “let in” Christmas (in some countries this tradition refers not to Christmas, but to the New Year). Sometimes such a person is even specially hired to ensure that everything is done properly, since there is a superstition associated with the first guest. The first guest should hold a spruce branch in his hand. He enters the front door, walks through the house, and exits through the back door. He is presented with bread and salt or some small gift as a symbol of hospitality. The first guest must be a dark-haired man. If the first guest is a woman, this is a bad omen.
Holly is an evergreen shrub with red poisonous berries, dark green foliage and thorns. The brightness of this plant made it a natural symbol of the rebirth of life in the winter whiteness of northern Europe. Holly is believed to drive away the winter cold and evil spirits. In England, holly with thorns is called "he", without thorns - "she". Which holly (with or without thorns) was brought into the house first on Christmas Day determines who will run the household in the coming year.
Before the advent of the Christmas tree in the mid-nineteenth century, England had what was called the “kissing branch.” It was in the shape of a double ring, decorated with garlands, green branches, holly, ivy, apples, pears, lighted candles and mistletoe. If a girl accidentally found herself under this branch, she was allowed to kiss her.
In the past, one of the main dangers during Christmas celebrations was Christmas candles. Therefore, buckets of water were kept in the living rooms in case of fire. The idea is to use electric garlands instead wax candles belongs to the English telephone operator Ralph Morris. By that time, strings of electric light bulbs were already being used in telephone switchboards; Morris only had the idea to hang them on the Christmas tree.
The ancient Druids considered mistletoe a sacred plant, a symbol eternal life. The Romans valued it as a symbol of peace. Kissing under the mistletoe is also a Roman tradition.
The first Christmas trees were decorated with fresh flowers and fruits. Later sweets, nuts and other foods were added. Then - Christmas candles.
Such a load was certainly too heavy for the tree. German glassblowers began producing hollow glass Christmas tree decorations to replace fruit and other heavy decorations.
The first plum puddings were made in the 17th century. The pudding was prepared in large copper cauldrons several weeks before Christmas by the whole family. During preparation, each family member made a wish. Four items were placed in the pudding: a coin, a thimble, a button and a ring. Later, when the pudding was eaten, each item found in the pudding had its own meaning. The coin meant wealth in the new year, the button meant single life, the thimble for a girl meant unmarried life, and the ring meant marriage.
Before the advent of the Christmas tree, the Christmas pyramid was considered the main Christmas decoration in Germany and northern Europe. It was a wooden structure in the shape of a pyramid, hung with vegetation and decorations. Gifts or sweets were placed on the shelves of the pyramid. With the growing popularity of the Christmas tree, the functions of the Christmas pyramid were transferred to the Christmas tree.
The Christmas log must be cut down by the head of the family, and not bought from someone. It should burn in the fireplace along with the remains of last year's Christmas log. The log must burn all twelve days of Christmas. There is a superstition that if a person sees his shadow cast from a fireplace where a log is burning, without his head, he will die the following year. The ashes of the Christmas log heal illnesses and protect the home from lightning strikes.
In the Middle Ages, religious holidays were virtually the only holidays. Therefore, people sought to extend these holidays as long as possible. Over time, Christmas instead of one day turned into 12 - from Christmas to Epiphany. In wealthy families, it was customary to give each other gifts on each of the twelve days. This made the Christmas carol "The Twelve Days of Christmas" very popular. Presumably the appearance of this hymn dates back to the 16th century.
In England The most enjoyable part of the Christmas celebration is the festive family dinner on December 25, which is preceded by a church service. The centerpiece of the Christmas table in Britain is a roast turkey, previously stuffed with a mixture of bread crumbs and spices or chestnuts. A special redcurrant or cranberry sauce is prepared for the bird. As a complement to the Christmas feast, ham, bacon, small sausages and various vegetables (boiled or baked) are served. Well, the favorite dessert is, of course, Christmas pudding - a steamed cake made from dense dough with dried fruits. Before serving, the pudding is doused with cognac and set on fire - it looks very impressive!
Christmas is a great holiday established in memory of the birth of Jesus Christ in Bethlehem. Christmas is one of the most important Christian holidays, a public holiday in more than 100 countries around the world.
The first information about Christians celebrating Christmas dates back to the 4th century. The question of the real date of birth of Jesus Christ is controversial and ambiguously resolved among church authors. Perhaps the choice of December 25 is connected with the pagan solar holiday of the “Birth of the Invincible Sun” that fell on this day, which was filled with new content with the adoption of Christianity in Rome.
According to one of the modern hypotheses, the choice of the date of Christmas occurred due to the simultaneous celebration by early Christians of the Incarnation (the conception of Christ) and Easter; Accordingly, as a result of adding 9 months to this date (March 25), Christmas fell on the winter solstice.
The Feast of the Nativity of Christ has five days of pre-celebration (from December 20 to 24) and six days of post-celebration. On the eve or on the eve of the holiday (December 24), a particularly strict fast is observed, called Christmas Eve, since on this day wheat or barley grains boiled with honey are eaten. According to tradition, the Christmas Eve fast ends with the appearance of the first evening star in the sky. On the eve of the holiday, Old Testament prophecies and events related to the Nativity of the Savior are remembered.
Christmas services are performed three times: at midnight, at dawn and during the day, which symbolizes the Nativity of Christ in the bosom of God the Father, in the womb of the Mother of God and in the soul of every Christian.
In the 13th century, during the time of St. Francis of Assisi, the custom arose of displaying in churches for worship a manger in which a figurine of the Infant Jesus was placed. Over time, mangers began to be placed not only in the temple, but also in homes before Christmas. Homemade santons - models in glass boxes depict a grotto, the baby Jesus lies in a manger, next to the Mother of God, Joseph, an angel, shepherds who came to worship, as well as animals - a bull, a donkey. Entire scenes from folk life are also depicted: peasants are placed next to the holy family in folk costumes and so on.
