Amazing Phenomenon in the history of world fine art took place in the North Europe XVII century. It is known as the Dutch still life and is considered one of the pinnacles of oil painting.
Connoisseurs and professionals have firm conviction that such a number of magnificent masters who possessed the highest technique and created so many world-class masterpieces, while living on a small patch of the European continent, have never been seen in the history of art.
The new meaning of the artist's profession
The special importance that the profession of an artist has acquired in Holland since early XVII century, was the result of the emergence after the first anti-feudal revolutions of the beginnings of a new bourgeois system, the formation of a class of urban burghers and wealthy peasants. For painters, these were potential customers who shaped the fashion for works of art, making the Dutch still life a sought-after commodity in the emerging market.
IN northern lands In the Netherlands, the reformist trends of Christianity, which arose in the struggle against Catholicism, became the most influential ideology. This circumstance, among others, made the Dutch still life the main genre for entire art workshops. The spiritual leaders of Protestantism, in particular the Calvinists, denied the soul-saving value of sculpture and painting on religious subjects, they even expelled music from the church, which forced painters to look for new subjects.
In neighboring Flanders, which remained under the influence of Catholics, art developed according to other laws, but the territorial proximity caused the inevitable mutual influence. Scientists - art historians - find a lot of things that unite the Dutch and Flemish still life, noting their inherent cardinal differences and unique features.
Early flower still life
The "pure" genre of still life, which appeared in the 17th century, in Holland takes special forms And symbolic name « quiet life» - stilleven. In many ways, the Dutch still life was a reflection of the vigorous activity of the East India Company, which brought luxury items from the East that had not been seen before in Europe. From Persia, the company brought the first tulips, which later became the symbol of Holland, and it was the flowers depicted in the paintings that became the most popular decoration for residential buildings, numerous offices, shops and banks.
The purpose of the masterly painted flower arrangements was diverse. Decorating houses and offices, they emphasized the well-being of their owners, and for sellers of flower seedlings, tulip bulbs, they were what is now called a visual advertising product: posters and booklets. Therefore, the Dutch still life with flowers is, first of all, a botanically accurate depiction of flowers and fruits, at the same time filled with many symbols and allegories. These are the best canvases of entire workshops, headed by Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder, Jakob de Hein the Younger, Jan Baptist van Fornenburg, Jacob Wouters Vosmar and others.
Laid tables and breakfasts
Painting in Holland in the 17th century could not escape the influence of new public relations, and economic development. 17th century Dutch still life profitable commodity, and large workshops were organized for the "production" of paintings. In addition to painters, among whom strict specialization and division of labor appeared, those who prepared the basis for paintings - boards or canvas, primed, made frames, etc. worked there. Fierce competition, as in any market relations, led to an increase in the quality of still lifes very high level.
The genre specialization of artists also assumed a geographical character. flower arrangements were written in many Dutch cities - Utrecht, Delft, The Hague, but it was Haarlem that became the center for the development of still lifes depicting served tables, food and ready meals. Such canvases can be varied in scale and character, from complex and multi-subject to concise. "Breakfasts" appeared - still lifes by Dutch artists depicting different stages meals. They depict the presence of a person in the form of crumbs, bitten buns, etc. They told interesting stories filled with allusions and moralizing symbols common to the paintings of that time. Paintings by Nicholas Gillis, Floris Gerrits van Schoten, Clara Peters, Hans Van Essen, Rulof Koots and others are considered especially significant.
Tonal still life. Pieter Claesz and Willem Claesz Heda
For contemporaries, the symbols with which the traditional Dutch still life is saturated were relevant and understandable. The paintings were similar in content to multi-page books and were especially appreciated for this. But there is a concept that is no less impressive for both modern connoisseurs and art lovers. It is called "tonal still life", and the main thing in it is the highest technical skill, surprisingly refined coloring, amazing skill in conveying the subtle nuances of lighting.
