Having gone through a series of stages, each of which had its own specific and peculiar significance, the Dutch still life widely embraced the world of things and organic nature. From the first stage in the work of artists of the beginning of the century, with the fixation of things that seemed to be on display, the painters of the next generation moved on to modest “breakfasts” with metal and glass objects grouped on a white tablecloth (Klas, Kheda). These "breakfasts" are distinguished by the simplicity of the things depicted: a bun, pewter dishes, glass vessels- these are the main components of images sustained in a grayish colorful range. A few fish in the paintings of Ormea and Putter, a kitchen still life by Rotterdam artists reflect the modest puritanical tastes of the democratic strata in the first half of the century.
But with the establishment of the republican system and the subsequent strengthening of the power of the bourgeois class, and then its gradual aristocratization, the requirements for art also change. Still life loses its modest, simple character. "Breakfasts" become more luxurious and magnificent, striking with the richness of color. They are now built on a combination of warm tones of carpet tablecloths and orange, yellow, red fruits laid out on dishes of Delft faience or Chinese porcelain, animated by the sparkling of gilded goblets and glass goblets, on the surface of which light plays. Evidence of full ownership of the transfer of material and lighting, saturated with color, the still lifes of Kalf, Beieren, Streck characterize the time of the highest flowering of still life.
Not only time influenced the subject matter and the formation of still life, but also many other things: local features, the economic structure typical of a particular city, often determines the subject matter and even the interpretation of the work. local artist. It is by no means accidental that in the rapidly developing Haarlem, with its strong associations of townspeople, the type of tonal still life was the first to develop, and in the center of economic and cultural life Holland - Amsterdam - the activities of the creators of luxurious desserts Kalf and Streck proceeded. The proximity of the Scheveningen coast inspired Beieren, who lives in The Hague, to create a still life with fish, and in the university center - Leiden - a thoughtful still life appeared with the image of a skull and an hourglass, which should remind of the frailty of earthly existence. Pictures were immediately distributed depicting a scientist surrounded by folios, globes and other items of scientific use, often filling the entire foreground.
A strict division of still lifes into genres is impossible, since often several motifs were combined in one picture, however, the most common genres can be distinguished.
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flower still life
In floral still lifes, artists depicted tulips, roses, gladioli, hyacinths, carnations, lilies, irises, lilies of the valley, forget-me-nots, violets, violas, daisies, nigella, rosemary, anemones, calendula, levkoy, mallow and other flowers.
One of the first artists of the seventeenth century who painted vases with flowers was Jacob (Jacques) de Gheyn the Younger (1565-1629). His work is characterized by an elongated vertical format of paintings, a multi-tiered arrangement of flowers with alternating large and small plants, as well as the use of techniques that will become very popular among artists. this genre: embedding a bouquet of flowers in a niche and an image next to a vase of small animals.
The appearance of insects, animals and birds, shells in flower still lifes as auxiliary details is a reflection of the tradition of using the hidden meanings of depicted objects that have symbolic meaning. Various symbols appear in still life paintings of all genres.
The followers of Jacob de Gein the Younger were Jan Baptist van Fornenburg (1585-1649) and Jacob Wauters Vosmar (1584-1641).
Fornenburg painted bouquets of tulips, daffodils, roses, physalis, while in his paintings there are motifs of "vanity vanities" and the classic "trick".
characteristic feature Vosmar's paintings also include the motif of "vanity of vanities" in the form of a drooping rose. Often he depicted in still lifes a fly, a nettle butterfly, a cabbage butterfly, a dragonfly and a bee.
The founder of a whole dynasty of masters of still lifes with flowers and fruits was Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder (1573-1621). The dynasty included three sons (Johannes, Abraham and Ambrosius), two brothers-in-law (Johannes and Balthasar van der Asty) and a son-in-law (Hieronymus Sweerts).
Bosschaert wrote small still lifes with a bouquet in a vase (in some cases it was a vase made of Chinese porcelain) placed in a niche or on a window sill. As an entourage in his paintings, in addition to small animals, there are shells.
Among the sons of Bosschaert, the talent of the artist manifested itself most clearly in Johannes Bosschaert (1610/11 - after 1629). Distinctive features of his work - the arrangement of objects along the diagonal of the picture and the matte-metallic coloring.
Ambrosius Bosschaert the Younger (1609-1645) used the techniques of black and white modeling of the Utrecht caravagists.
Abraham Bosschaert (1612/1613 - 1643) copied the techniques of his brothers.
The brothers of Ambrosius Bosschaert's wife, Johannes and Balthasar van der Asta, continued the traditions of Bosschaert.
Only one painting by Johannes van der Ast is known.
Of great importance for the development of still life was the work of the eldest of the brothers - Baltasar van der Ast (1593/1594 - 1657), who left a rich creative legacy- more than 125 paintings. He liked to depict a basket of flowers or a dish of fruit on the table, and in the foreground along the edge of the table he placed shells, fruits and butterflies. Some of his paintings feature parrots.
Roelant Saverey (1576-1639) belongs to the school of Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder. His still lifes are built on the principle of a bouquet of flowers located in a niche. He added motifs of “vanity of vanities” to the paintings, as an entourage, a gravedigger beetle, a dung fly, a dead head butterfly and other insects, as well as lizards were used.
The work of Ambrosius Bosschaert influenced such artists as Anthony Claes I (1592-1636), his namesake Anthony Claes II (1606/1608 - 1652) and son-in-law of Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder - Hieronymus Swerts.