Church and folk customs harmoniously intertwined in the celebration of Christmas. In Catholic countries the custom is well known caroling- visiting the homes of children and youth with songs and good wishes. In return, the carolers receive gifts: sausage, roasted chestnuts, fruits, eggs, pies, sweets, etc. Stingy owners are ridiculed and threatened with troubles. The processions involve various masks dressed in animal skins; this action is accompanied by noisy fun. This custom was repeatedly condemned by church authorities as pagan, and gradually they began to go with carols only to relatives, neighbors and close friends.
The remnants of the pagan cult of the sun at Christmas time are evidenced by the tradition of lighting a ritual fire in home - "Christmas log". The log was solemnly, observing various ceremonies, brought into the house, set on fire, while simultaneously saying a prayer and carving a cross on it (an attempt to reconcile the pagan rite with Christian religion). They sprinkled the log with grain, poured honey, wine and oil on it, put pieces of food on it, addressed it as a living being, and raised glasses of wine in its honor.
On the days of Christmas celebration, a custom has been established to break "Christmas bread"- special unleavened wafers consecrated in churches during Advent - and eat it both before the festive meal and during greetings and congratulations to each other on the holiday.
A characteristic element of the Christmas holiday is the custom of installing in houses decorated spruce tree. This pagan tradition originated among the Germanic peoples, in whose rituals spruce was a symbol of life and fertility. With the spread of Christianity among the peoples of Central and Northern Europe, decorated multi-colored balls The spruce acquires new symbolism: it began to be installed in houses on December 24, as a symbol of the tree of paradise with abundant fruits.
Christmas customs and traditions in Great Britain
At Christmas, all the windows of rural houses are lit with candles in Great Britain, so among the locals the night before Christmas is called "night of candles". In England today, on Christmas Eve, instead of the traditional Yule log, a thick Christmas candle is lit. In Wales, lit candles decorated not only private homes on Christmas Day. rural areas, but also rural churches and chapels. Candles to decorate the church were made and given to the priest by the residents of the parish.
In many villages, shortly before the holiday, women organized competitions for the best decoration of Christmas candles. These decorations were made from strips of colored paper, foil, gold and silver threads, bright ribbons, etc. In some areas of Wales, with the same decorated and lit candles in their hands, parish residents went to morning mass, which began at 2-3 am. Many similar candles were lit on this night in private homes.
Since the Middle Ages, the church began to use old rituals of dressing up in order to give people more vivid impressions of biblical stories. Thus arose "mysteries"- dramatic performances of such religious scenes as the Annunciation, the visit of the infant Christ by the three wise men of the East, etc. Participants in dramatic versions of biblical stories were usually masked or with their faces covered with a scarf, like the performers of ancient pagan rituals. Of the performances of this kind, the dramatic pantomime game about St. was especially widespread among the English. George and the Dragon, widely known in many other countries.
ABOUT masquerades and pantomimes at Christmas there is information already from the 14th-15th centuries. Thus, one of the sources reports that in 1377 a Christmas pantomime was organized at the Scottish royal court for entertainment little prince Richard. In the treasury registers of Scotland in the 15th century. The funds spent on organizing court masquerades for Christmas are often listed.
Another one was also associated with the organization of masquerades. interesting custom in Britain: on the 12 days of Christmastide, in each palace or castle, the manager of the entire celebration, called in England "Lord of Disorder"(Lord Misrule), and in Scotland - "imaginary abbot"(Abbot of Mock). The Lord of Disorder was the one who could joke well, organize various entertainments, and carnivals. He himself selected his retinue, the members of which were dressed in bright dresses, decorated with ribbons and bells.
In Scotland, the retinue of the “imaginary abbot” included characters typical of folk processions of mummers, such as Hobbie-horse - a guy portraying a horse. Such a noisy company and especially its leader were allowed to do whatever they wanted - break into any houses to play some kind of joke on their inhabitants, arrange games, dances and other entertainment. This custom was banned by Henry VIII.
In many villages in Scotland, on Christmas Day, men and young men, led by bagpipers and accompanied by many people, went outside the village and played football, bowls on some lawn, and organized various sports competitions: running, hammer throwing exercises, etc. Winner for all games he received a beret decorated with feathers and ribbons; After the competition, the youth sang and danced, and in the evening they returned to the village with the winner at their head. In the evening, the winner of the competition presided over the ball.
For all these old ones traditional customs The new Protestant church collapsed with great force in the 17th century. The Christmas holiday was especially persecuted in Puritan Scotland. Every pagan rite and custom, even the most innocent, was mercilessly cursed by the church. Thus, according to the records of a church session in 1574, several people were accused of playing, dancing and singing Christmas songs on this holiday.
Even the clergy baking Christmas bread Protestant Church considered a crime. In December 1583, Glasgow bakers were asked to name the names of those for whom they baked Christmas bread. In 1605, five people were summoned to court in Aberdeen for walking around the city wearing masks and dancing on Christmas Day. Finally, in 1644, the celebration of Christmas was banned throughout England by a special act of parliament.
After such persecutions in Scotland, the celebration of Christmas never again reached its former popularity; only a few rituals were preserved, most of them began to coincide with the New Year. And currently, December 24-25 are working days there, and the New Year is considered a holiday - January 1-2.
In England already at the end of the 17th century. Christmas began to be celebrated again, but throughout the 19th century the rituals that accompanied it changed, and by the beginning of the 20th century. from a great social event for the entire community, Christmas became pure family holiday, only some of his old customs have survived to this day. For example, the custom of exchanging gifts on Christmas Day is observed everywhere among the British. With the introduction of Christianity, this custom was associated with the bringing of gifts to the baby Jesus by three magicians of the East. In memory of this, gifts are given primarily to children.
A kind old gentleman delivers gifts to children Santa Claus, red-cheeked, with a long white beard, dressed in a red fur coat and a tall red hat. Some people identify Santa Claus with creatures underworld- gnomes, which, in their opinion, confirms his appearance. Usually, at Christmas, not only children, but also adults receive gifts; before dinner, they are presented to everyone by the youngest member of the family.
