At the end of July, a 14-year-old untouchable died in a hospital ward in New Delhi, who had been held in sexual slavery by a neighbor for a month. The dying woman told the police that the kidnapper threatened her with a knife, forced her to drink juice mixed with acid, did not feed her, and, together with friends, raped her several times a day. As law enforcement officers found out, this was already the second kidnapping - the previous one was committed by the same person in December last year, but he was released on bail. According to local media, the court showed such leniency towards the criminal, since his victim was from Dalits (untouchables), which means that her life and freedom were worth nothing. Although discrimination based on caste is prohibited in India, Dalits are still the poorest, most disadvantaged and most uneducated part of society. Why this is so and how far the untouchables can rise up the social ladder - Lenta.ru explains.

How did the untouchables appear?

According to the most common version, these are the descendants of representatives of the tribes who lived in India before the Aryan invasion. In the traditional Aryan system of society, consisting of four varnas - Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants and artisans) and Shudras (hired workers) - Dalits were at the very bottom, below the Shudras, who were also descendants of the pre-Aryan inhabitants of India . At the same time, in India itself, a version that arose back in the 19th century is widespread, according to which the untouchables are the descendants of children expelled into the forests, born from the relationship of a Sudra man and a Brahmin woman.

In ancient Indian literary monument"Rig Veda" (compiled in 1700-1100 BC) says that the Brahmins came from the mouth of the great man Purusha, the Kshatriyas - from the hands, the Vaishyas - from the thighs, the Shudras - from the feet. There is no place for the untouchables in this picture of the world. The varna system finally took shape in the interval between the 7th century BC. and II century AD.

It is believed that the untouchable can defile people from the highest varnas, so their houses and villages were built on the outskirts. The system of ritual restrictions among the untouchables is no less strict than that of the Brahmins, although the restrictions themselves are completely different. The untouchables were forbidden to enter restaurants and temples, wear umbrellas and shoes, walk in shirts and sunglasses, but they were allowed to eat meat - which strict vegetarian Brahmins could not afford.

Is that what they are called in India - "untouchables"?

Now this word is almost out of use, it is considered offensive. The most common name for the untouchables is dalits, "oppressed", or "oppressed". Previously, there was also the word "harijans" - "children of God", which Mahatma Gandhi tried to introduce into use. But it did not take root: the Dalits found it to be just as offensive as the "untouchables".

How many Dalits are there in India and how many castes do they have?

Approximately 170 million people - 16.6 percent of the total population. The question of the number of castes is very complicated, since the Indians themselves almost never use the word “castes”, preferring the more vague concept of “jati”, which includes not only castes in in the usual sense, but also clans and communities, which are often difficult to classify as one or another varna. In addition, the line between caste and podcast is often very vague. It can only be said with certainty that we are talking about hundreds of jati.

Dalits still live in poverty? How is social status related to economic status?

In general, the lower castes are indeed much poorer. The bulk of the Indian poor are Dalits. The average literacy rate in the country is 75 percent, among Dalits - just over 30. Almost half of the children of Dalits, according to statistics, drop out of school because of the humiliation they are subjected to there. It is the Dalits who make up the bulk of the unemployed; and those who are employed tend to be paid less than those of the higher castes.

Although there are exceptions: in India, there are approximately 30 millionaire Dalits. Of course, against the backdrop of 170 million poor and beggars, this is a drop in the bucket, but they prove with their lives that you can succeed even as a Dalit. As a rule, this is really prominent people: Ashok Khade, from the Chamar (tanner) caste, the son of an illiterate poor shoemaker, worked as a dock worker during the day and read textbooks at night to get an engineering degree, and at the same time slept under the stairs on the street, since he did not have enough money to rent room. His company is now pursuing deals worth hundreds of millions of dollars. This is a typical Dalit success story, a kind of blue dream for millions of the underprivileged.

Have the untouchables ever tried to start a riot?

As far as we know, no. Before the colonization of India, this thought could hardly have occurred at all: at that time, expulsion from the caste was equated with physical death. After colonization, social boundaries began to gradually blur, and after India gained independence, the rebellion for Dalits lost its meaning - they were given all the conditions to achieve their goals through political means.

The extent to which submissiveness has become ingrained in the minds of Dalits can be illustrated by an example given by Russian researchers Felix and Evgenia Yurlov. The Bahujan Samaj Party, representing the interests of the lower castes, organized special training camps for Dalits, in which they learned to "overcome centuries of fear and fear in the face of high-caste Hindus." Among the exercises was, for example, the following: a stuffed high-caste Hindu with a mustache and a tilak (dot) on his forehead was installed. Dalit had to overcome his timidity and go up to the effigy, cut off his mustache with scissors and wipe off the tilak.

Is it possible to escape from the untouchables?

It is possible, although not easy. The easiest way is to change religion. A person who converts to Buddhism, Islam or Christianity technically falls out of the caste system. Dalits first began converting to Buddhism in significant numbers in late XIX century. Mass conversions are associated with the name of the famous fighter for the rights of Dalits, Dr. Ambedkar, who converted to Buddhism along with half a million untouchables. The last such mass ceremony was held in Mumbai in 2007 - then at the same time 50 thousand people became Buddhists at once.

Dalits prefer to turn to Buddhism. Firstly, Indian nationalists treat this religion better than Islam and Christianity, since it is one of the traditional Indian religions. Secondly, among Muslims and Christians, over time, their own caste division was formed, albeit not as pronounced as among the Hindus.

Is it possible to change caste while remaining a Hindu?

There are two options here: the first is all sorts of semi-legal or illegal methods. For example, many surnames that indicate belonging to a particular caste differ by one or two letters. It is enough to slightly corrupt or charm a clerk in a government office - and, voila, you are already a member of another caste, and sometimes a varna. It is better, of course, to do such tricks either in the city, or in combination with moving to another area where there are not thousands of fellow villagers around who knew your grandfather.