In the work of Hans Bollongier (circa 1600 - after 1670), the techniques of Utrecht caravaggism were widely used. With the help of chiaroscuro, the artist singled out flowers against the background of twilight.
Further development of the flower still life was observed in the works of the Middelburg masters: Christoffel van den Berghe (circa 1590 - after 1642), who depicted elements of the “vanity of vanities” in flower still lifes: a bottle of wine, a snuffbox, a smoking pipe, playing cards and a skull; and Johannes Goodart, who widely used insects and birds as entourage.
The school of the Dordrecht masters of flower still life includes Bartholomeus Abrahams Asstein (1607 (?) - 1667 or later), Abraham van Calrath (1642-1722), father of the famous landscape and animal painter Albert Cuyp Jacob Gerrits Cuyp (1594 - 1651/1652). Their work is characterized by the widespread use of chiaroscuro.
"Served tables" ("Breakfasts", "Desserts", "Banquets")
The homeland and center of "served tables" was Haarlem. The prerequisite for the creation of this type of still life was the widespread use of portraits of members of shooting guilds during a banquet in the 16th century. Gradually, the image of the laid table became an independent genre.
The set of items that make up the still life originally included traditional Dutch products: cheese, ham, buns, fruit, and beer. However, later in still lifes, more and more dishes characteristic of solemn occasions or tables of wealthy townspeople began to appear: game, wine, pies (the most expensive was blackberry pie). In addition to the traditional herring, lobsters, shrimps, and oysters appeared.
Expensive dishes made of silver and Chinese porcelain, jugs, and dances began to be used. The artists paid special attention to glasses: römer, Berkemeier, pass-glass, flute-glass, Venetian glass, akeley-glass. The most exquisite was the nautilus goblet.
Frequent attributes of still lifes were a salt shaker and a table knife. A half-peeled lemon was often used as a colorful spot.
One of the earliest still lifes showing Dutch table setting is The Set Table by Nicholas Gillis (circa 1580 - after 1632). The artist used an elevated point of view in his paintings.
Still life paintings by Floris Gerrits van Schoten (circa 1590 - after 1655) are characterized by complexity, he used a large number of objects, and the main subject was often a slide of cheeses. In a number of cases, he used the technique of moving the accent of the still life group away from the geometric center of the picture.
A significant figure in this type of still life painting was Floris van Dyck (1575-1651). The center of his paintings was a pyramid of cheeses, the background was dissolved in a haze.
Clara Peters (1594-1657) specialized in the same type of still life. She often depicted expensive gourmet dishes, lobsters and oysters. In some of her still lifes, she used a lowered point of view, almost at the level of the table.
Compositions close to Peters were created by Hans van Essen (1587/1589 - after 1648).
Rulof Coots (1592/1593 - 1655) used the technique of deliberate negligence, the plate or knife in his paintings hung halfway from the edge of the table. He was one of the first to create canvases depicting not a laid table, but a table with traces of an over breakfast, introducing motifs of “vanity of vanities” into the paintings: clocks, books, fallen grapes.
On early stage of his work created paintings of this genre and Peter Klas.
Tonal still life
At the head of the tonal Dutch still life were Pieter Klas and Willem Klas Heda, who lived in Haarlem.
The tradition of depicting the mistress of the house, the cook or servants has been preserved, although they have increasingly moved to the background. In the foreground were kitchen utensils and meat, fish and many vegetables brought into the kitchen: pumpkin, turnip, rutabaga, cabbage, carrots, peas, beans, onions and cucumbers. Do more wealthy people cauliflower, melons, artichokes and asparagus appeared on the table.
Pieter Cornelis van Rijk (1568-1628) painted in the tradition of the 16th century, sometimes with biblical scenes in the background.
Cornelis Jacobs Delff (1571-1643) used an elevated vantage point and liked to place kitchen utensils in the foreground.
Wrote kitchen scenes and famous master“set tables” by Floris Gerrits van Schoten, sometimes he included genre motifs in his still lifes.
Cornelis Pieters Begi (1631/1632 - 1664) went even further, including a satyr who came to visit the peasants in his still life.
Genre and portrait painter Gottfried Schalken (1643-1706) depicted a pantry with barrels of wine and supplies.
A group of masters of the domestic genre, the brothers Cornelis and Hermann Saftlevens (1607/1608 - 1681 and 1609-1685), Pieter de Blot (1601-1658), Hendrik Martens Sorg (1611-1670) and Eckbert van der Poel (1621-1664) also wrote "kitchen" still lifes with genre motifs, but household items dominated in their paintings.
Close to the works of Rotterdam genre painters are the still lifes of the famous master of "peasant breakfasts" Philips Angel.
In contrast to the artists who depicted the kitchens of a wealthy burgher with its cleanliness and order, Francois Reykhals (after 1600 - 1647) painted poor peasant kitchens.
More than 60 of his works were devoted to the theme of the kitchen still life by the famous master of "luxurious" still lifes, Willem Kalf.
"Fish" still life
The Hague became the cradle of still life with fish. The proximity of Scheveningen disposed artists not only to paint marines, but also to create a special kind of still life painting - paintings depicting fish and marine animals.
The founders of this type of still life were: Pieter de Putter, Pieter van Scheyenborg and Pieter van Noort.
Pieter de Pütter (1600-1659) chose a high point of view, from which a table with fish is clearly visible, sometimes a net was added to the still life.
Pieter van Scheyenborg (? - after 1657) painted fish on a gray or tan background.
The paintings of Pieter van Noort (circa 1600 - ?), who colorfully conveyed the brilliance of the scales, had a special color.