Since the 19th century it has become a custom to exchange greeting cards- instead of the once obligatory personal congratulations on the holiday. In 1843, the first Christmas card was printed in the printing house, and soon their production became a special branch of printing production. In the design of postcards, motifs of old traditional Christmas customs are often found: the robin, which has been around since the 18th century. often replaces the wren in rituals, branches of eternal greenery - holly, ivy, mistletoe, and on Scottish postcards the image of a sprig of heather intertwined with tartan ribbons is the national symbol of Scotland. Such cards are sent in large numbers at Christmas time to Scottish emigrants all over the world as a reminder of the homeland they left behind.
Christmas lunch and today includes such traditional dishes, like stuffed turkey (in the English) or roast goose (in Wales, Ireland) and the inevitable plum pudding. The old custom of decorating the house for Christmas with branches of eternal greenery - ivy, holly, etc. is still preserved. As before, a sprig of mistletoe is strengthened above the door. According to custom, once a year, on Christmas Eve, men have the right to kiss any girl who stops under a decoration made from this plant. This doesn’t happen often, and in order not to waste time, one man decided to decorate a mirror with amela branches so that he could kiss all the girls who stopped to admire themselves.
Apparently, a late transformation of the custom of decorating houses with eternal greenery was
Christmas tree, as a symbol of undying nature. The custom of decorating a spruce appeared in England relatively recently, in mid-19th c., and was brought here from Germany. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert had their first Christmas tree for their children in Windsor, and the fashion quickly spread. Nowadays, in almost every English home, a Christmas tree is decorated with colorful shiny toys and sweets, and a Christmas fairy or a large silver star is usually placed on top of it. During the Second World War, a huge spruce tree was first smuggled from occupied Norway to England, where the Norwegian king and government were located at that time, and installed in Trafalgar Square. From now on, such a spruce is given annually by the city of Oslo to the British capital, and it is installed on the same square. It is decorated with Christmas tree decorations and multi-colored light bulbs.
Finally, from the once widespread processions of mummers and dramatic performances, Christmas pantomimes and masquerade balls, organized in all theaters and concert halls on Christmastide, originate. The second day of Christmas in the church calendar is dedicated to St. Stephen. In England this day is called boxing day(Boxing day). This name comes from the custom of installing special piggy banks in churches before Christmas, where offerings for the poor were placed.
On St. Stephen, the pastor distributed the collected money among his parishioners. Later, the boxes were no longer installed in the church, but the poor people of the parish gathered in groups on St. Stefan and his piggy bank went around houses, receiving small coins. Such groups consisted of journeymen, students, messengers, etc. And now the tradition of giving small sums of money to letter carriers, messengers and servants on this day has still been preserved.
In England and Scotland, a significant part of the Christmas holiday is ritual food- dinner on Christmas Eve and lunch on the first day of Christmas. The English and Scottish nobility, descended from the Scandinavians or Normans, had a boar's head as a traditional Christmas dish throughout the Middle Ages.
However, among the Celtic peoples this dish never appeared on festive tables. Perhaps the reason for this was the ban on eating pork that existed in ancient times among the Celts. This prohibition continued for a long time in some remote corners of the Highlands.
In Scotland, Ireland and Wales, a piece of roast beef or goat was usually prepared for Christmas dinner - Yule bull or Yule goat. But gradually traditional meat dish For Christmas it was roasted (in Ireland, Wales) or smoked (in Scotland) goose. It remains the main Christmas dish today in Wales and Scotland (Highland). In England since the 18th century. Fried or stuffed turkey took its place.
Had ritual significance drinks and foods made from cereals. In Aberdeenshire and the north-east of Scotland it was customary to place a large cup of a special Christmas drink called sowans on the table on Christmas Eve. It was prepared from fermented barley grain, with the addition of honey and cream. The drink was poured into small wooden cups, at the bottom of which some object was placed: if the drinker saw a ring at the bottom - this is for a wedding, a coin - for wealth, a button - for celibacy, etc.
For many centuries, all residents of the British Isles had a special food for Christmas. oatmeal Plum Porridge(plum-porridge), cooked in meat broth, bread crumbs, raisins, almonds, prunes and honey were also added to it and served very hot. During the 18th century. Plum Porridge is gradually being replaced plum-pudding-dingom(plum-pudding), and by the middle of the 19th century. the latter becomes the most important dish of the Christmas table. Plum pudding is made from bread crumbs with the addition of various spices and fruits; before serving, it is doused with rum and lit. It is still a custom to hide small silver coins and decorations in the Christmas pudding - “for good luck”.
In the past, the Scots, Irish and Welsh had a custom of baking for Christmas. special bread. It was supposed to be baked only on Christmas Eve, between sunset and sunrise. Christmas bread was a large round cake, on which a cross was cut out with a knife before baking. They also baked Christmas oatcakes - round, with jagged edges and a hole in the middle; judging by their shape, they were supposed to symbolize the sun. In the Highlands it was customary to invite every passerby into the house at Christmas. The guest was offered a piece of this flatbread with cheese and a sip of alcohol.
In all wealthy houses, baking was carried out and beer was brewed not only for themselves, but also for distribution to the poor, watchmen, workers, and shepherds. On the eve of Christmas Eve, on the so-called "small Christmas Eve"(Swedish - lille ju-lafton, Norwegian - julaften, Danish - ju-leaften), rich alms were distributed, especially in the priests' houses, to every house included in the parish. Gifts consisted of bread, meat, porridge, beer, and candles.
On Christmas Eve, before sunset, all the villagers gathered in the church. Upon returning home, everyone sat down to a festive treat. With Christmas comes everyone's celebration; There is not a single poor house where this event is not celebrated. The smallest loaf of bread is always kept in a hiding place from one Christmas to another or even longer. There have often been cases where an 80-90 year old woman kept a loaf of bread baked in her youth.
And now in the UK they are still preparing for the New Year special traditional dishes. For breakfast they usually serve oatcakes, pudding, a special type of cheese - Kebben, for lunch - roast goose or steak, pie, apples baked in dough. New Year's oatcakes among the Celtic peoples had a special shape - round with a hole in the middle. We tried not to break them during baking, as this would be a bad omen.
The table decoration is christmas cake. According to an old recipe, it should be stuffed with the following items that supposedly predict fortune for the coming year: a ring for a wedding, a coin for wealth, a small horseshoe for good luck.