These qualities are in every way consistent with the canvases of two leading masters, whose paintings are considered to be the best examples of tonal still life: Pieter Claesz and Willem Claesz Head. They chose compositions from a small number of objects devoid of bright colors and special decorativeness, which did not prevent them from creating things of amazing beauty and expressiveness, the value of which does not decrease with time.
Vanity
The theme of the transience of life, equality before death of both the king and the beggar, was very popular in the literature and philosophy of that transitional period. And in painting, she found expression in paintings depicting scenes, the main element of which was the skull. This genre was called vanitas - from the Latin "vanity of vanities." The popularity of still lifes, similar to philosophical treatises, was promoted by the development of science and education, the center of which was the university in Leiden, famous throughout Europe.
Vanitas occupies a serious place in the work of many Dutch masters of that time: Jacob de Gein the Younger, David Gein, Harmen Stenwijk and others. The best examples of "vanitas" are not simple horror stories, they cause not unaccountable horror, but calm and wise contemplation, filled with thoughts about the most important issues being.
Faux-paintings
Paintings have been the most popular decoration of the Dutch interior since the late Middle Ages, which the growing population of cities could afford. To interest buyers, the artists resorted to various tricks. If skill allowed, they created “tricks”, or “trompe-l'oeil”, from the French trompe-l "oeil - an optical illusion. The point was that a typical Dutch still life is flowers and fruits, a broken bird and fish, or objects related to science - books, optical instruments, etc. - contained a complete illusion of reality.A book that has moved out of the space of the picture and is about to fall, a fly that has landed on a vase that you want to swat - typical plots for a fake picture.
The paintings of the leading masters of still life in the style of "tromple" - Gerard Dou, Samuel van Hoogstraten and others - often depict a niche recessed into the wall with shelves on which there are a lot of different things. The artist's technical skill in conveying textures and surfaces, light and shadow was so great that the hand itself reached for a book or a glass.
Bloom time and sunset time
By the middle of the 17th century, the main varieties of still life in the paintings of the Dutch masters reached their peak. The “luxurious” still life is becoming popular, because the wealth of the burghers is growing and rich dishes, precious fabrics and food abundance do not look alien in the interior of a city house or a rich rural estate.
The paintings increase in size, they amaze with the number of different textures. At the same time, the authors are looking for ways to increase entertainment for the viewer. To do this, the traditional Dutch still life - with fruits and flowers, hunting trophies and dishes of various materials - is complemented by exotic insects or small animals and birds. In addition to creating the usual allegorical associations, the artist often introduced them simply for positive emotions, to increase the commercial appeal of the plot.
The masters of the "luxurious still life" - Jan van Huysum, Jan Davids de Heem, Francois Reykhals, Willem Kalf - became the harbingers of the coming time, when increased decorativeness became important, creating an impressive impression.
End of the golden age
Priorities and fashion changed, the influence of religious dogmas on the choice of subjects for painters gradually faded into the past, the very concept of the golden age that dutch painting. Still lifes entered the history of this era as one of the most important and impressive pages.
Along with landscape painting still life, which was distinguished by an intimate character, was widely spread in Holland in the 17th century. Dutch artists chose a wide variety of subjects for their still lifes, they knew how to compose them perfectly, to reveal the features of each subject and its inner life inextricably linked to human life.
Dutch painters of the 17th century Pieter Claesz (circa 1597 - 1661) and Willem Heda (1594-1680/1682) painted numerous variants of "breakfasts", depicting hams, ruddy buns, blackberry pies, fragile glass goblets half-filled with wine, with amazing skillfully conveying the color, volume, texture of each item. The recent presence of man is palpable in the disorder, the accidental arrangement of things that have just served him. But this disorder is only apparent, since the composition of each still life is carefully thought out and found. A discreet greyish-gold, olive tonal range unifies the subjects and gives a special sonority to those pure colors that emphasize the freshness of a freshly cut lemon or the soft silk of a blue ribbon.