Abraham van Beijeren (1620/1621 - 1690) became the main representative of this direction of painting, who also worked in many other genres of still life and also painted marinas. He depicted fish both on the table and on the seashore.
Perhaps van Beieren's student was Isaac van Duynen (1628 - 1677/1681).
The landscape painter Albert Cuyp (1620-1691) can also be counted among the masters of the "fish" still life.
Utrecht masters Willem Ormea (1611-1673) and his student Jacob Gillig (circa 1630-1701) were fond of "fish" still life.
"Vanity of vanities" (Vanitas, Memento mori, "learned" still life)
important place in Dutch painting took a philosophical and moralizing still life, which received Latin name"vanitas" ("vanity of vanities").
"IN ideological foundations of this direction are peculiarly intertwined medieval performances about the frailty of everything earthly, the moralizing tendencies of Calvinism and the humanistic ideal of a wise man striving for truth and beauty.
The most common symbols of frailty in the “vanity of vanities” still lifes were: a skull, an extinguished candle, clocks, books, musical instruments, withered flowers, an overturned or broken dishes, playing cards and dice, smoking pipes, soap bubbles, seals, globe, etc. Sometimes the artist included in the work a sheet of parchment with a Latin saying on the theme "vanity of vanities."
The first still life of the 17th century that has come down to us, belonging to the genre of "vanity of vanities", was written by Jacob de Gein the Younger.
“In the upper part of the niche, on the capitals of the pylons flanking it, there are sculptural images of a female and male figures, and on the keystone of the arch of the niche there is a Latin inscription: “HUMANA VANA”, which can be translated as “human fuss is in vain”. This motto allows us to understand the symbolism of the figures, of which the first, as if warning about the ephemeral nature of the soap sphere, points to it with a finger, and the second, as if reflecting on the futility of human deeds, rested her head on her arm bent at the elbow in thought. Justice Latin saying is confirmed by the image of a skull - a symbol of death that suppresses both good and evil human deeds, and a soap bubble expressing tragic fate natural matter, doomed to disappear in the whirlpool of being.
Jacob de Gijn the Younger lived in Leiden, the city in which the first Dutch university was opened and which was the center of printing. It was Leiden that became the center of the "scientist" still life.
A great influence on the development of the still life type "vanity of vanities" was exerted by the activity of the Leiden painter David Bailey and the masters grouped around him.
Jan Davids de Heem (1606-1684) was the pioneer of a new kind of still life genre. He tried himself in various genres: flower, scientist, kitchen still lifes. In 1636 the artist moved to Antwerp and fell under the influence of Flemish painting. He began to create luxurious still lifes, overloaded with bright and colorful fruits, lobsters, parrots ... Floral still lifes also had a clear Flemish trace, distinguished by a baroque symphony of colors.
Jan Davidsz de Heem had a workshop with a large number of students and assistants. In addition to the master's son, Cornelis de Heem, his direct students were Peter de Ring, Nicholas van Gelder, Johannes Bormann, Martinus Nellius, Matthijs Naive, Jan Mortel, Simon Luttihuis, Cornelis Kick. In turn, Kik brought up gifted students - Elias van den Broek and Jacob van Valskapelle.
The techniques of Jan Davids de Heem were well mastered by his son Cornelis de Heem (1631-1695). At the same time, there is more air in his paintings.
The most gifted student of Jan Davidsz de Heem was Pieter de Ring (1615-1660). Distinctive feature his still lifes was the indispensable presence of a ring with a signet, hinting at the name of the artist (ring in Dutch - ring).
Another outstanding student of Jan Davidsz de Heem was Nicholas van Gelder (1623/1636 - circa 1676), who created his still lifes under the influence of Willem Kalf.
More simple and intimate are the still lifes of the followers of Jan Davidsz de Heem - Johannes Bormann and Martinus Nellius (? - after 1706).
Luxurious still lifes were also created by Simon Luttihuis (1610 -?), adding to them the motifs of "vanity of vanities".
Another student of Jan Davidsz de Heem, Cornelis Kick (1631/1632 - 1681), used outdoor sketches in his paintings. He passed on his plein air techniques to his students Elias van den Broek (1650-1708) and Jacob van Walskapelle (1644-1727), whose still lifes are characterized by a subtle transmission of the light-air medium.
From the workshop of Jan Davidsz de Heem also came the master of still lifes "vanity of vanities" Maria van Oosterwijk, and two masters of the late flower still life, Jacob Rotius (1644 - 1681/1682) and Abraham Mignon.
During the first "luxurious" still lifes of Jan Davidsz de Hem, a few works on this subject by Francois Reykhals were also written.
The desire for brilliance is characteristic of the luxurious still lifes of Abraham van Beieren. An indispensable attribute of these paintings were pocket watches.
One of the few followers of Beyeren, Abraham Susenir, liked to depict silver utensils.
The “luxurious” still lifes of Willem Kalf (1619-1693) had a great influence on the artists. In them, Kalf often used vessels made of gold, silver, and Chinese porcelain. At the same time, the paintings were supplied with symbols of "vanity of vanities": a candlestick and a pocket watch. Kalf often chose a vertical format. His work is divided into periods of stay in France and return to Amsterdam. For late period characterized by a decrease in the number of objects depicted in the picture and a gloomy background.
Kalf's followers were Jurian van Streck, his son Hendrik van Streck (1659 - ?), Christian Jans Streep (1634-1673) and Barent van der Meer (1659 - until 1702).