The second option is the procedure "ghar vapasi", literally "welcome home". This program is implemented by radical Hindu organizations and aims to convert Indians of other religions to Hinduism. In this case, a person becomes, for example, a Christian, then sprinkles ashes on his head, announcing his desire to perform “ghar vapasi” - and that’s all, he is again a Hindu. If this trick is done outside native village, then you can always claim that you belong to a different caste.

Another question is why do all this. A caste certificate will not be asked when applying for a job or when entering a restaurant. In India during last century there is a demolition of the caste system under the influence of the processes of modernization and globalization. Attitude to to a stranger based on his behavior. The only thing that can fail is the surname, which is most often associated with the caste (Gandhis - merchants, Deshpande - brahmins, Acharis - carpenters, Guptas - vaishyas, Singhas - kshatriyas). But now, when anyone can change their last name, everything has become much easier.

And change the varna without changing the caste?

There is a chance that your caste will undergo a Sanskritization process. In Russian it is called vertical mobility castes”: if one or another caste adopts the traditions and customs of another, higher caste, there is a chance that sooner or later it will be recognized as a member of a higher varna. For example, the lower caste begins to practice vegetarianism, characteristic of the Brahmins, dress like Brahmins, wear a sacred thread on the wrist and generally position themselves as Brahmins, it is possible that sooner or later they will begin to be treated as Brahmins.

However, vertical mobility is characteristic mainly of castes of higher varnas. None of the Dalit castes has yet managed to cross the invisible line that separates them from the four varnas and even become Shudras. But times are changing.

In general, as a Hindu, you are not required to declare belonging to any caste. You can be a casteless Hindu - your right.

Why change caste at all?

It all depends on which way to change - up or down. An increase in caste status means that other people for whom the caste is significant will treat you with more respect. Lowering your status, especially to the Dalit caste level, will give you a number of real benefits, so many representatives of higher castes try to enroll in Dalits.

The fact is that in modern India, the authorities are waging a merciless fight against caste discrimination. According to the constitution, any discrimination based on caste is prohibited, and you will even have to pay a fine for asking about caste when applying for a job.

But the country has a mechanism of positive discrimination. A number of castes and tribes are listed as "Scheduled Tribes and Castes" (SC/ST). Representatives of these castes have certain privileges, which are confirmed by caste certificates. For Dalits, places are reserved in the civil service and in parliament, their children are admitted free of charge (or for half the fee) to schools, places have been allocated for them in institutes. In short, there is a quota system for Dalits.

It's hard to say if this is good or bad. The author of these lines met Dalits who could give odds to any Brahmin in terms of intelligence and general development - quotas helped them rise from the bottom and get an education. On the other hand, one had to see Dalits going with the flow (first by quotas for the institute, then by the same quotas for the civil service), not interested in anything and not wanting to work. They cannot be fired, so their future is secured until old age and a good pension. Many in India criticize the quota system, many defend it.

So Dalits can be politicians?

How else can they. For example, Kocheril Raman Narayanan, who was President of India from 1997 to 2002, was a Dalit. Another example is Mayawati Prabhu Das, also known as Mayawati Iron Lady, who served as Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh for total eight years old.

Is the number of Dalits the same in all states of India?

No, it varies, and quite significantly. Most Dalits live in the state of Uttar Pradesh (20.5 percent of all Dalits in India), followed by West Bengal (10.7 percent). At the same time, as a percentage of the total population, Punjab holds the lead with 31.9 percent, followed by Himachal Pradesh with 25.2 percent.

How can Dalits work?

Theoretically, anyone - from the president to the toilet cleaner. Many Dalits act in films and work as fashion models. In cities where caste lines are blurred, there are no restrictions at all; in villages where ancient traditions are strong, Dalits are still engaged in "impure" work: skinning dead animals, digging graves, prostitution, and so on.

If a child is born as a result of an inter-caste marriage, to which caste will he be assigned?

Traditionally in India, the child was recorded in the lowest caste. Now it is considered that the child inherits the caste of the father, with the exception of the state of Kerala, where, according to local law, the caste of the mother is inherited. This is theoretically possible in other states, but in each individual case it is decided through the courts.

A typical story that happened in 2012: then a Kshatriya man married a woman from the Nayak tribe. The boy was registered as a kshatriya, but then his mother, through the courts, ensured that the child was rewritten as a nayak so that he could take advantage of the bonuses provided to disadvantaged tribes.

If I, as a tourist in India, touch a Dalit, can I then shake hands with a Brahmin?

Foreigners in Hinduism are already considered unclean, because they are outside the caste system, therefore they can touch anyone and for whatever reason, without defiling themselves in any way. If a practicing brahmin decides to communicate with you, then he will still have to perform purification rituals, so whether you shook the Dalit's hand before or not is essentially indifferent.

Are Dalits Filming Intercaste Porn in India?

Of course they do. Moreover, judging by the number of views on specialized sites, it is very popular.

Four Indian varnas

Varnas and castes in our time

One and a half thousand years BC, Indian society was divided into 4 estates. They were called varnas. From Sanskrit it is translated as “color”, “quality” or “category”. According to the Rigveda, the varnas or castes emerged from the body of God Brahma.

In ancient India, there were originally such castes (varnas):

• Brahmins;
• Kshatriyas;
• Vaishya;
• Sudras.

According to legend, Brahma created 4 castes from parts of his body.

The emergence of castes in ancient India

There are many reasons for the emergence of varnas or the so-called Indian castes. For example, the Aryans (not to be confused with the pseudo-scientific “Aryans”), having conquered Indian land, decided to divide the local people according to skin color, origin and financial situation. This simplified social relationships and created a winning environment for government. The Aryans raised themselves, obviously, to the higher caste, and took only Brahmin girls as wives.