Over time, the “breakfasts” of the still life masters, the painters Claes and Heda give way to the “desserts” of the Dutch artists Abraham van Beijeren (1620/1621-1690) and Willem Kalf (1622-1693). Beieren's still lifes are strict in composition, emotionally rich, colorful. Willem Kalf throughout his life painted in a free manner and democratic "kitchens" - pots, vegetables and still lifes, aristocratic in the selection of exquisite precious objects, full of restrained nobility, like silver vessels, goblets, shells saturated with internal burning of colors.
IN further development still life follows the same path as all Dutch art, losing its democracy, its spirituality and poetry, its charm. Still life turns into a decoration of the home of high-ranking customers. With all the decorativeness and skill of execution, late still lifes anticipate the decline of Dutch painting.
Social degeneration, the well-known aristocratization of the Dutch bourgeoisie in the last third of the 17th century, give rise to a tendency to converge with the aesthetic views of the French nobility, lead to idealization artistic images, their grinding. Art is losing ties with the democratic tradition, losing its realistic basis and entering a period of long decline. Strongly exhausted in the wars with England, Holland is losing its position as a great trading power and the largest artistic center.
The work of Frans Hals and the Dutch portrait of the first half of XVII century.
Frans Hals(dutch. Frans Hals, MPA: [ˈfrɑns ˈɦɑls]) (1582/1583, Antwerp - 1666, Haarlem) - an outstanding portrait painter of the so-called golden age of Dutch art.
- 1 Biography
- 2 Interesting facts
- 3 Gallery
- 4 Notes
- 5 Literature
- 6 Links
Biography
"Family portrait of Isaac Massa and his wife"
Hals was born around 1582-1583 to the Flemish weaver François Frans Hals van Mechelen and his second wife Adriantje. In 1585, after the fall of Antwerp, the Hals family moved to Haarlem, where the artist lived all his life.
In the years 1600-1603, the young artist studied with Karel van Mander, although the influence of this representative of Mannerism is not traced in Hals' subsequent works. In 1610, Hals became a member of the guild of St. Luke and begins working as a restorer at the city municipality.
Hals created the first portrait in 1611, but fame came to Hals after the painting “The Banquet of the Officers of the Rifle Company of St. George" (1616).
In 1617 he married Lisbeth Rainers.
“The early style of Hals is characterized by a predilection for warm tones, clear modeling of forms with the help of heavy dense strokes. In the 1620s, Hals, along with portraits, painted genre scenes and compositions on religious themes" ("The Evangelist Luke", "The Evangelist Matthew", circa 1623-1625)".
"Gypsy" Louvre, Paris
In the 1620-1630s. Hals painted a number of portraits, which depict splashing life energy representatives common people(“Jester with a lute”, 1620-1625, “Merry drinking companion”, “Malle Babbe”, “Gypsy”, “Mulatto”, “Boy-fisherman”; all - around 1630).
The only portrait in full height is "Portrait of Willem Heithuissen" (1625-1630).
“In the same period, Hals radically reformed the group portrait, breaking with the conventional systems of composition, introducing into the works elements of life situations that provide a direct connection between the picture and the viewer (“Banquet of officers of the rifle company of St. Adrian”, about 1623-27; “Banquet of officers of the rifle company company of St. George", 1627, "Group portrait of the rifle company of St. Adrian", 1633; "Officers of the rifle company of St. George", 1639)." Not wanting to leave Haarlem, Hals refused orders if this required going to Amsterdam. The only group portrait he started in Amsterdam had to be finished by another artist.
In the years 1620-1640, the time of the highest popularity, Hals painted many double portraits couples: the husband is on the left portrait, and the wife is on the right. The only picture where the spouses are depicted together is "Family portrait of Isaac Massa and his wife" (1622).
"The Regents of the Nursing Home"
In 1644 Hals became president of the Guild of St. Luke. In 1649 he completed a portrait of Descartes.
« Psychological characteristics deepen in portraits of the 1640s. (“Regents of the Hospital of St. Elizabeth”, 1641, portrait of a young man, circa 1642-50, “Jasper Schade van Westrum”, circa 1645); in the coloring of these works, a silver-gray tone begins to predominate. Later works Khalsa are performed in a very free manner and solved in a sparing manner. color scheme, built on the contrasts of black and white tones ("Man in black clothes", about 1650-52, "V. Cruz", about 1660); in some of them a feeling of deep pessimism was manifested ("Regents of the Asylum", "Regents of the Asylum", both - 1664)."