Another follower of Kalf, Peter Gerrits Rustraten (1627-1698), went the way of approaching "luxurious" still lifes to "fraudulent" ones.
Along with Aalst, Matthäus Bloom is one of the pioneers of still life with hunting trophies.
A number of paintings on this topic performed by Nicholas van Gelder (1623/1636 - circa 1676).
Hunting trophies were also portrayed by Melchior de Hondekuter.
The topic of hunting still life was touched upon by the famous master of landscape Jan Baptist Venix (1621-1660), who depicted dead roe deer and swans. His son Jan Veniks created at least a hundred paintings depicting beaten hares against a stone niche or a park landscape.
Another student of Jan Baptist Weenix was Willem Frederik van Rooyen (1645/1654 - 1742), who also incorporated animal images into the landscape.
An adherent of the ceremonial hunting still life, like Aalst and Royen, was Dirk de Bry. He represented the trophies of falconry, entertainment of aristocrats and wealthy burghers.
Along with the decorative canvases of "hunting trophies", the "chamber" hunting still life became widespread. Jan Vonk (circa 1630 - 1660?), Cornelis Lelienberg (1626 - after 1676), Aalst's student Willem Gau Ferguson (circa 1633 - after 1695), Hendrik de Fromenthue (1633/1634 - after 1694) and Pieter Harmens Verelst (1618-1678), as well as his son Simon Peters Verelst (1644-1721).
"Chamber" hunting still lifes were created by painters who worked in other genres of still life: Abraham Mignon, Abraham van Beyeren, Jacob Biltius. The famous landscape painter Salomon van Ruisdael (1600/1603 - 1670), who painted "Still Life with Batten Game" (1661) and "Hunting Trophies" (1662) and genre painter, student of Adrian van Ostade, Cornelis Dusart (1660-1704) paid tribute to the hunting still life .
Still life with animals
The founders of the genre were Otto Marseus van Skrik (1619/1620 - 1678) and Matthias Vythos (1627-1703).
Skrik started a terrarium on his estate with insects, spiders, snakes and other animals, which he depicted in his paintings. He liked to create complex compositions with exotic plants and animals, introducing into them philosophical overtones. For example, in the Dresden painting “The Snake at the Bird's Nest”, butterflies collect nectar from flowers, a thrush catches butterflies and feeds them to its chick, another chick is swallowed by a snake hunted by an ermine.
Withhos preferred to depict thistles and other plants in the foreground of the paintings, among which snakes, lizards, spiders and insects crawl. As a background, he depicted the Italian landscape, the memory of a trip to Italy.
Christian Jans Streep painted thistles and moles in the manner of Scream.
Abraham de Hoes very carefully and close to nature depicted various types moles, lizards, snakes and butterflies.
Several canvases dedicated to the depiction of animals are owned by Willem van Aelst. His student Rachel Reusch creative career she began by imitating Skrik, but then developed her own style, which is characterized by the image of small living creatures against the backdrop of a golden landscape.
On the example of the painting "Breakfast with Ham" by Pieter Klas, let's talk about the Dutch still life.
It depicts a table covered with a white tablecloth. In the center of the still life is a dish of pink ham. The ham has a freshly cut edge. A knife with a beautiful carved handle lies nearby on the same dish. To the right of the dish you can see an olive branch on which peach fruits lie. Black dots can be seen on the surface of the fruit. These are worm tracks. To the left of the dish is a glass of wine. Light reflections on the walls of the glass goblet enliven the image. Next to the glass is a copper jug with an open lid. The vine branch, depicted next to the glass and jug, wraps around both vessels, as it were. On the edge of the table, the artist depicted a metal plate with bread, the golden crust of which attracts the eye. Walnuts are scattered on a white tablecloth, some of which are already cracked. The apparent disorder suggests a sense of the recent presence of a person.
With amazing skill, the artist conveys the color of each item. A discreet greyish-gold olive tonal range unifies the subjects. Each of the objects is located in such a way that the viewer can perceive its texture, volume, and the smallest details. The artist perfectly conveys the texture of each object: the velvety of peaches, the dull-moist surface of grapes, the transparency of glass, the juiciness of ham. The rounded contours of dishes, glass and vessel intersect, and their smooth rhythm conveys harmony and integrity. When looking at the picture, there is a feeling of unstable balance. The plate of bread is about to fall. compositional center is undoubtedly a dish with ham. This is the brightest spot in the picture. The artist realistically depicts this subject. The tablecloth does not completely cover the entire table. Where the tablecloth does not reach, a simple wooden table is noticeable, without any embellishment. Using color contrast, the artist exposes reality.
Today we will meet one of the best craftsmen Dutch luxury still life WILLEM KALF 1619-1693
Willem Kalf was the sixth child of a wealthy Rotterdam cloth merchant and member of the Rotterdam City Council. Willem's father died in 1625 when the boy was 6 years old. The mother continued the family business, but without much success.
No data has been preserved about which of the artists Kalf studied with; perhaps his teacher was Hendrik Pot from Haarlem, where relatives of the Kalfs lived. Shortly before the death of his mother in 1638, Willem left his native city and moved to The Hague, and then in 1640-41. settled in Paris.
There, thanks to their peasant interiors ”, written in the Flemish tradition, close to the work of David Teniers and other artists of the 17th century, Kalf quickly won recognition.
In its rustic interiors, human figures were rather in the background, and all the viewer's attention was concentrated on well-lit, colorful and artfully laid out fruits, vegetables and different subjects household items.