Currently, in Scotland, a large round sand cake is baked for the New Year's table, with tucks along the edges, decorated with almonds, nuts, sweets, sugar and marzipan figures boiled in sugar. Every year, a huge number of such cakes are sent to all corners of the globe to Scots in exile. They are usually decorated national emblems- heather, Scottish cross, arms crossed over the sea, mountains, etc.
You will be welcomed in the UK Christmas carols, church mass and pudding and turkey, typical of English cuisine. On Christmas Eve, crowds of people gather for Trafalgar Square, at the main Christmas tree of England, where charity organisations They organize performances for adults and children with the singing of hymns. Roughly the same thing happens in Leicester Square, where fun fair. Residents and tourists can enjoy carnivals and festivities in Coven Garden, warm up at the traditional Christmas Peter Pan Trophy swimming competition, and then relax in Hyde Park and the Serpentine Pond.
Edinburgh gets especially crowded on New Year's Eve on Princes Street. New Year's services are going on in churches. Fruit and confectionery shops are open all night. The arrival of the New Year is heralded by the ringing of bells, horns and sirens from factories. After 12 o'clock everyone congratulates each other and goes home to festive tables.
Christmas in England loomed back in October, when most of them sat down at the table at home and, sticking out the tip of their tongues from diligence, wrote Christmas Lists to Father Christmas with a most serious look. The owners of shops in England, don’t be fools, started selling various thematic junk right from that moment... But in general, all this is an established centuries-old Tradition. In the United Kingdom, there are probably more traditions, rituals, signs, quirks, quirks and other things associated with winter festivities than in the rest of Europe. Moreover, there are ancient traditions, and there are relatively young ones, but they have already managed to firmly cement themselves in the depths of the British mentality. Here, for example: from the end of the 19th century, Advent Calendars came to England from Germany. Initially, they had a purely religious “adult” purpose, but soon children began to use them. And now every year, starting from the first of December, the whole of young Britain is “counting down to the Advent”, and the calendars themselves can be crazy: blinking, chocolate, waffle, in the form of Martian heads... In fairness, we note that most buildings here only begin to be decorated two weeks before Christmas. Trees, many of which still have leaves, are entangled with tinsel (glitters), wires with light bulbs (flicker), ribbons of tartan fabric (curl and rustle) and many others. other manifestations of the British sense of beauty. The lawns in front of houses are usually completely hidden by statues of Father Christmas, wreaths of holly and ivy, and in the windows - so that no one seems too little - they turn on Scandinavian welcome lights! All this, in fact, is called Traditions. Children generally have a good time here. On Christmas Eve in the evening they go to bed after prayers and Christmas stories are read to them. Before that, they always leave mince pie and milk for Father Christmas (and carrots for a certain Rudolph) - otherwise there will be no gifts! , where under the tree, in stockings or in special socks, lies “what they have been waiting for so long.” Around lunchtime (one o’clock in the afternoon), relatives and friends come to the house, everyone kisses, cuddles, gives presents, and enthusiastically discusses what... some nonsense and finally sit down to Christmas dinner. In fact, some holidays the British, with their dull, bland cuisine, somehow manage not to ruin from a gastronomic point of view - Christmas is one of them, they serve “cocktails” here. appetizers of shrimp, then for the main course - turkey in currant sauce, and for dessert - Christmas Pudding or Christmas Pie... But usually it’s much worse! At three o'clock in the afternoon, old Queen Elizabeth is played on TV with a festive speech to the British um... people, then everyone still stares for a while at the box in which they prepared "all the best and funniest", and then, if the family is completely correct, play charades or games that require ingenuity Board games. The true Home of Christmas and the Cradle of most traditions is undoubtedly London. These days the atmosphere in the metropolis is simply electric. The streets sparkle under the influence of the magic of thousands of magic light bulbs and other decorations. Fresh air tingles your cheeks and nose, and frost transforms the city into a Christmas Wonderland described by Dickens - the British, by the way, love to make this comparison... But with all that, London allows you to experience all the shades of the “holiday atmosphere”. The most luxurious junk is thrown into the windows, choirs of all kinds sing in the corners, in passages and in churches, all drinking and eating establishments offer special menus and some special entertainment, and the streets, theaters (open and closed) and squares are flooded with mass entertainers , pop groups and even clowns.
But, both for our people and for the London people, X-mas is, first and foremost, of course, Phaser Shopping. Despite the general poorly disguised high cost, Christmas sales in London usually do not let you get bored. Officially, sales are announced on the twentieth of December, but it is important to know that a really serious reduction in prices occurs after Christmas, when there is no longer a need for frantic purchasing of gifts from people. The largest discounts are provided by department stores (this year mainly on December 27). The heaviest shopping scene can be seen in the West End and in the Oxford Street area. The most luxurious place - dear to the Russian heart (and the center in general Russian culture in London!) Selfridges. Each time it is somehow thematically decorated according to one particular plan and it is always done, of course, with great taste. In another no less pleasant place, Liberty's (true English fabrics for the production of women's clothing are found here), prices are reduced by up to 50% during the sales period. In addition, the store is located in a 16th-century building and its windows are considered among other windows the most beautiful in London The store named Simpson's is interesting because on all its five floors they sell almost exclusively goods for gentlemen. It is doubtful that anyone other than the British could decide on such strict specialization. Harrod's is considered the flagship of London, and indeed British supermarkets in general - they say there are people who spent several days just looking at its windows... This is where everything your heart desires is really sold! And all - at exorbitant schizophrenic prices. But what's here? What really pleases is that “the staff works until the last whim of the last client is satisfied”... The discounts in this store are also “the very best” and in crazy extravagance they reach up to 75%, however, from the standpoint! common sense, these discounts are about the same as if we subtracted 75 cm from the height of a skyscraper... In London, it is customary to start sales on Saturday, but Harrod's announces them half a week later, on Wednesday, without at all doubting its own superiority. And, as they say, on the very first day of the sale, it makes a turnover equal to a month’s. And they probably aren’t lying. This is the power of habits and traditions. All stores prepare for the Christmas sale (with the most significant discounts of the year) in advance, from about mid-October. The display cases are populated by angels, snowmen, broods of reindeer and cohorts of Santa Clauses. By the way, keep in mind that you can give anything in the world for Christmas in England, from Adam to Potsdam, depending on your tastes and capabilities. The latest trend is to reduce time and nervous stress during shopping, as well as to manage to pervert and buy something SO-SO that no one dares to call junk! For example, a ticket for a helicopter ride (a whole fashion now). In this regard, the Internet, which distributes such things, is on the tail of traditional shopping centers. For people with lesser quirks, the opportunity to become perverted materializes in a more modest disease - in the choice of 100,000 varieties of holiday wrapping paper... Have you bought gifts? What did they wrap it in? ! And here we are - look - what a cute little piece of paper... etc., etc....