More detailed table of Indian castes with rights and duties

Casta, varna and jati - what's the difference?

Most people confuse the concept of "caste" and "varna", many consider them synonyms. But this is not the case, and this should be dealt with.

Every Indian, without the right to choose, was born in a closed group - in Varna. Sometimes they are called the Indian caste. However, the caste in India is a subgroup, a stratification in each varna, so there are countless castes today. Only in 1931, according to the census, data on 3,000 Indian castes were published. And the varn is always 4.

In fact, there are more than 3000 castes in India, and there are always four varnas.

Jati is the second name of the caste and podcast, and every inhabitant of India has a jati. Jati - belonging to a particular profession, to a religious community, it is also closed and endogamous. Each varna has its own jati.

You can draw a primitive analogue with our society. For example, there are children of rich parents. This is varna. They study in separate kindergartens, schools and universities, communicate mainly with each other. These children, growing up into teenagers, are divided into subcultures. Someone becomes a hipster, someone - an "elite" entrepreneur, others - creative intelligentsia, and someone - a free traveler. This is jati or caste.

Castes in India can be divided by religion, profession and even interests.

They can be divided by, by interests, by chosen professions. However, oddly enough, people of this varna rarely “mix” with others, lower varnas and even castes, and always strive to communicate with those who are above them.

Four Indian varnas

Brahmins - highest varna or caste in India. It included priests, clerics, sages, teachers, spiritual mentors and those people who connected other people with God. The Brahmins were vegetarians and could only eat food prepared by the people of their castes.

Brahmins are the highest and most respected caste in India.

Kshatriyas- this is an Indian caste or varna of warriors, defenders of their country, warriors, soldiers and, surprisingly, kings and rulers. The kshatriyas were the protectors of the brahmins, women, old people, children and cows. They were allowed to kill those who did not observe the dharma.

The most prominent representatives of the Kshatriya warrior caste are the Sikhs.

Vaishya- these are free community members, merchants, artisans, farmers, the working class. They did not like to engage in hard physical labor and were extremely scrupulous about food. Among them could be very prosperous and wealthy people - owners of enterprises and lands.

The vaishya caste are often wealthy merchants and landowners who do not like hard menial work.

Shudra- the lowest varna or caste of India. It included servants, laborers and laborers. All those who had neither a house nor land, and who carried out the most difficult physical work. The Shudras had no right to pray to the gods and become "twice-born".

Sudras are the lowest caste in India. They live in poverty and work very hard

The religious rite, which was held by the three upper varnas or castes of India, was called "upanayana". During the process of initiation, a consecrated thread was put on the boy's neck, corresponding to his varna, and from then on he became “dvija” or “twice-born”. He received a new name and was considered a brahmachari - a student.

Each caste has its own rites and initiations.

Hindus believe that a righteous life allows one to be born into a higher caste in the next life. And vice versa. And the Brahmins, who have already gone through a large cycle of rebirths on Earth, are waiting for incarnation on other, divine planets.

Untouchable caste - myth and reality

Special attention should be paid to the untouchables. The existence of 5 Indian castes is a myth. In fact, the untouchables are those people who did not fall into 4 varnas for some reason. According to Hinduism, they led an impious life in a past rebirth. The “caste” of untouchables in India is most often homeless, impoverished people who carry out the most humiliating and dirty work. They beg and steal. By their presence they defile the Indian Brahmin caste.

This is how the untouchable caste lives in India today

The Government of India protects the untouchables to some extent. It is criminally punishable to call such people untouchable or even non-caste. Social discrimination is prohibited.

Varnas and castes in India today

What are the castes in India today? - you ask. And there are thousands of castes in India. Some of them are not numerous, but there are also castes known throughout the country. For example, hijras. This is the Indian caste of untouchables, in India it includes transgenders, transsexuals, bisexuals, hermaphrodites, intersex and homosexuals. Their processions can be found on the streets of cities and towns, where they make offerings to the Mother Goddess. Thanks to multiple protests, the Indian Hijri caste has achieved official recognition of itself as a “third gender”.

People with non-traditional sexual orientation (Hijri) in India also belong to the untouchable caste

Varnas and castes in India in our time are considered some relic of the past, but in vain - the system remains. In large cities, the borders are somewhat erased, but in the villages the old way of life is still preserved. According to the Constitution of India, it is forbidden to discriminate people on the basis of varna or caste. There is even a Constitutional Table of Castes, in which, by the way, the term “community” is used instead of “Indian caste”. It states that every citizen of India has the right to receive an appropriate document that indicates belonging to a caste.

In India, anyone can get a document on belonging to a caste

So, caste system in India, it has not only been preserved and has come down to our days, it works to this day. Moreover, other peoples are also divided into varnas and castes, they simply do not give this social division a name.

The untouchable caste in India is a phenomenon that cannot be found in any other country in the world. Originating in antiquity, the caste division of society exists in the country at the present time. The lowest rung in the hierarchy is occupied by the untouchable caste, which has absorbed 16-17% of the country's population. Its representatives make up the “bottom” of Indian society. Caste structure - complex issue, but still try to shed light on some of its aspects.

Caste structure of Indian society

Despite the difficulty of recreating a complete structural picture of castes in the distant past, it is still possible to single out groups that have historically developed in India. There are five of them.

The highest group (varna) of Brahmins includes civil servants, large and small landowners, and priests.

Next comes the Kshatriya varna, which includes the military and agricultural castes - Rajaputs, Jats, Maratha, Kunbi, Reddy, Kapu, etc. Some of them form a feudal stratum, whose representatives further replenish the lower and middle links of the feudal class.