Here he created new form artfully grouped still life with expensive, ornate objects ( for the most part bottles, plates, glasses) from light-reflecting materials - gold, silver, tin or glass. This mastery of the artist reached its peak in the Amsterdam period of his work in bewitching " LUXURIOUS STILL LIFE»
Still life with a drinking horn belonging to the guild of shooters of St. Sebastian, a lobster and glasses - Willem Kalf. About 1653.
This still life is one of the most famous.
It was created in 1565 for the guild of Amsterdam archers. When the artist was working on this still life, the horn was still in use during guild meetings.
This wonderful vessel is made of buffalo horn, the mount is made of silver, if you look closely, you can see miniature figures of people in the design of the horn - this scene tells us about the suffering of St. Sebastian, patron saint of archers.
The tradition of adding peeled lemon to Rhenish wine came from the fact that the Dutch considered this type of wine to be too sweet.
A lobster, a wine horn with a sparkling filigree silver frame, transparent glasses, a lemon and a Turkish carpet are rendered with such amazing care that there is an illusion that they are real and you can touch them with your hand.
The place for placing each item is chosen with such care that the group as a whole forms a harmony of color, shape and texture. The warm light that envelops the objects gives them the dignity of precious jewelry, and their rarity, splendor and whimsicality reflect the refined tastes of Dutch collectors in the 17th century - a time when still lifes were extraordinarily popular.
Still life with jug and fruit. 1660
In 1646, Willem Kalf returned to Rotterdam for a while, then moved to Amsterdam and Hoorn, where in 1651 he married Cornelia Plouvier, daughter of a Protestant minister.
Cornelia was a famous calligrapher and poetess, she was friends with Konstantin Huygens, the personal secretary of the three stadtholders of the young Dutch Republic, a respected poet and probably the most experienced connoisseur of the world theatrical and musical art of his time.
In 1653 married couple moved to Amsterdam, where they had four children. Despite his wealth, Kalf never got his own house.
Still life with a teapot.
In the Amsterdam period, Kalf began to include exotic objects in his perfect still lifes: Chinese vases, shells, and hitherto unseen tropical fruits - semi-peeled oranges and lemons. These items were brought to the Netherlands from America, they were favorite items of prestige for the prosperous burghers, who flaunted their prosperity.
Still life with nautilus and Chinese bowl.
The Dutch loved and knew a lot about a good interior, comfortable table setting, where everything you need is at hand, in convenient utensils - including material world that surrounds the person.
In the center we see an elegant nautilus goblet made of shells, as well as a beautiful Chinese vase. Outside, it is decorated with eight relief figures representing the eight immortals in Taoism, a bump on the lid is the outline of a Buddhist lion.
This still life is complemented by a traditional Kalf Persian carpet and a lemon with a thin spiral peel.
The pyramid of objects is drowning in a haze of twilight, sometimes only light reflections indicate the shape of things. Nature created the shell, the craftsman turned it into a goblet, the artist painted a still life, and we enjoy all this beauty. After all, being able to see beauty is also a talent.
Still life with a glass goblet and fruits. 1655
Like all still lifes of that time, Kalf's creations were intended to express the iconographic idea of frailty - "memento mori" ("remember death"), to serve as a warning that all things, living and inanimate, are ultimately transient.
Still life with fruit and a cup of nautilus.1660g
Kalf, however, was something else. All his life he had a keen interest in the play of light and lighting effects on various materials, starting with the texture of woolen carpets, the bright sheen of metal objects made of gold, silver or tin, the soft glow of porcelain and multi-colored shells, and ending with the mysterious shimmering of the edges of the most beautiful glasses and vases in the Venetian style.
Still life with a Chinese tureen.
Dessert. Hermitage.
Prior to its arrival in the Hermitage in 1915, the painting "Dessert" was part of the collection of the famous Russian geographer and traveler P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, a great connoisseur and lover of Dutch and Flemish art.
A bright beam of light pulls out of the semi-darkness a bowl of fruit, a peach on a silver tray and a crumpled white tablecloth. Glass and silver goblets still reflect the light, and a thin flute glass filled with wine almost blends into the background.
The artist skillfully conveys the texture of each object: a glass, a faience painted plate, a gilded goblet, an oriental carpet, a snow-white napkin. In the picture, one can feel the strong influence that Rembrandt's painting had on Calf: objects are shown against a dark background, bright light, as it were, enlivens them, enveloping them with the warmth of golden rays.
Still Life with a Porcelain Vase, Silver-gilt Ewer, and Glasses
Pronk Still Life with Holbein Bowl, Nautilus Cup, Glass Goblet and Fruit Dish
The composition of Kalf's still lifes, thought out to the smallest detail, is provided not only by specific rules, but also by a unique and complex direction.Sveta.
Valuable objects - faceted, often half-filled goblets with wine, appear from the darkness of the background gradually, after a while. Often their form is only miraculously guessed in the reflection of rays of light. No one but Kalf has succeeded in showing the light penetrating through the shell of a nautilus so realistically. Kalf is absolutely rightly called the "Wermeer of still life painting", and in some places Kalf surpassed him.
From 1663 Kalf wrote less, he became involved in the art trade and became a sought-after art expert.
Willem Kalf died at the age of 74 after suffering an injury from a fall on his way home from a visit.
Thanks to his unique visual abilities, coupled with an excellent education and extensive knowledge of natural sciences he greatly expanded the illusionistic possibilities of still life. His creations are unsurpassed examples of this art.
An amazing phenomenon in the history of world fine arts took place in Northern Europe in the 17th century. It is known as the Dutch still life and is considered one of the pinnacles of oil painting.