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Talking about modern sexual norms is not so interesting - the world is engulfed in globalization, the boundaries between nations are blurred thanks to the Internet and the work of localization translators.
Fewer and fewer young people are learning about sex from their parents, preferring to trust what they see in porn and read on online forums.
But if we move back to a time when there was neither the Internet nor television, and knowledge about sex and everything connected with it was passed on by word of mouth, we can discover the whole world strange rituals, shocking myths and incomprehensible to modern man rituals
Hello Europe!
Source: iStock
Let's start with our territory - Eastern Europe.
Different sources attribute different countries to this geographical zone, but the most common designation speaks of the Czech Republic, Ukraine, Slovakia, Romania, Russia, Poland, Moldova, Hungary, Bulgaria, Belarus.
Also very often Serbia, Albania, Slovenia and Montenegro are added to this list.
Source: 35photo.ru
But let’s put an end to the geographical confusion and recall that the Slavic settlements were considered the most numerous in Eastern Europe.
Initially, the Slavs were disparate pagan tribes, which were later united into Kievan Rus. Only after accepting Christianity was she able to take her rightful place on the world political stage.
Sexual traditions of the Slavs
Source: liveinternet.ru
The new religion dictated to the inhabitants Kievan Rus their own rules: from holidays to the abolition of previous sexual traditions.
Thus, Christian missionaries were amazed at the dissolute life of the people of Kievan Rus. We have reached records from the 6th century by the Byzantine historian Mauritius the Strategist, who was outraged by the traditions of the Kupala holiday, which is now known as Ivan Kupala.
Source: GIPHY
On this day, many unrelated girls and boys indulged in free sexual and even group (!) pleasures on river shallows and lakes. Similar orgies took place during other pre-Christian holidays.
In those days, no one thought about maintaining virginity before marriage, and the familiar word “fornication” had a completely different meaning, which was preserved in the Russian “wander” and the Ukrainian “blukati”.
Prodigal Slavic girls
Source: blogspot.com
“Fornication” did not have any negative connotations; it meant a search, namely the selection of a suitable partner to start a family.
And in the best traditions of pre-Christian Rus', the search was conducted in a rather frank, “lascivious” manner. Naturally, for dogmatic Mauritius, all this seemed unacceptable.
Times were changing, and already in 953, Princess Olga took the first steps in the fight against “sexual barbarism”; she introduced compensation for the lack of virginity of a young bride.
Source: GIPHY
If it turned out that a man married an “unclean” woman, he had to pay a kind of tax to the state for her. True, history is silent about methods of testing the virginity of brides.
14 years later Prince of Kyiv Svyatoslav, following his mother, introduced a new decree prohibiting girls from losing their virginity with the Magi.
Now this seems wild, but before their wedding night, many brides went to the sages in order to feel more confident and protected during sex with their husbands.
Source: mensby.com
It is worth noting that similar traditions were widespread throughout the rest of the world, this was especially reflected in the history of Greece and Ancient Rome.
The Slavic people had difficulty accepting all the innovations, but by the 14th-15th centuries they considered the classic “fornication” to be something immoral and outdated. Of course, there were no more orgies and group sex on Ivan Kupala.
Christianity left behind only the most acceptable remnants of paganism. For example, the cheerful traditions of Maslenitsa and jumping over the fire on Ivan Kupala have survived to this day.
Balkan erotic epic
This is the name of the sensational work of the Yugoslav performance artist Marina Abramović. In it, the author talks about traditions familiar to Serbia and the Balkans, which now resemble the ravings of a madman.
We will not post the video material here, but we will list all the most interesting and shocking traditions of the peoples of the Balkans.
Source: realist.online
“With the help of eroticism, man tries to make himself equal to the gods. In Balkan folklore, men and women try to preserve indestructible energy through the use of eroticism. They believed that erotic energy was something inhuman that could only come to a person from higher powers.”
Marina Abramovich
1. In the case when a horse or bull looked weak and could not cope with the work given to them, the man put his hand into his pants, rubbed his crotch and touched the animal. It was believed that this would help cure fatigue.
2. Balkan women had their own recipe for a fidelity potion. To prepare it, it was necessary to take a small fish, which had previously spent a day in a woman’s vagina, grind it into powder and mix it with coffee. If a man drinks this “drink,” he will never leave his beloved.
3. If a woman had problems during childbirth, the husband took out his penis and crossed his wife's breasts with it. It was believed that this would make the birth of a child much easier
4. To increase the fertility of the earth, and with it the improvement of the harvest, a man dug a hole in the ground and masturbated with its help. In addition to the Balkans, this tradition is found in many other nations of the world, including African ones.
Source: Balcan Erotic Epic (2006)
5. To distract the enemy during the battle, the Balkan girls undressed and behaved as openly as possible towards the enemy soldiers.
6. Now, to protect against the evil eye, we use red thread or cover the child’s face in the photo. In ancient times, things were done “a little” differently in the Balkans.
When my son left native home and went into adulthood, the mother ran her hand over her crotch and stroked her son’s face, believing that this would protect him from the evil eye.
Source: Balcan Erotic Epic (2006)
7. The tradition of treating diseases with the help of bees survived in the Balkans until the 19th century. But local residents didn’t just plant a bee on a sore spot. They sat bare bottom on a whole piece of evidence, often not limiting themselves to just one or two.