The next two groups (Vaishyas and Shudras) include the middle and lower castes of farmers, officials, artisans, and community servants.

And finally, the fifth group. It includes castes of community servants and farmers, deprived of all rights to own and use land. They are called untouchables.

"India", "caste of the untouchables" are concepts that are inextricably linked with each other in the minds of the world community. Meanwhile, in a country with an ancient culture, they continue to honor the customs and traditions of their ancestors by dividing people according to their origin and belonging to any caste.

History of the Untouchables

The lowest caste in India - the untouchables - owes its appearance historical process that took place in the Middle Ages in the region. At that time, India was conquered by stronger and more civilized tribes. Naturally, the invaders came to the country with the aim of enslaving its indigenous population, preparing it for the role of servants.

To isolate the Indians, they were settled in special settlements, built separately according to the type of modern ghettos. Civilized outsiders did not allow natives into their community.

It is assumed that it was the descendants of these tribes that later formed the caste of the untouchables. It included farmers and servants of the community.

True, today the word “untouchables” has been replaced by another - “Dalits”, which means “oppressed”. It is believed that "untouchables" sounds offensive.

Since Indians often use the word "jati" rather than "caste", it is difficult to determine their number. But still, Dalits can be divided according to the type of activity and place of residence.

How do the untouchables live

The most common Dalit castes are Chamars (tanners), Dhobi (washerwomen) and pariahs. If the first two castes have in some way a profession, then pariahs live only at the expense of unskilled labor - the removal of household waste, cleaning and washing toilets.

Hard and dirty work - such is the fate of the untouchables. The lack of any qualification brings them a meager income, allowing only

However, among the untouchables, there are groups that are at the top of the caste, for example, the Hijra.

These are representatives of all kinds of sexual minorities who are engaged in prostitution and begging. They are also often invited to all kinds of religious rituals, weddings, birthdays. Of course, this group has much more to live on than an untouchable tanner or laundress.

But such an existence could not but arouse protest among the Dalits.

Protest struggle of the untouchables

Surprisingly, the untouchables did not resist the tradition of division into castes implanted by the invaders. However, in the last century the situation changed: the untouchables under the leadership of Gandhi made the first attempts to destroy the stereotype that had developed over the centuries.

The essence of these speeches was to draw public attention to caste inequality in India.

Interestingly, the Gandhi affair was picked up by a certain Ambedkar from the Brahmin caste. Thanks to him, the untouchables became Dalits. Ambedkar ensured that they received quotas for all types of professional activities. That is, an attempt was made to integrate these people into society.

Today's controversial policy of the Indian government often causes conflicts involving the untouchables.

However, it does not come to rebellion, because the untouchable caste in India is the most submissive part of the Indian community. Age-old timidity in front of other castes, ingrained in the minds of people, blocks all thoughts of rebellion.

Government of India and Dalit policy

The untouchables... The life of the most severe caste in India evokes a cautious and even contradictory reaction from the outside, since we are talking about the centuries-old traditions of the Indians.

But still, at the state level, caste discrimination is prohibited in the country. Actions that offend representatives of any varna are considered a crime.

At the same time, the caste hierarchy is legalized by the country's constitution. That is, the untouchable caste in India is recognized by the state, which looks like a serious contradiction in government policy. As a result modern history country has many serious conflicts between separate castes and even within them.

The untouchables are the most despised class in India. However, other citizens are still madly afraid of Dalits.

It is believed that a representative of the untouchable caste in India is able to defile a person from another varna by his mere presence. If the Dalit touches the clothes of a Brahmin, then the latter will need more than one year to cleanse his karma from filth.

But the untouchable (the caste of South India includes both men and women) may well become the object of sexual violence. And no defilement of karma happens in this case, since this is not prohibited by Indian customs.

An example is the recent case in New Delhi, where a 14-year-old untouchable girl was kept by a criminal for a month as a sex slave. The unfortunate woman died in the hospital, and the detained criminal was released by the court on bail.

At the same time, if an untouchable violates the traditions of their ancestors, for example, dares to publicly use a public well, then the poor fellow will face an immediate reprisal on the spot.

Dalit is not a sentence of fate

The untouchable caste in India, despite the policy of the government, still remains the poorest and most disadvantaged part of the population. The average literacy rate among them is just over 30.

The situation is explained by the humiliation to which they are subjected in educational institutions children of this caste. As a result, illiterate Dalits are the bulk of the country's unemployed.

However, there are exceptions to the rule: there are about 30 millionaires in the country who are Dalits. Of course, this is minuscule in comparison with 170 million untouchables. But this fact says that Dalit is not a sentence of fate.

An example is the life of Ashok Khade, who belonged to the leatherworking caste. The guy worked as a docker during the day, and studied textbooks at night to become an engineer. His company is currently closing deals worth hundreds of millions of dollars.

And there is also an opportunity to leave the Dalit caste - this is a change of religion.

Buddhism, Christianity, Islam - any faith technically takes a person out of the untouchables. This was first used at the end of the 19th century, and in 2007, 50 thousand people immediately converted to Buddhism.

Leaving the Indus Valley, the Indian Aryans conquered the country along the Ganges and founded many states here, whose population consisted of two classes, differing in legal and material status.

The new settlers, the Aryans, the victors, seized for themselves in India both land, and honor, and power, and the defeated non-Indo-European natives were plunged into contempt and humiliation, turned into slavery or a dependent state, or, pushed back into the forests and mountains, they led there in inaction thoughts of a meager life without any culture. This result of the Aryan conquest gave rise to the origin four main Indian castes (varnas).