Connoisseurs and professionals are firmly convinced that such a number of magnificent masters who possessed the highest technique and created so many world-class masterpieces, while living on a small patch of the European continent, have never been seen in the history of art.
The new meaning of the artist's profession
The special importance that the profession of an artist in Holland acquired from the beginning of the 17th century was the result of the emergence after the first anti-feudal revolutions of the beginnings of a new bourgeois system, the formation of a class of urban burghers and wealthy peasants. For painters, these were potential customers who shaped the fashion for works of art, making the Dutch still life a sought-after commodity in the emerging market.
IN northern lands In the Netherlands, the reformist trends of Christianity, which arose in the struggle against Catholicism, became the most influential ideology. This circumstance, among others, made the Dutch still life the main genre for entire art workshops. The spiritual leaders of Protestantism, in particular the Calvinists, denied the soul-saving value of sculpture and painting on religious subjects, they expelled even music from the church, which forced painters to look for new subjects.
In neighboring Flanders, which remained under the influence of Catholics, art developed according to other laws, but the territorial proximity caused the inevitable mutual influence. Scholars - art historians - find many things that unite Dutch and Flemish still life, noting their cardinal differences and unique features.
Early flower still life
The "pure" genre of still life, which appeared in the 17th century, in Holland takes on special forms and the symbolic name " quiet life» - stilleven. In many ways, the Dutch still life became a reflection violent activity The East India Company, which brought luxury goods from the East that had not been seen before in Europe. From Persia, the company brought the first tulips, which later became the symbol of Holland, and it was the flowers depicted in the paintings that became the most popular decoration for residential buildings, numerous offices, shops and banks.
The purpose of the masterly painted flower arrangements was diverse. Decorating houses and offices, they emphasized the well-being of their owners, and for sellers of flower seedlings, tulip bulbs, they were what is now called a visual advertising product: posters and booklets. Therefore, the Dutch still life with flowers is, first of all, a botanically accurate depiction of flowers and fruits, at the same time filled with many symbols and allegories. These are the best canvases of entire workshops, headed by Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder, Jakob de Hein the Younger, Jan Baptist van Fornenburg, Jacob Wouters Vosmar and others.
Laid tables and breakfasts
Painting in Holland in the 17th century could not escape the influence of new public relations, and economic development. The Dutch still life of the 17th century was a profitable commodity, and large workshops were organized to "produce" paintings. In addition to painters, among whom strict specialization and division of labor appeared, those who prepared the basis for paintings - boards or canvas, primed, made frames, etc. worked there. Fierce competition, as in any market relations, led to an increase in the quality of still lifes very high level.
The genre specialization of artists also assumed a geographical character. flower arrangements were written in many Dutch cities - Utrecht, Delft, The Hague, but it was Haarlem that became the center for the development of still lifes depicting served tables, food and ready meals. Such canvases can be varied in scale and character, from complex and multi-subject to concise. There were "breakfasts" - still lifes by Dutch artists depicting different stages of the meal. They depict the presence of a person in the form of crumbs, bitten buns, etc. They told interesting stories filled with allusions and moralizing symbols common to the paintings of that time. Paintings by Nicholas Gillis, Floris Gerrits van Schoten, Clara Peters, Hans Van Essen, Rulof Koots and others are considered especially significant.
Tonal still life. Pieter Claesz and Willem Claesz Heda
For contemporaries, the symbols with which the traditional Dutch still life is saturated were relevant and understandable. The paintings were similar in content to multi-page books and were especially appreciated for this. But there is a concept that is no less impressive for both modern connoisseurs and art lovers. It is called "tonal still life", and the main thing in it is the highest technical skill, surprisingly refined coloring, amazing skill in conveying the subtle nuances of lighting.
These qualities are in every way consistent with the canvases of two leading masters, whose paintings are considered to be the best examples of tonal still life: Pieter Claesz and Willem Claesz Head. They chose compositions from a small number of objects devoid of bright colors and special decorativeness, which did not prevent them from creating things of amazing beauty and expressiveness, the value of which does not decrease with time.
Vanity
The theme of the transience of life, equality before death of both the king and the beggar, was very popular in the literature and philosophy of that transitional period. And in painting, she found expression in paintings depicting scenes, the main element of which was the skull. This genre was called vanitas - from the Latin "vanity of vanities." The popularity of still lifes, similar to philosophical treatises, was promoted by the development of science and education, the center of which was the university in Leiden, famous throughout Europe.
Vanitas occupies a serious place in the work of many Dutch masters of that time: Jacob de Gein the Younger, David Gein, Harmen Stenwijk and others. the most important questions of life.
Faux-paintings
Paintings have been the most popular decoration of the Dutch interior since the late Middle Ages, which the growing population of cities could afford. To interest buyers, the artists resorted to various tricks. If skill allowed, they created “tricks”, or “trompe-l'oeil”, from the French trompe-l "oeil - an optical illusion. The point was that a typical Dutch still life is flowers and fruits, a broken bird and fish, or objects related to science - books, optical instruments, etc. - contained a complete illusion of reality.A book that has moved out of the space of the picture and is about to fall, a fly that has landed on a vase that you want to slam are typical plots for a fake painting.
The paintings of the leading masters of still life in the style of "tromple" - Gerard Dou, Samuel van Hoogstraten and others - often depict a niche recessed into the wall with shelves on which there are a lot of different things. The artist's technical skill in conveying textures and surfaces, light and shadow was so great that the hand itself reached for a book or a glass.