“In old age, Hals stopped receiving orders and fell into poverty. The artist died in the Haarlem almshouse on August 26, 1666.
The largest collection of paintings by the artist is in the Hals Museum in Haarlem.
The founder of the Dutch realistic portrait was Frans Hals (Hals) (circa 1580-1666), whose artistic heritage, with its sharpness and power of embracing the inner world of a person, goes far beyond the national Dutch culture. An artist with a broad outlook, a bold innovator, he destroyed the canons of the estate (noble) portrait of the 16th century that had developed before him. He was not interested in a person depicted according to his social position in a majestic-solemn pose and a ceremonial costume, but a person in all his natural essence, characteristic, with his feelings, intellect, emotions. In the portraits of Hals, all sectors of society are represented: burghers, shooters, artisans, representatives of the lower classes of society, on the side of the latter, his special sympathies, and in their images he showed the depth of a powerful full-blooded talent. The democratism of his art is due to links with the traditions of the era of the Dutch revolution. Hals portrayed his heroes without embellishment, with their unceremonious manners, powerful love of life. Hals expanded the scope of the portrait by introducing plot elements, capturing the person being portrayed in action, in a specific life situation, emphasizing facial expressions, gesture, posture, instantly and accurately grasped. The artist sought the emotional strength and vitality of the characteristics of the portrayed, the transfer of their irrepressible energy. Hals not only reformed individual commissioned and group portraits, but was the creator of a portrait that bordered on the everyday genre.
Hals was born in Antwerp, then moved to Haarlem, where he lived all his life. He was a cheerful, sociable person, kind and carefree. The creative face of Khals was formed by the beginning of the 20s of the 17th century. Widespread popularity gained him group portraits of officers of the rifle company of St. George (1627, Harlem, Frans Hals Museum), and the rifle company of St. Adrian (1633, ibid.). Strong, energetic people who took an active part in the liberation struggle against the Spanish conquerors are presented during the feast. Cheerful, with a touch of humor, the mood unites officers of different characters and manners. There is no main character here. All those present are equal participants in the celebration. Hals overcame the purely external connection of the characters, characteristic of the portraits of his predecessors. The unity of the asymmetric composition is achieved through lively communication, unconstrained freedom of arrangement of figures united by a wave-like rhythm.
With brilliance and strength, the artist's energetic brush sculpts volumes of forms. streams sunlight glide over faces, sparkle in lace and silk, sparkle in glasses. The colorful range, which is dominated by black suits and white collars, is enlivened by sonorous golden-yellow, lilac, blue and pink officer's baldrics. Full of consciousness of their own dignity and at the same time freely, naturally, gesticulating, the Dutch burghers from the portraits of Hals appear, conveying an instantly seized state. Arms on hips, an officer in a wide-brimmed hat smiles fervently (1624, London, Wallace collection). The naturalness and liveliness of the pose, the sharpness of the characteristics, the highest skill in using the contrast of white and black in painting conquer.
Hals' portraits are diverse in themes and images. But the portrayed are united common features: integrity of nature, love of life. Hals is a painter of laughter, a cheerful, contagious smile. With sparkling joy, the artist enlivens the faces of representatives of the common people, visitors to taverns, and street boys. His characters do not close in on themselves, they turn their gazes and gestures towards the viewer.