Those original inhabitants of India who were subdued by the power of the sword, suffered the fate of captives, became mere slaves. The Indians, who voluntarily submitted, renounced their paternal gods, adopted the language, laws and customs of the conquerors, retained personal freedom, but lost all land property and had to live as workers on the estates of the Aryans, servants and porters, in the homes of rich people. From them came the caste sudra. "Shudra" is not a Sanskrit word. Before becoming the name of one of the Indian castes, it was probably the name of some people. The Aryans considered it below their dignity to enter into marriage alliances with representatives of the Shudra caste. The Shudra women were only concubines among the Aryans.

Ancient India. Map

Over time, sharp differences in fortunes and professions formed between the Aryan conquerors of India themselves. But in relation to the lower caste - the dark-skinned, subjugated native population - they all remained a privileged class. Only the Aryans had the right to read the sacred books; only they were sanctified by a solemn ceremony: a sacred cord was placed on the Aryan, making him “reborn” (or “twice born”, dvija). This rite served as a symbolic distinction of all Aryans from the Shudra caste and the despised native tribes driven into the forests. The consecration was performed by laying on a cord, which is worn placed on the right shoulder and descending obliquely across the chest. Among the Brahmin caste, a cord could be placed on a boy from 8 to 15 years old, and it is made of cotton yarn; among the Kshatriya caste, who received it no earlier than the 11th year, it was made from kushi (Indian spinnery), and among the Vaishya caste, who received it no earlier than the 12th year, it was made of wool.

The "twice-born" Aryans over time divided according to differences in occupation and origin into three estates or castes, which have some similarities with the three estates of medieval Europe: the clergy, the nobility and the middle, urban class. The embryos of caste systems among the Aryans existed even in those times when they lived only in the Indus basin: there, from the mass of the agricultural and pastoral population, warlike tribal princes, surrounded by people skilled in military affairs, as well as priests who performed sacrificial rites, already stood out.

At the migration of the Aryan tribes further deep into India, to the country of the Ganges, militant energy increased in bloody wars with the exterminated natives, and then in a fierce struggle between the Aryan tribes. Until the conquests were completed, all the people were engaged in military affairs. Only when the peaceful possession of the conquered country began, did it become possible to develop a variety of occupations, it became possible to choose between different professions, and came new stage origin of castes. Fertility Indian land aroused an attraction to the peaceful obtaining of means of life. From this quickly developed an innate Aryan tendency, according to which it was more pleasant for them to work quietly and enjoy the fruits of their labor than to make heavy military efforts. Therefore, a significant part of the settlers (" vichy”) turned to agriculture, which gave abundant harvests, leaving the fight against enemies and the protection of the country to the princes of the tribes and the military nobility formed during the period of conquests. This estate, which was engaged in arable farming and partly in shepherding, soon grew so much that among the Aryans, as in Western Europe, they formed the vast majority of the population. Because the title vaishya"settler", originally designating all Aryan inhabitants in new areas, began to designate only people of the third, working Indian caste, and warriors, kshatriyas and the priests Brahmins("prayers"), who over time became privileged classes, made the names of their professions the names of the two upper castes.

The four Indian estates listed above became completely closed castes (varnas) only when Brahmanism rose above the ancient service to Indra and other gods of nature - a new religious doctrine of Brahma, the soul of the universe, the source of life from which all creatures originated and to which all beings will return. This reformed creed gave religious holiness to the division of the Indian nation into castes, and especially to the priestly caste. It said that in the cycle of life forms passed by all that exist on earth, Brahman is the most highest form being. According to the dogma of the rebirth and transmigration of souls, a being born in human form, must go through all four castes in turn: to be a sudra, a vaishya, a kshatriya, and finally a brahmin; having passed through these forms of existence, it is reunited with Brahma. The only way to achieve this goal is for a person, constantly striving for a deity, to exactly fulfill everything commanded by the Brahmins, honor them, please them with gifts and signs of respect. Offenses against the Brahmins, severely punished on earth, subject the wicked to the most terrible torments of hell and rebirth in the forms of despised animals.

Belief in addiction future life from the present the main support Indian caste division and the dominion of the priests. The more resolutely the Brahmin clergy placed the dogma of the transmigration of souls as the center of all moral teaching, the more successfully it filled the imagination of the people scary pictures hellish torment, the more honor and influence it acquired. Representatives of the highest caste of the Brahmins are close to the gods; they know the path leading to Brahma; their prayers, sacrifices, holy feats of their asceticism have magical power over the gods, the gods have to fulfill their will; bliss and suffering in the Hereafter depend on them. It is not surprising that with the development of religiosity among the Indians, the power of the Brahmin caste increased, tirelessly praising in their holy teachings reverence and generosity to the Brahmins as the surest ways to obtain bliss, suggesting to the kings that the ruler is obliged to have his advisers and make judges of the Brahmins, is obliged to reward their service to the rich. content and pious gifts.

So that the lower Indian castes would not envy the privileged position of the Brahmins and would not encroach on it, the doctrine was elaborated and strongly preached that the forms of life for all beings were predetermined by Brahma, and that the progress through the degrees of human rebirths is made only by a calm, peaceful life in given to a person position, faithful performance of duties. So, in one of the oldest parts Mahabharata says: “When Brahma created creatures, he gave them their occupations, each caste a special activity: for the brahmanas - the study of the high Vedas, for the warriors - heroism, the vaishyas - the art of labor, the shudras - humility before other colors: therefore, ignorant brahmins, not glorious warriors, are worthy of reproach, unskillful vaisyas and disobedient sudras.