8. To protect himself from impotence, before the wedding, a man went to a bridge, made three holes in it and copulated with each one, saying, “As I insert into the hole of this bridge, I will insert it into my wife in the same way.” Almost all men firmly believed in the effectiveness of this method
We are all equal in our past
Christmas and New Year are ideal times to visit Europe. German Christmas markets, a speech from the Pope, grand New Year's parties, a visit to Santa's residence in Lapland - each of the European countries can make your Christmas special.
In European countries, Christmas Eve is given greater importance, which must be spent with family. Therefore, even on Christmas, many restaurants, bars, cafes and shops are open here. Often New Year's festivities begin with just the midnight bells, and then everyone has fun until dawn.
This itinerary is based solely on what you can see in different countries. You'll have to travel by plane to these wonderful destinations, but budget airlines usually offer fantastic discounts during the winter months. So, such a trip will not cost exorbitant amounts of money.
In late November and early December, head to Salzburg to attend the Advent singing festival. Christmas markets in Germany usually close on Christmas Eve. So hurry up to get your portion of spicy mulled wine. Paris and London are also great options for the Christmas holidays. Many illuminated signs are installed in these European capitals every year - come and see for yourself!
Visit Santa in Lapland, then head to Finland to admire the Northern Lights. On New Year's Eve, head to Scotland to take part in the traditional Hogmanay celebrations. At the beginning of January, visit Spain for the Day of the Three Kings or, as it is otherwise known, the Day of the Three Wise Men. It is on January 5 that a ship with three travelers arrives in the cities of Spain, and the streets are filled with artists, buffoons and circus performers.
And although December is very traditionally considered the low season, the Christmas holidays are an exception. Therefore, we recommend booking hotel rooms in advance.
Italy
What is it like to be in Italy for Christmas? To imagine, you should learn more about the Christmas traditions of this country.
You may be surprised that Italian children do not write letters to Santa Claus to ask for gifts. These touching messages contain declarations of love for parents. Christmas dinner here is called the "Feast of the Seven Fishes" because there are seven different seafood dishes on each table. It is not customary to serve meat at Christmas. You also need to wear red lingerie on New Year's Eve. This should bring good luck in the new year.
Germany
Many German Christmas traditions are now common throughout the world. It was here that they began to decorate Christmas trees and hang wreaths of pine branches on the doors. All over Germany there are festive markets until Christmas Eve. Here you can buy souvenirs, aromatic mulled wine, traditional baked goods: vanilla crescents with hazelnuts, cinnamon stars, macaroons and gingerbread. For dinner, it is customary to bake a goose, and serve dumplings and cabbage as a side dish.
In Austria, in the south of Bavaria, as well as in Munich, an unusual Krampus procession takes place on two Sundays in December. Krampus is the evil counterpart of Saint Nicholas. Instead of a bag of gifts, Krampus holds chains, a bundle of birch twigs and a bag in which he will carry naughty children to hell. In recent years, this interesting tradition has become increasingly popular. Germans and tourists dress up as Krampus, who looks like a goat, and go for a walk through the streets of the city.
If you are traveling with children, we recommend that you visit Christmas markets and watch performances by artists, jugglers and gymnasts. Be sure to try the German stollen. This is a traditional candied fruitcake that will captivate you with its magical taste!
Switzerland
Whether there is a the best place for Christmas than the Swiss Alps? Swiss Christmas markets are not as steeped in the spirit of the past as in Germany, but are nevertheless very popular.
Basel has the largest open-air Christmas market in all of Switzerland. Here you will find adorable handicrafts and lots of sweets. There are four Christmas markets in Zurich each year. The largest indoor market in all of Switzerland begins its work on December 8th. And on December 17, the annual festival of floating lights will take place here.
In Bern, the largest Christmas market is located among houses built in the 15th-17th centuries. You can make pleasant shopping and admire the medieval architecture. The Bernese Christmas Market on Waisenhausplatz is open until December 29, which means it's open longer than most and can keep you warm with mulled wine almost until the New Year.
Portugal
In this country, the so-called Janeiras are a mandatory attribute of Christmas. These are small groups of people who go from house to house, singing traditional songs and sometimes accompanying themselves. musical instruments. It is more common for us to call this phenomenon “carols.” Usually in Portugal, groups of friends or neighbors carol.
The Portuguese attach great importance nativity scenes In the village of Penela, up to five different nativity scenes are installed annually, some even using 3D technology. There is also a Christmas train running here, and an amazingly detailed model. railway with 10 trains. Thematic master classes on making New Year's toys are held daily. The Christmas market will delight you with souvenirs and treats, and magicians, jugglers and clowns will not let you get bored.
Austria
One of the world's favorite Christmas songs originated in Austria. " Silent night" or Stille Nacht is performed all over the world, although slightly differently than Franz Gruber's original version sounded.
If you are lucky enough to be in Salzburg in early December, be sure to visit the Advent singing festival. In 2017, the Salzberg Advent Singing Festival will be held for the 70th anniversary. For the first time, performers from all over the world came here in 1946. Next year the festival will return to its roots, with the theme once again being the revival of the post-war world. Attend this touching event and you will never forget this encounter with art.
France
Did you know that since 1962, every child in France who sent a letter to Santa, or Noel as he is known here, received a response? As throughout Europe, December 25 is a non-working day, which all French people strive to spend with their families. And children find gifts under a festively decorated tree. House doors are traditionally decorated with pine wreaths. And in Alsace it is customary to richly decorate the house with garlands and luminous figures.
Young French people often spend New Year's Eve in clubs in Paris or other major cities. But France offers unique alternative options for celebrating the New Year. You can enjoy a romantic cruise on the River Seine, admire a torchlight procession or go on a tour of the city of Avignon, which will enchant you with its festive illuminations.
UK and Scotland
The main attribute of New Year's Eve in London is the fantastically beautiful fireworks display. Most clubs in London organize special parties on New Year's Eve. And restaurants organize a gala dinner with a show program on New Year's Eve. You can also take a cruise on the River Thames or attend a New Year's themed ball at the famous Torture Garden.
Nowhere does New Year's Eve have as much fun as the traditional Hogmanay celebration in Scotland. The Scots adopted this custom from the Varangians, who had fun on the shortest day of the year. Immediately after midnight, it is customary to go to friends and family to congratulate everyone, moving from house to house.