Freedom-loving breath is fanned by the image of the "Gypsy" (circa 1630, Paris, Louvre). Hals admires the proud landing of her head in a halo of fluffy hair, a seductive smile, a perky sparkle in her eyes, an expression of independence. The vibrating outline of the silhouette, the gliding rays of light, the running clouds, against which the gypsy is depicted, fill the image with the thrill of life. Portrait of Malle Babbe (early 1630s, Berlin - Dahlem, Art Gallery), the owner of the tavern, not accidentally nicknamed the "Harlem witch", develops into a small genre scene. An ugly old woman with a burning sly look, turning around sharply and grinning widely, as if answering one of the regulars of her tavern. An ominous owl looms in a gloomy silhouette on her shoulder. The sharpness, visions of the artist, the gloomy strength and vitality of the image he created are striking. The asymmetry of the composition, the dynamics, the juiciness of the angular brushstroke enhance the anxiety of the scene.
By the middle of the 17th century, the shifts that had taken place in Dutch society were clearly indicated; as the position of the bourgeoisie, which has lost contact with the masses, strengthens in it, it becomes more and more conservative. The attitude of bourgeois customers to realist artists. Hals also lost its popularity, whose democratic art became alien to the reborn bourgeoisie, rushing after aristocratic fashion.
The life-affirming optimism of the master was replaced by deep reflection, irony, bitterness, skepticism. His realism became more psychologically profound and critical, his skill more refined and perfect. The coloring of Hals also changed, gaining more restraint; in the prevailing silver-gray, cold tonal range, among black and white, small, precisely found spots of pinkish or red color acquire special sonority. The feeling of bitterness, disappointment is palpable in the “Portrait of a Man in Black Clothes” (circa 1660, St. Petersburg, Hermitage), in which the finest colorful hues of the face are enriched and come to life next to restrained, almost monochrome black and white tones.
The highest achievement of Hals is his last group portraits of the regents and regents (trustees) of the nursing home, executed in 1664, two years before the death of the artist, who graduated alone life path at the shelter. Full of vanity, cold and devastated, power-hungry and swaggering, sitting at the table of the old trustee from the group “Portrait of the Regents of the Asylum for the Elderly” (Harlem, Frans Hals Museum. The old artist’s hand unmistakably accurately applies free, swift strokes. The composition has become calm and strict. The sparseness of space , arrangement of figures, even scattered light, equally illuminating all those depicted, contribute to focusing on the characteristics of each of them. Laconic colors with a predominance of black, white and gray tones. The late portraits of Hals stand next to the most remarkable creations of world portraiture: in their psychologism they are close to the portraits of the greatest of the Dutch painters - Rembrandt, who, like Hals, survived his lifetime glory, having come into conflict with the bourgeois elite of Dutch society.
Frans Hals was born around 1581 in Antwerp to a weaver's family. In his youth, he came to Haarlem, where he lived almost without a break until his death (in 1616 he visited Antwerp, and in the mid-1630s - Amsterdam). Little is known about Hals' life. In 1610 he entered the Guild of St. Luke, and in 1616 - in the chamber of orators (amateur actors). Very quickly Hals became one of the most famous portrait painters Harlem.
In the XV-XVI centuries. in the painting of the Netherlands there was a tradition to paint portraits only of representatives of the ruling circles, famous people and artists. The art of Khals is deeply democratic: in his portraits we can see an aristocrat, a wealthy citizen, an artisan and even a person from the very bottom. The artist does not try to idealize the depicted, the main thing for him is their naturalness and originality. His nobles behave as uninhibited as the representatives of the lower strata of society, who are depicted in the paintings of Hals as cheerful people, not devoid of self-esteem.
great place in the artist's work is a group portrait. The best works portraits of officers of the rifle company of St. George (1627) and the rifle company of St. Adrian (1633) became this genre. Each character in the paintings has its own bright personality, and at the same time, these works are distinguished by their integrity.
Hals also painted custom-made portraits, in which wealthy burghers and their families are placed in relaxed poses (“Portrait of Isaac Massa”, 1626; “Portrait of Hethuisen”, 1637). The images of Hals are lively and dynamic, it seems that the people in the portraits are talking to an invisible interlocutor or are addressing the viewer.
Representatives of the folk environment in the portraits of Hals are distinguished by vivid expressiveness and immediacy. In the images of street boys, fishermen, musicians, and visitors to taverns, one can feel the sympathy and respect of the author. His "Gypsy" is remarkable. A smiling young woman seems surprisingly alive, whose sly look is directed at an interlocutor invisible to the audience. Hals does not idealize his model, but the image of a cheerful, disheveled gypsy delights with her perky charm.