Brahma, the main deity of Brahmanism - the religion that underlies the Indian caste system

This dogma, which attributed to every caste, every profession divine origin who comforted the humiliated and despised in insults and their deprivations real life hope for an improvement in their fate in a future existence. He gave the Indian caste hierarchy religious consecration. The division of people into four classes, unequal in their rights, was, from this point of view, an eternal, unchanging law, the violation of which is the most criminal sin. People have no right to overthrow the caste barriers established between them by God himself; they can achieve the improvement of their lot only by patient obedience. Mutual relations between the Indian castes were clearly characterized by teaching; that Brahma produced Brahmins from his mouth (or the first man Purusha), Kshatriyas from his hands, Vaishyas from his thighs, Shudras from mud-stained feet, therefore the essence of nature among the Brahmins is “holiness and wisdom”, among the Kshatriyas it is “power and strength”, among the Vaishyas - “wealth and profit”, among the Shudras - “service and humility”. The doctrine of the origin of castes from different parts the highest being is set forth in one of the hymns of the latest, most recent book Rigveda. There are no caste concepts in the older songs of the Rig Veda. The Brahmins attach great importance to this hymn, and every truly believing Brahmin recites it every morning after bathing. This hymn is a diploma by which the Brahmins legitimized their privileges, their dominion.

Thus the Indian people were led, by their history, by their inclinations and customs, to fall under the yoke of a hierarchy of castes, which turned estates and professions into tribes alien to each other,

Shudra

After the conquest of the Ganges valley by the Aryan tribes who came from the Indus, part of its original (non-Indo-European) population was enslaved, and the rest lost their lands, turning into servants and laborers. From these natives, alien to the Aryan invaders, the Shudra caste gradually formed. The word "sudra" does not come from a Sanskrit root. It may have been some local Indian tribal designation.

The Aryans assumed the role of a higher class in relation to the Shudras. Only over the Aryans was a religious ceremony of laying a sacred thread, which, according to the teachings of Brahminism, made a person “twice-born”. But even among the Aryans themselves, social division soon appeared. According to the nature of their life and occupations, they broke up into three castes - Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, reminiscent of the three main classes of the medieval West: the clergy, the military aristocracy and the class of small proprietors. This social stratification began to appear among the Aryans during their life on the Indus.

After the conquest of the Ganges valley, most of the Aryan population took up agriculture and cattle breeding in the new fertile country. These people formed a caste Vaishya("village"), which earned its livelihood by labor, but, unlike the Shudras, consisted of legally full owners of land, livestock or industrial and commercial capital. Warriors stood over the Vaishyas ( kshatriyas), and priests ( brahmins,"prayers"). Kshatriyas and especially Brahmins were considered the highest castes.

Vaishya

Vaishyas, farmers and shepherds of ancient India, by the very nature of their occupations, could not equal the upper classes in neatness and were not so well dressed. Spending the day in labor, they had no leisure either for acquiring Brahmin education, or for the idle occupations of the military nobility of the Kshatriyas. Therefore, the vaishyas soon began to be considered people of unequal rights to priests and warriors, people of a different caste. Vaisya commoners had no warlike neighbors to threaten their property. The Vaishyas did not need sword and arrows; they lived quietly with their wives and children on their piece of land, leaving the military estate to guard the country from external enemies and from internal unrest. In the affairs of the world, most of the recent Aryan conquerors of India soon lost the habit of weapons and military art.

When, with the development of culture, the forms and needs of everyday life became more diverse, when the rustic simplicity of clothing and food, housing and household items began to not satisfy many, when trade with foreigners began to bring wealth and luxury, many vaishyas turned to crafts, industry, trade, return money in interest. But their social prestige did not rise from this. Just as in feudal Europe the townspeople did not belong to the upper classes, but to the common people, so in the populous cities that arose in India near the royal and princely palaces, the majority of the population were vaishyas. But they did not have room for independent development: the contempt of the upper classes weighed on the artisans and merchants in India. No matter how much wealth Vaishyas acquired in large, magnificent, luxurious capitals or in trading coastal cities, they did not receive any complicity either in the honors and glory of the Kshatriyas, or in the education and authority of the Brahmin priests and scientists. The highest moral blessings of life were inaccessible to the Vaishyas. They were given only the circle of physical and mechanical activity, the circle of material and routine; and although they were allowed, even made obligated to read Veda and law books, they remained outside the highest mental life of the nation. The hereditary chain chained the Vaishya to his father's plot of land or industry; access to the military class or to the Brahmin caste was forever barred to him.

Kshatriyas

The position of the warrior caste (kshatriyas) was more honorable, especially in iron times. Aryan conquests of India and the first generations after this conquest, when everything was decided by the sword and martial energy, when the king was only a commander, when law and custom were kept only by guarding weapons. There was a time when the kshatriyas aspired to become the pre-eminent estate, and in the dark legends there are still traces of memories of the great war between warriors and brahmins, when “impious hands” dared to touch the sacred, God-established greatness of the clergy. Traditions say that the Brahmins emerged victorious from this struggle with the Kshatriyas with the help of the gods and the hero of the Brahmins, frames and that the wicked were subjected to the most terrible punishments.

Kshatriya education

Times of conquest were to be followed by times of peace; then the services of the kshatriyas were no longer needed, and the importance of the military class decreased. These times favored the aspiration of the Brahmins to become the first estate. But the stronger and more resolutely the soldiers held on to the degree of the second most honorable class. Proud of the glory of their ancestors, whose exploits were praised in heroic songs inherited from antiquity, imbued with a feeling dignity and the consciousness of their strength, which the military profession gives people, the kshatriyas kept themselves in strict isolation from the vaishyas, who did not have noble ancestors, and looked with contempt at their working, monotonous life.

The Brahmins, having consolidated their primacy over the Kshatriyas, favored their class isolation, finding it beneficial for themselves; and the kshatriyas, along with lands and privileges, tribal pride and military glory, passed on to their sons and respect for the clergy. Separated by their upbringing, military exercises and way of life from both the Brahmins and the Vaishyas, the Kshatriyas were a chivalrous aristocracy that maintained under new conditions public life militant customs of antiquity, which instilled in their children a proud faith in the purity of blood and in tribal superiority. Protected by heredity of rights and class isolation from the invasion of alien elements, the kshatriyas constituted a phalanx that did not allow commoners into their ranks.