It is considered a good omen if an attractive brunette is the first to cross the threshold of the house in the new year, in his hands he should have coal, whiskey, shortbread cookies and a chocolate cupcake. In return, such a visitor receives a full glass of excellent whiskey, because the guest portends good luck, prosperity and prosperity. It is believed that this belief originated when blond Vikings raided the homes of the Scots. So it turns out that a brunette on the threshold of a house is a harbinger of happiness.
Climate in Italy
Italy is called sunny, but the weather here is very capricious. The country is located on the Apennine Peninsula. Despite its small area, the terrain varies significantly between regions. It is precisely because of this, and also because of the significant extent from north to south, that the climate in Italy has a number of features that cannot be ignored when planning a trip.Transport in Italy
No trip is complete without transport. Trains and planes, buses and sea transport are all an integral part of travel. To visit the best corners of sunny Italy, to get better acquainted with the culture of the country, it is worth not only planning a route, but also becoming familiar with all the intricacies of local public transport and road traffic.What to bring from Italy
When we hear “shopping in Italy,” we most often think of fashion boutiques, then we think of olive oil, pasta, cheese; some may have associations with Venetian glass or carnival masks. So what is next? Next, we bring to your attention a list of popular, original and simply interesting souvenirs and other goods that may interest you, and some will even turn out to be very useful.The peoples of Europe are one of the most interesting and at the same time complex topics in history and cultural studies. Understanding the peculiarities of their development, life, traditions, and culture will allow us to better understand the modern events that are taking place in this part of the world in various areas of life.
general characteristics
With all the diversity of the population living on the territory of European states, we can say that, in principle, they all followed one common path of development. Most states were formed on the territory of the former Roman Empire, which included vast areas, from the Germanic lands in the west to the Gallic regions in the east, from Britain in the north to northern Africa in the south. That is why we can say that all these countries, despite all their dissimilarity, nevertheless formed in a single cultural space.
Path of development in the early Middle Ages
The peoples of Europe as nationalities began to take shape as a result of the great migration of tribes that swept the continent in the 4th-5th centuries. Then, as a result of massive migration flows, there was a radical transformation of the social structure that had existed for centuries during the period ancient history, and new ethnic communities took shape. In addition, the formation of nationalities was influenced by the movement that founded their so-called barbarian states on the lands of the former Roman Empire. Within their framework, the peoples of Europe emerged approximately in the form in which they exist at the present stage. However, the process of final national formation occurred during the mature Middle Ages.
Further formation of states
In the XII-XIII centuries, the process of formation of national identity began in many countries of the continent. This was the time when the prerequisites arose for residents of states to begin to identify and position themselves as a specific national community. This initially manifested itself in language and culture. The peoples of Europe began to develop national literary languages, which determined their belonging to one or another ethnic group. In England, for example, this process began very early: already in the 12th century, the famous writer D. Chaucer created his famous “Canterbury Tales,” which laid the foundation for the national English language.
XV-XVI centuries in the history of Western Europe
The late Middle Ages and early modern period played a decisive role in the formation of states. This was the period of the formation of monarchies, the formation of the main governing bodies, the formation of economic development paths, and, most importantly, the specific cultural appearance was formed. Due to these circumstances, the traditions of the peoples of Europe were very diverse. They were determined by the entire course of previous development. First of all, the geographical factor had an impact, as well as the peculiarities of the formation of national states, which finally took shape in the era under consideration.
New time
The 17th-18th centuries were a time of violent upheaval for Western European countries, which experienced quite difficult period in its history in connection with the transformation of the socio-political, social and cultural environment. We can say that in these centuries the traditions of the peoples of Europe were tested for strength not only by time, but also by revolutions. During these centuries, states fought for hegemony on the mainland with varying degrees of success. The 16th century passed under the domination of the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs, the next century - under the clear leadership of France, which was facilitated by the fact of the establishment of absolutism here. The 18th century shook its position largely due to the revolution, wars, and also the internal political crisis.
Expansion of spheres of influence
The next two centuries were marked by major changes in the geopolitical situation in Western Europe. This was due to the fact that some leading states took the path of colonialism. The peoples living in Europe mastered new territorial spaces, primarily North, South American and eastern lands. This significantly influenced the cultural appearance of European states. First of all, this concerns Great Britain, which created an entire colonial empire that covered almost half the world. This led to the fact that it was the English language and English diplomacy that began to influence European development.
Another event had a strong impact on the geopolitical map of the mainland - two world wars. The peoples living in Europe were on the verge of destruction as a result of the devastation caused by the fighting. Of course, all this affected the fact that it was Western European states that influenced the beginning of the process of globalization and the creation of global bodies for resolving conflicts.
Current state
The culture of the peoples of Europe today is largely determined by the process of erasing national borders. The computerization of society, the rapid development of the Internet, as well as widespread migration flows have raised the problem of erasing national distinctive features. Therefore, the first decade of our century passed under the sign of resolving the issue of preserving the traditional cultural appearance of ethnic groups and nationalities. IN Lately, with the expansion of the globalization process, there is a tendency to preserve the national identity of countries.
Cultural development
The life of the peoples of Europe is determined by their history, mentality and religion. With all the variety of paths of the cultural appearance of countries, one general feature of development in these states can be identified: the dynamism, practicality, and purposefulness of the processes that occurred at different times in science, art, politics, economics and in society in general. It was the last characteristic feature that was pointed out by famous philosopher O. Spengler.
The history of the peoples of Europe is characterized by the early penetration of secular elements into the culture. This determined the rapid development of painting, sculpture, architecture and literature. The desire for rationalism was inherent in leading European thinkers and scientists, which determined the rapid pace of growth technical achievements. In general, the development of culture on the mainland was determined by the early penetration of secular knowledge and rationalism.