Bloom time and sunset time
By the middle of the 17th century, the main varieties of still life in the paintings of the Dutch masters reached their peak. The “luxurious” still life is becoming popular, because the wealth of the burghers is growing and rich dishes, precious fabrics and food abundance do not look alien in the interior of a city house or a rich rural estate.
The paintings increase in size, they amaze with the number of different textures. At the same time, the authors are looking for ways to increase entertainment for the viewer. To do this, the traditional Dutch still life - with fruits and flowers, hunting trophies and dishes of various materials - is complemented by exotic insects or small animals and birds. In addition to creating the usual allegorical associations, the artist often introduced them simply for positive emotions, to increase the commercial appeal of the plot.
The masters of the "luxurious still life" - Jan van Huysum, Jan Davids de Heem, Francois Reykhals, Willem Kalf - became the harbingers of the coming time, when increased decorativeness became important, creating an impressive impression.
End of the golden age
Priorities and fashion changed, the influence of religious dogmas on the choice of subjects for painters gradually faded into the past, the very concept of the golden age that dutch painting. Still lifes entered the history of this era as one of the most important and impressive pages.
The Dutch still life of the 16th–17th centuries is a kind of intellectual game in which the viewer was asked to unravel certain signs. What was easily read by contemporaries today is not clear to everyone and not always.
What do the objects depicted by the artists mean?
Jean Calvin (1509-1564, French theologian, church reformer, founder of Calvinism) taught that everyday things have a hidden meaning, and that there should be a moral lesson behind every image. The objects depicted in the still life are ambiguous: they were endowed with edifying, religious or other overtones. For example, oysters were considered an erotic symbol, and this was obvious to contemporaries: oysters allegedly stimulated sexual potency, and Venus, the goddess of love, was born from a shell. On the one hand, oysters hinted at worldly temptations, on the other hand, an open shell meant a soul ready to leave the body, that is, it promised salvation. Of course, there were no strict rules on how to read a still life, and the viewer guessed exactly those symbols on the canvas that he wanted to see. In addition, we must not forget that each item was part of the composition and could be read in different ways - depending on the context and the overall message of the still life. Flower still life
Until the 18th century, a bouquet of flowers, as a rule, symbolized frailty, because earthly joys are as transient as the beauty of a flower. The symbolism of plants is especially complex and ambiguous, and books of emblems, popular in Europe in the 16th-17th centuries, where allegorical illustrations and mottos were accompanied by explanatory texts, helped to capture the meaning. Floral arrangements were not easy to interpret: the same flower had many meanings, sometimes directly opposite. For example, the narcissus indicated narcissism and at the same time was considered a symbol of the Mother of God. In still lifes, as a rule, both meanings of the image were preserved, and the viewer was free to choose one of the two meanings or combine them.
Flower compositions were often supplemented with fruits, small objects, images of animals. These images expressed the main idea of the work, emphasizing the motif of transience, withering, the sinfulness of everything earthly and the imperishability of virtue.
Jan Davids de Heem.
Flowers in a vase.
In the painting by Jan Davidsz de Heem, at the base of the vase, the artist depicted symbols of frailty: withered and broken flowers, crumbling petals and dried pea pods. Here is a snail - it is associated with the soul of a sinner. In the center of the bouquet we see symbols of modesty and purity: wildflowers, violets and forget-me-nots. They are surrounded by tulips, symbolizing fading beauty and senseless waste (cultivation of tulips was considered one of the most vain occupations in Holland and also not cheap); lush roses and poppies, reminiscent of the fragility of life. The composition is crowned by two large flowers, which have positive value. The blue iris represents the remission of sins and indicates the possibility of salvation through virtue. The red poppy, which was traditionally associated with sleep and death, has changed its interpretation due to its location in the bouquet: here it stands for the atoning sacrifice of Christ.
Other symbols of salvation are spikelets of bread, and a butterfly sitting on a stem represents an immortal soul.
Jan Bauman.
Flowers, fruits and a monkey. First half of the 17th century.
Jan Bauman's painting "Flowers, Fruits and a Monkey" is a good example of the semantic layering and ambiguity of a still life and objects on it. At first glance, the combination of plants and animals seems random. In fact, this still life also reminds of the transience of life and the sinfulness of earthly existence. Each depicted object conveys a certain idea: a snail and a lizard in this case indicate the mortality of everything earthly; a tulip lying near a bowl of fruits symbolizes rapid withering; shells scattered on the table hint at a waste of money; and a monkey with a peach indicates original sin and depravity. On the other hand, a fluttering butterfly and fruits: bunches of grapes, apples, peaches and pears - speak of the immortality of the soul and the atoning sacrifice of Christ. On another, allegorical level, the fruits, fruits, flowers and animals presented in the picture represent the four elements: shells and snails - water; butterfly - air; fruits and flowers - the earth; monkey is fire.
Still life in a butcher's shop
Peter Artsen.