Receiving a generous salary from the king, supplied from him with weapons and everything necessary for military affairs, the kshatriyas led a carefree life. Apart from military exercises, they had no business; therefore, in peacetime - and in the calm valley of the Ganges, time passed for the most part peacefully - they had much leisure to make merry and feast. In the circle of these clans, the memory of the glorious deeds of the ancestors, of the hot battles of antiquity, was preserved; singers of kings and noble families sang old songs to kshatriyas at sacrificial holidays and at funeral dinners, or composed new ones to glorify their patrons. From these songs, Indian epic poems gradually grew - Mahabharata And Ramayana.

The highest and most influential caste was the priests, original title which "purohita", "house priests" of the king, in the country of the Ganges was replaced by a new one - Brahmins. Even on the Indus there were such priests, for example, Vasistha, Vishwamitra- about whom the people believed that their prayers and the sacrifices they made had power, and who therefore enjoyed special respect. The benefit of the whole tribe demanded that their sacred songs, their ways of performing rituals, their teachings be preserved. The surest remedy for this was for the most respected priests of the tribe to pass on their knowledge to their sons or disciples. This is how the Brahmin families arose. Forming schools or corporations, they preserved prayers, hymns, sacred knowledge by oral tradition.

At first, each Aryan tribe had its own Brahmin clan; for example, among the Koshalas, the clan of Vasistha, among the Anges, the clan of Gautama. But when the tribes, accustomed to living in peace with each other, united into one state, then their priestly families entered into partnership with each other, borrowed prayers and hymns from each other. The creeds and sacred songs of various Brahmin schools became the common property of the whole association. These songs and teachings, which at first existed only in oral tradition, were, after the introduction of written characters, written down and collected by the Brahmins. So arose Veda, that is, "knowledge", a collection of sacred songs and invocations of the gods, called Rigveda and the following two collections of sacrificial formulas, prayers and liturgical decrees, Samaveda And Yajurveda.

The Indians attached great importance to the fact that the sacrificial offerings were made correctly, and that no mistakes were made in addressing the gods. This was very conducive to the emergence of a special Brahmin corporation. When the liturgical rites and prayers were written down, it became a condition for the sacrifices and rites to be pleasing to the gods. exact knowledge and observance of the prescribed rules and laws, which could only be learned under the guidance of the old priestly families. This necessarily gave the performance of sacrifices and worship to the exclusive supervision of the Brahmins, completely stopped the direct relationship of the laity to the gods: only those who had been taught by the priest-mentor - the son or pupil of a Brahmin - could now perform the sacrifice in the proper way, making it "pleasant to the gods" ; only he could deliver God's help.

Brahman in modern India

Knowledge of the old songs with which ancestors in their former homeland honored the gods of nature, knowledge of the rites that accompanied these songs, became more and more decisively the exclusive property of the Brahmins, whose forefathers composed these songs and in whose genus they were inherited. Traditions connected with worship, necessary for understanding it, also remained the property of the priests. What was brought from the homeland was clothed in the minds of the Aryan settlers in India with a mysterious sacred meaning. Thus the hereditary singers became hereditary priests, whose importance increased as the people of the Aryans moved away from their old homeland (the Indus Valley) and, busy with military affairs, forgot their old institutions.

The people began to consider the Brahmins as intermediaries between people and gods. When in new country Peaceful times began in the Ganges, and concern for the performance of religious duties became the most important matter of life, the concept established among the people about the importance of priests should have aroused in them the proud thought that the estate, performing the most sacred duties, spending its life in the service of the gods, has the right to occupy the first place in society and the state. The Brahmin clergy became a closed corporation, access to it was closed to people of other classes. Brahmins were supposed to take wives only from their class. They taught all the people to recognize that the sons of a priest, born in a lawful marriage, possess by their very origin the right to be priests and the ability to perform sacrifices and prayers pleasing to the gods.

Thus arose a priestly, Brahmin caste, strictly isolated from the Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, placed by the power of their class pride and the religiosity of the people on the highest level of honor, seizing science, religion, and all education in a monopoly for themselves. As time passed, the Brahmins became accustomed to thinking that they were as much superior to the rest of the Aryans as they considered themselves superior to the Shudras and the remnants of the wild native Indian tribes. On the street, in the market, the difference between the castes was already visible in the material and form of clothing, in the size and shape of the cane. A Brahmin, unlike a Kshatriya and a Vaishya, left the house with nothing more than a bamboo cane, a vessel of water for cleansing, with a sacred thread over his shoulder.

The Brahmins did their best to put the theory of castes into practice. But the conditions of reality opposed such obstacles to their striving that they could not strictly enforce the principle of the division of occupations between the castes. It was especially difficult for the Brahmins to find means of subsistence for themselves and their families, limiting themselves to only those occupations that specifically belonged to their caste. The Brahmins were not monks who take only as many people as they need into their class. They led family life and multiply; therefore it was inevitable that many Brahmin families became impoverished; and the Brahmin caste did not receive maintenance from the state. Therefore, the impoverished Brahmin families fell into poverty. The Mahabharata says that two prominent characters in this poem, Drona and his son Ashwatthaman, there were Brahmins, but due to poverty they had to take up the military craft of the Kshatriyas. In later insertions they are severely reprimanded for this.