Spiritual life
The religions of the peoples of Europe can be divided into two large groups: Catholicism, Protestantism and Orthodoxy. The first is one of the most common not only on the mainland, but throughout the world. At first it was dominant in Western European countries, but then, after the Reformation that occurred in the 16th century, Protestantism arose. The latter has several branches: Calvinism, Lutheranism, Puritanism, the Anglican Church and others. Subsequently, on its basis, separate communities of a closed type arose. Orthodoxy is widespread in Eastern European countries. It was borrowed from neighboring Byzantium, from where it penetrated into Rus'.
Linguistics
The languages of the peoples of Europe can be divided into three large groups: Romance, Germanic and Slavic. The first includes: France, Spain, Italy and others. Their features are that they were formed under the influence eastern peoples. In the Middle Ages, these territories were subject to invasion by Arabs and Turks, which undoubtedly affected their formation. speech features. These languages are distinguished by their flexibility, sonority and melodiousness. It is not for nothing that most operas are written in Italian, and in general, it is considered one of the most musical in the world. These languages are quite easy to understand and learn; However, the grammar and pronunciation of French can cause some difficulties.
The Germanic group includes the languages of the northern and Scandinavian countries. This speech is distinguished by its firm pronunciation and expressive sound. They are more difficult to perceive and learn. For example, German is considered one of the most difficult European languages. Scandinavian speech is also characterized by the complexity of sentence construction and rather difficult grammar.
The Slavic group is also quite difficult to master. Russian is also considered one of the most difficult languages to learn. At the same time, it is generally accepted that it is very rich in its lexical composition and semantic expressions. Believed to have all the necessary speech means and linguistic expressions to convey the necessary thoughts. It is indicative that it is European languages that different times and centuries were considered world-wide. For example, at first it was Latin and Greek, which was due to the fact that Western European states, as mentioned above, were formed on the territory of the former Roman Empire, where both were in use. Subsequently, Spanish became widespread due to the fact that in the 16th century Spain became the leading colonial power, and its language spread to other continents, primarily to South America. In addition, this was due to the fact that the Austro-Spanish Habsburgs were the leaders on the mainland.
But subsequently France took the leading position, which also took the path of colonialism. That's why French spread to other continents, primarily North America and North Africa. But already in the 19th century it became the dominant colonial state, which determined main role English throughout the world, which continues to be the case in ours. In addition, this language is very convenient and easy to communicate, its grammatical structure is not as complex as, for example, French, and due to the rapid development of the Internet in recent years, English has greatly simplified and become almost colloquial. For example, many English words in Russian sound have come into use in our country.
Mentality and consciousness
The characteristics of the peoples of Europe should be considered in the context of their comparison with the population of the East. This analysis was carried out back in the second decade by the famous culturologist O. Spengler. He noted that all European peoples are characterized by this, which led to the rapid development in different centuries engineering, technology and industry. It was the latter circumstance that determined, in his opinion, the fact that they very quickly embarked on the path of progressive development, began to actively develop new lands, improve production, and so on. A practical approach became the key to the fact that these peoples achieved great results in the modernization of not only economic, but also socio-political life.
The mentality and consciousness of Europeans, according to the same scientist, from time immemorial have been aimed at not only studying and understanding nature and the reality around them, but also at actively using the results of these achievements in practice. Therefore, the thoughts of Europeans have always been aimed not only at obtaining knowledge in its pure form, but also at using it in transforming nature for their needs and improving living conditions. Of course, the above path of development was also typical for other regions of the world, but it was in Western Europe that it manifested itself with the greatest completeness and expressiveness. Some researchers associate this business consciousness and practically oriented mentality of Europeans with the peculiarities of the geographical conditions of their residence. After all, most European countries are small in size, and therefore, in order to achieve progress, the peoples inhabiting Europe began to develop and master various technologies to improve production due to limited natural resources.
Characteristic features of countries
The customs of the peoples of Europe are very indicative of understanding their mentality and consciousness. They reflect them and their priorities. Unfortunately, very often the image of a particular nation is formed in the mass consciousness based on purely external attributes. In this way, labels are applied to one country or another. For example, England is very often associated with primness, practicality and exceptional efficiency. The French are very often perceived as cheerful, secular and open people, easy to communicate with. Italians or, for example, Spaniards seem to be a very emotional nation with a stormy temperament.
However, the peoples inhabiting Europe have a very rich and complex history, which has left a deep imprint on their life traditions and way of life. For example, the fact that the British are considered homebodies (hence the saying “my home is my castle”) undoubtedly has deep historical roots. When fierce internecine wars were going on in the country, apparently, the idea was formed that the fortress or castle of some feudal lord was reliable protection. The British, for example, have another interesting custom, which also dates back to the Middle Ages: during parliamentary elections, the winning candidate literally fights his way to his seat, which is a kind of reference to the time when there was a fierce parliamentary struggle. Also, the custom of sitting on a sack of wool is still preserved, since it was the textile industry that gave impetus to the rapid development of capitalism in the 16th century.
The French still have a tradition of striving to express their nationality in a particularly expressive way. This is due to their turbulent history, especially in the 18th century, when the country experienced revolution and the Napoleonic wars. During these events, the people felt their national identity especially acutely. Expressing pride in their fatherland is also a long-standing custom of the French, which is manifested, for example, during the performance of the Marseillaise and in our days.
Population
The question of what peoples inhabit Europe seems very complex, especially in view of the recent rapid migration processes. Therefore, in this section we should limit ourselves to only a short overview of this topic. When describing the language groups above, it was already said which ethnic groups inhabited the mainland. Here it is necessary to identify a few more features. Europe became the arena in the early Middle Ages. Therefore, its ethnic composition is extremely diverse. In addition, at one time, parts of it were dominated by Arabs and Turks, who left their mark. However, it is still necessary to point out the list of peoples of Europe from west to east (only the largest nations are listed in this series): Spaniards, Portuguese, French, Italians, Romanians, Germans, Scandinavian ethnic groups, Slavs (Belarusians, Ukrainians, Poles, Croats, Serbs , Slovenes, Czechs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Russians and others). Currently, the issue of migration processes, which threaten to change the ethnic map of Europe, is especially acute. In addition, the processes modern globalization and open borders threaten to blur ethnic territories. This issue is now one of the main ones in world politics, so in a number of countries there has been a tendency to maintain national and cultural isolation.