The Butcher's Shop, or The Kitchen with the Flight into Egypt. 1551
The image of a butcher's shop has traditionally been associated with the idea of physical life, the personification of the earth element, and also with gluttony. In a painting by Peter Aartsen
almost the entire space is occupied by a table bursting with food. We see many types of meat: killed poultry and butchered carcasses, liver and ham, hams and sausages. These images symbolize immoderation, gluttony and attachment to carnal pleasures. Now let's turn our attention to the background. On the left side of the picture in the window opening is placed the gospel scene of the flight to Egypt, which contrasts sharply with the still life in the foreground. The Virgin Mary hands out the last piece of bread to a poor girl. Note that the window is located above the dish, where two fish lie crosswise (a symbol of the crucifixion) - a symbol of Christianity and Christ. On the right in the depth is a tavern. A cheerful company sits at a table by the fire, drinking and eating oysters, which, as we remember, are associated with lust. A butchered carcass hangs next to the table, indicating the inevitability of death and the transience of earthly joys. A butcher in a red shirt dilutes wine with water. This scene echoes the main idea of the still life and refers to the Parable of prodigal son. The scene in the tavern, as well as the butcher shop full of food, speaks of an idle, dissolute life, attachment to earthly pleasures, pleasant for the body, but destructive for the soul. In the scene of flight to Egypt, the characters are practically turned back to the viewer: they move deeper into the picture, away from the butcher shop. This is a metaphor for an escape from a dissolute life full of sensual joys. Giving them up is one way to save your soul.
Still life in a fish shop
The fish still life is an allegory of the water element. Works of this kind, like butcher shops, were often part of the so-called cycle of the first elements and, as a rule, were created to decorate the palace dining rooms. In the foreground of the painting by Frans Snyders "Fish Shop" a lot of fish are depicted. There are perches and sturgeons, crucian carp, catfish, salmon and other seafood. Some have already been cut, some are waiting for their turn. These images of fish do not carry any subtext - they sing of the wealth of Flanders.
Frans Snyders.
Fish shop. 1616
Next to the boy, we see a basket with gifts that he received for St. Nicholas Day. This is indicated by wooden red shoes tied to the basket. In addition to sweets, fruits and nuts, there are rods in the basket - as a hint of upbringing with "carrot and stick". The content of the basket speaks of the joys and sorrows of human life, which constantly replace each other. The woman explains to the child that obedient children receive gifts, while bad children receive punishment. The boy recoiled in horror: he thought that instead of sweets he would receive blows with rods. On the right we see a window opening in which you can see the city square. A group of children stand under the windows and joyfully greet the puppet jester on the balcony. The jester is an essential attribute of folk festivities.
Still life with a set table
In the numerous variations of table setting on the canvases of Dutch masters, we see bread and pies, nuts and lemons, sausages and hams, lobsters and crayfish, dishes with oysters, fish or empty shells. You can understand these still lifes depending on the set of objects.
Gerrit Willems Heda.
Ham and silverware. 1649
In the painting by Gerrit Willems Heda, we see a dish, a jug, a tall glass goblet and an overturned vase, a mustard pot, a ham, a crumpled napkin and a lemon. This is Kheda's traditional and favorite set. The location of the objects and their choice are not accidental. Silver utensils symbolize earthly riches and their futility, ham - carnal pleasures, attractive in appearance and sour inside lemon represents betrayal. An extinguished candle indicates the frailty and transience of human existence, a mess on the table indicates destruction. A tall glass “flute” (in the 17th century such glasses were used as a measuring container with marks) is fragile, like human life, and at the same time symbolizes moderation and a person’s ability to control his impulses. In general, in this still life, as in many other "breakfasts", with the help of objects, the theme of the vanity of vanities and the meaninglessness of earthly pleasures is played up.
Peter Klas.
Still life with a brazier, herring, oysters and a smoking pipe. 1624
Most of the objects depicted in Pieter Claesz's still life are erotic symbols. Oysters, pipe, wine refer to short and dubious carnal pleasures. But this is just one version of reading a still life. Let's look at these images from a different angle. So, shells are symbols of the frailty of the flesh; the pipe, with the help of which they not only smoked, but also blew soap bubbles, is a symbol of the suddenness of death. Claes's contemporary, the Dutch poet Willem Godschalk van Vockenborch, in the poem "My hope is smoke" wrote:
As you can see, being is akin to smoking a pipe,
And what is the difference - I really do not know:
One is just a breeze, the other is just smoke.
The theme of the transience of human existence is opposed to the immortality of the soul, and the signs of frailty suddenly turn out to be symbols of salvation. The bread and glass of wine in the background are associated with the body and blood of Jesus and indicate the sacrament of the sacrament. Herring - another symbol of Christ - reminds of fasting and lenten food. And open shells with oysters can change their negative meaning to the exact opposite, denoting human soul separated from the body and ready to enter into eternal life.
Different levels of interpretation of objects unobtrusively tell the viewer that a person is always free to choose between the spiritual and the eternal and the earthly transient.
Vanitas, or "Scientist" still life
The genre of the so-called "learned" still life was called vanitas - in Latin it means "vanity of vanities", in other words - "memento mori" ("remember death"). This is the most intellectual type of still life, an allegory of the eternity of art, the frailty of earthly glory and human life.
Jurian van Streck.
Vanity. 1670
The sword and helmet with a luxurious plume in the painting by Jurian van Streck indicate the transience of earthly glory. The hunting horn symbolizes wealth that cannot be taken with you to another life. In "scholarly" still lifes, there are often images of open books or carelessly lying papers with inscriptions. They not only invite you to think about the objects depicted, but also allow you to use them for their intended purpose: read open pages or perform what is written in music notebook music. Van Streck sketched a boy's head and open book: This is the tragedy of Sophocles "Electra", translated into Dutch. These images indicate that art is eternal. But the pages of the book are folded, and the drawing is dented. These are signs of the beginning of damage, hinting that even art will not be useful after death. The skull also speaks of the inevitability of death, but the ear of bread wrapping around it symbolizes the hope for the resurrection and eternal life. By the middle of the 17th century, a skull entwined with an ear of bread or evergreen ivy would become an obligatory subject for depiction in still lifes in the vanitas style.