Very often Hals' portraits include elements of the genre scene. These are the images of children singing or playing musical instruments ("Singing Boys", 1624-1625). In the same spirit, the famous “Malle Babbe” (early 1630s) was performed, presenting the well-known owner of the tavern in Haarlem, whom visitors called the Haarlem witch behind her back. The artist almost grotesquely depicted a woman with a huge beer mug and an owl on her shoulder.
In the 1640s The country is showing signs of a turning point. Only a few decades have passed since the victory of the revolution, and the bourgeoisie has already ceased to be a progressive class based on democratic traditions. The veracity of Hals' painting no longer attracts rich clients who want to see themselves in portraits better than they really are. But Hals did not abandon realism, and his popularity plummeted. Notes of sadness and disappointment appear in the painting of this period (“Portrait of a man in a wide-brimmed hat”). His palette becomes stricter and calmer.
At the age of 84, Hals creates two of his masterpieces: group portraits of regents (trustees) and regents of a nursing home (1664). These last works Dutch masters are distinguished by their emotionality and bright individuality of images. From the images of the regents - old men and women - it breathes sadness and death. This feeling is also emphasized by the coloring, sustained in black, gray and white tones.
Hals died in 1666 in deep poverty. His truthful, life-affirming art had a great influence on many Dutch artists.
Painting by Rembrandt.
| Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn (1606-1669) was a Dutch painter, draftsman and etcher. The work of Rembrandt, imbued with the desire for a deeply philosophical comprehension of life, the inner world of a person with all the richness of his spiritual experiences, marks the pinnacle of the development of the Dutch art XVII century, one of the peaks of world artistic culture. Artistic heritage Rembrandt is distinguished by exceptional diversity: he painted portraits, still lifes, landscapes, genre scenes, paintings on historical, biblical, mythological themes, Rembrandt was an unsurpassed master of drawing and etching. After a short study at the University of Leiden (1620), Rembrandt decided to devote himself to art and studied painting with J. van Swanenbürch in Leiden (circa 1620-1623) and P. Lastman in Amsterdam (1623); in 1625-1631 he worked in Leiden. Rembrandt's paintings of the Leiden period are marked by a search for creative independence, although they still show the influence of Lastman and the masters of Dutch caravagism (“Bringing to the Temple”, about 1628-1629, Kunsthalle, Hamburg). In the paintings “The Apostle Paul” (circa 1629-1630, National Museum, Nuremberg) and “Simeon in the Temple” (1631, Mauritshuis, The Hague), he first used chiaroscuro as a means of enhancing the spirituality and emotional expressiveness of images. In the same years, Rembrandt worked hard on the portrait, studying the facial expressions of the human face. In 1632, Rembrandt moved to Amsterdam, where he soon married the wealthy patrician Saskia van Uylenburgh. The 1630s are a period of family happiness and Rembrandt's great artistic success. The painting “The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp” (1632, Mauritshuis, The Hague), in which the artist innovatively solved the problem group portrait, giving the composition a life of ease and uniting those portrayed by a single action, brought Rembrandt wide fame. In portraits painted by numerous orders, Rembrandt van Rijn carefully conveyed facial features, clothes, jewelry (painting “Portrait of a Burgrave”, 1636, Dresden Gallery). | ||||
| In the 1640s, a conflict was brewing between Rembrandt's work and the limited aesthetic demands of contemporary society. It clearly manifested itself in 1642, when the painting “Night Watch” (Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam) provoked protests from customers who did not accept the master’s main idea - instead of the traditional group portrait, he created a heroically elevated composition with a scene of the performance of the guild of shooters on an alarm, i.e. . essentially a historical picture that evokes memories of the liberation struggle of the Dutch people. The influx of orders from Rembrandt is declining, his life circumstances are overshadowed by the death of Saskia. Rembrandt's work is losing its external showiness and the notes of major inherent in it earlier. He paints calm, warm and intimate biblical and genre scenes, revealing the subtle nuances of human experiences, feelings of spiritual, family closeness (“David and Jonathan”, 1642, “The Holy Family”, 1645, both in the Hermitage, St. Petersburg). |
| The finest chiaroscuro play, which creates a special, dramatic, emotionally intense atmosphere, is becoming increasingly important both in painting and in Rembrandt’s graphics (the monumental graphic sheet “Christ Healing the Sick” or “Leaf of a Hundred Guilders”, circa 1642-1646; full of air and light dynamics landscape “Three Trees”, etching, 1643). The 1650s, filled with difficult life trials for Rembrandt, open the period creative maturity artist. Rembrandt is increasingly turning to the portrait genre, depicting the people closest to him (numerous portraits of Rembrandt's second wife Hendrikje Stoffels; "Portrait of an Old Woman", 1654, State Hermitage, Saint Petersburg; “Son Titus Reading”, 1657, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna). |
| In the mid-1650s, Rembrandt acquired a mature painting skill. The elements of light and color, independent and even partly opposite in early work artist, now merge into a single interconnected whole. The hot red-brown, now flashing, now fading quivering mass of luminous paint enhances the emotional expressiveness of Rembrandt's works, as if warming them with a warm human feeling. In 1656, Rembrandt was declared bankrupt, all his property was sold at auction. He moved to the Jewish quarter of Amsterdam, where he spent the rest of his life in extremely cramped circumstances. Biblical compositions created by Rembrandt in the 1660s sum up his reflections on meaning human life. In episodes expressing the clash of dark and light in human soul(“Assur, Haman and Esther”, 1660, Pushkin Museum, Moscow; “The Fall of Haman” or “David and Uriah”, 1665, State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg), rich warm scale, flexible impasto brushwork, intense play of shadow and light , the complex texture of the colorful surface serves to reveal complex conflicts and emotional experiences, to affirm the triumph of good over evil. |
| The historical painting “The Conspiracy of Julius Civilis” (“The Conspiracy of the Batavis”, 1661) is imbued with severe drama and heroism, a fragment has been preserved, National Museum, Stockholm). IN Last year life, Rembrandt created his main masterpiece - the monumental painting “The Return of the Prodigal Son” (circa 1668-1669, State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg), which embodied all the artistic and moral and ethical issues late creativity artist. With amazing skill, he recreates in it a whole range of complex and deep human feelings, subordinates artistic means revealing the beauty of human understanding, compassion and forgiveness. The climax of the transition from the tension of feelings to the resolution of passions is embodied in sculpturally expressive poses, mean gestures, in the emotional structure of color that flashes brightly in the center of the picture and fades away in the shaded background space. The great Dutch painter, draftsman and etcher Rembrandt van Rijn died on October 4, 1669 in Amsterdam. The influence of Rembrandt's art was enormous. It affected the work not only of his direct students, of whom Karel Fabritius came closest to understanding the teacher, but also on the art of every more or less significant Dutch artist. The art of Rembrandt had a profound impact on the development of all world realistic art subsequently. |
Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn(dutch. Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn[ˈrɛmbrɑnt ˈɦɑrmə (n) soːn vɑn ˈrɛin], 1606-1669) - Dutch painter, draftsman and engraver, Great master chiaroscuro, largest representative golden age of Dutch painting. He managed to embody in his works the whole range of human experiences with such emotional richness, which fine art did not know before him. The works of Rembrandt, extremely diverse in genre affiliation, open to the viewer the timeless spiritual world of human experiences and feelings.
- 1 Biography
- 1.1 Years of apprenticeship
- 1.2 Influence of Lastman and the caravagists
- 1.3 Workshop in Leiden
- 1.4 Generation own style
- 1.5 Success in Amsterdam
- 1.6 Dialogue with Italians
- 1.7 Night Watch
- 1.8 Transition period
- 1.9 Late Rembrandt
- 1.10 Recent work
- 2 Attribution issues
- 3 Rembrandt's students
- 4 Posthumous fame
- 5 At the movies
- 6 Notes
- 7 Links
Biography
Years of apprenticeship
Rembrandt Harmenszoon ("son of Harmen") van Rijn was born on July 15, 1606 (according to some sources, in 1607) in a large family of a wealthy mill owner Harmen Gerritszoon van Rijn in Leiden. Mother's family remained faithful even after the Dutch Revolution Catholic religion.
"Allegory of Music" of 1626 - an example of Lastman's influence on the young Rembrandt
In Leiden, Rembrandt attended a Latin school at the university, but the greatest interest showed to painting. At the age of 13, he was sent to study fine art at the Leiden historical painter Jacob van Swanenbürch, a Catholic by faith. Rembrandt's works of this period have not been identified by researchers, and the question of Swanenbürch's influence on the formation of his creative style remains open: too little is known today about this Leiden artist.
In 1623, Rembrandt studied in Amsterdam with Pieter Lastman, who had trained in Italy and specialized in historical, mythological and biblical stories. Returning to Leiden in 1627, Rembrandt, together with his friend Jan Lievens, opened his own workshop and began to recruit students. Within a few years, he gained considerable fame.
The most popular "Dutch still lifes" were flower still lifes. They inspired the viewer to reflect on moral and religious subjects. Composed of beautiful and varied flowers (tulips, irises, roses, delphiniums, violets - " pansies", carnations, poppies, anemones, hyacinths, daffodils, bluebells, lilies of the valley, forget-me-nots, daisies, aquilegia, tatsets), the bouquet was a picturesque hymn to the beauty of divine creation, and through it - the wisdom and generosity of the Lord, who allowed this beauty to be captured forever.
At first glance, the bouquets seem to be painted from nature, but upon closer inspection, it becomes obvious that they are made up of plants blooming in different time. The impression of naturalness and illusionistic lifelikeness arises due to the fact that the images of individual colors are based on individual natural studies. This was the usual working method of flower still life painters. The artists performed meticulous drawings in watercolor and gouache, drawing flowers from nature, in different angles and under different lighting, and these drawings then served them repeatedly - they repeated them in the pictures. Drawings by other artists, engravings from printed collections and botanical atlases were also used as working material.
Jan Baptiste von Fornenbruch. Middle 17th century
Balthasar van der Ast. "Tulip".1690. Paris.
Gerard van Spaendo. "Bouquet".
Jacob Morrel. "Two Tulips"
Tulips.
http://picasaweb.google.com/manon.and.gabrielle/m NpGmI#
Customers, nobles and burghers, appreciated in still lifes that the depicted flowers were "like alive." But these images were not naturalistic. They are romantic, poetic. Nature in them is transformed by painting.
“Portraits” of flowers, painted on parchment in watercolor and gouache, were created for floristic albums, in which gardeners sought to perpetuate outlandish plants. Especially numerous images of tulips. Almost every Dutch still life contains tulips. In the 17th century in Holland there was a real tulip boom, sometimes a house was mortgaged for a rare tulip bulb.
Tulips arrived in Europe in 1554. They were sent to Augsburg by the German ambassador to the Turkish court, Busbek. During his journey through the country, he was fascinated by the sight of these delicate flowers. Soon tulips spread to France and England, to Germany and Holland. The owners of tulip bulbs in those days were truly rich people - persons of royal blood or those close to them. In Versailles, special solemn celebrations were held in honor of the breeding of new varieties.
Not only Dutch nobles, but also ordinary burghers could afford to own beautiful still lifes. The number of floral Dutch still lifes is huge, but this does not detract from them. artistic value. After the auctions, when the economic situation in Holland was not brilliant, picturesque collections from the houses of burghers ended up in the palaces of European nobles and kings.
The desire of artists to diversify the composition of their bouquets made them travel to different cities, and make natural drawings in the gardens of flower lovers in Amsterdam, Utrecht, Brussels, Haarlem, Leiden. Artists also had to wait for the seasons to change to capture the right flower.