True, some Brahmins led an ascetic and hermit life in the forest, in the mountains, near sacred lakes. Others were astronomers, legal advisers, administrators, judges, and received a good livelihood from these honorable occupations. Many brahmins were religious teachers, interpreters of sacred books, and received support from their many students, were priests, servants at temples, lived on gifts from those who made sacrifices and, in general, from pious people. But whatever the number of Brahmins who found their livelihood in these pursuits, we see from laws of Manu and from other ancient Indian sources that there were many priests who lived only by alms or fed themselves and their families in occupations indecent to their caste. Therefore, the laws of Manu are diligently concerned to instill in kings and wealthy people that they have a sacred duty to be generous to the Brahmins. The laws of Manu allow the Brahmins to beg, they allow them to earn their livelihood by the occupations of Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. A Brahman can subsist on agriculture and shepherding; can live "the truth and lies of the trade". But in no case should he live by lending money at interest, or by seductive arts, such as music and singing; should not be hired as workers, should not trade in intoxicating drinks, cow's butter, milk, sesame seeds, linen or woolen fabrics. The law of Manu also permits those kshatriyas who cannot subsist on the art of war to engage in the affairs of the vaisyas, and he allows the vaisyas to subsist on the occupations of the sudras. But all these were only concessions forced by necessity.

The discrepancy between the occupations of people and their castes led over time to the disintegration of castes into smaller divisions. Actually, it is these small social groups that are castes in the proper sense of the word, and the four main classes we have listed - Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras - in India itself are often called varnas. Condescendingly allowing the higher castes to feed on the professions of the lower, the laws of Manu strictly forbid the lower castes to take on the profession of the higher: this insolence was supposed to be punished by confiscation of property and exile. Only a sudra who does not find employment for himself can practice a craft. But he must not acquire wealth, lest he become arrogant against people of other castes, before whom he is obliged to humble himself.

Untouchable Caste - Chandalas

From the Ganges basin, this contempt for the surviving tribes of the non-Aryan population was transferred to the Deccan, where they were placed in the same position as the Chandalas on the Ganges. pariahs, whose name is not found in laws of Manu, became among Europeans the name of all classes of people despised by the Aryans, "unclean" people. The word pariya is not Sanskrit, but Tamil. The Tamils ​​call pariahs both the descendants of the most ancient, pre-Dravidian population, and the Indians excluded from the castes.

Even the position of slaves in ancient India was less difficult than the life of the untouchable caste. epic and dramatic works Indian poetry show that the Aryans treated the slaves meekly, that many slaves enjoyed the great confidence of their masters, occupied influential positions. Slaves were: those members of the Shudra caste, whose ancestors fell into slavery during the conquest of the country; Indian prisoners of war from enemy states; people bought from merchants; faulty debtors given by judges as slaves to creditors. Slaves and female slaves were sold on the market as a commodity. But no one could have as a slave a person from a caste higher than his own.

Originating in antiquity, the untouchable caste exists in India to the present day.

What determines the life of Hindus in modern ashrams and megacities? System government controlled, built according to European patterns, or special shape apartheid, which was supported by castes in ancient india and continue to embody today? The clash of the norms of Western civilization with Hindu traditions sometimes leads to unpredictable results.

Varnas and jati

Trying to figure out which castes existed in India and continue to influence its society today, one should turn to the basics of tribal groups. Ancient societies regulated the gene pool and social relations with the help of two principles - endo- and exogamy. The first allows you to create a family only within your area (tribe), the second prohibits marriages between representatives of a part of this community (genus). Endogamy acts as a factor in the preservation of cultural identity, and exogamy opposes the degenerative consequences of closely related ties. To one degree or another, both mechanisms of biosocial regulation are necessary for the existence of civilization. We turn to the experience of South Asia because the role of endogamous castes in modern India and Nepal continues to be the most striking example of the phenomenon.

In the era of territory development (1500 - 1200 BC), the social system of the ancient Hindus already provided for the division into four varnas (colors) - Brahmins (Brahmins), Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Varnas, presumably, were once homogeneous formations without additional class division.

During early medieval with the growth of the population and the development of social interaction, the main groups underwent further social stratification. So-called "jatis" appeared, the status of which is associated with the original origin, the history of the development of the group, professional activity and region of residence.

In turn, the jati themselves contain many subgroups of different social status. One way or another, the well-proportioned pyramidal structure of subordination can be traced both in the example of the jati and in the case of generalizing super-clans - varnas.

Brahmins are considered the highest caste in India. Priests, theologians and philosophers among them play the role of a link between the worlds of gods and people. Kshatriyas bear the burden state power and the military leadership. Gautama Siddhartha Buddha is the most famous representative this varna. The third social category in the Hindu hierarchy, the Vaishyas, are predominantly clans of merchants and landowners. And, finally, the "working ants" of the Shudras are servants and hired workers of a narrow specialization.

The lowest caste in India - the untouchables (a group of Dalits) - is outside the varna system, although they represent about 17% of the population and are involved in active social interaction. This group "brand" should not be taken literally. After all, even priests and warriors do not consider it shameful to have a haircut at a hairdresser - Dalit. An example of a fantastic class emancipation of a representative of the untouchable caste in India was Dalit K. R. Narayanan, who was the country's president in 1997-2002.

The synonymous perception of untouchables and pariahs by Europeans is a common misconception. Pariahs are completely declassed and completely disenfranchised people, deprived of even the very possibility of group association.

Mutual reflection of economic classes and castes in India

The last time information about class affiliation was studied in 1930 during the population census. Then the amount caste in india was more than 3,000. If a bulletin table were used at such an event, it would have up to 200 pages. According to ethnographers and sociologists, the number of Jati by the beginning of the 21st century had decreased by about half. This may be due to both industrial development and ignoring caste differences among Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas who were educated in Western universities.

Technological progress leads to a certain decline in handicrafts. Industrial corporations, trading and transport companies need armies of identical sudras - workers, detachments of middle managers from among the vaishyas and kshatriyas in the role of top managers.

The mutual projections of economic classes and castes in contemporary India are not obvious. Majority contemporary politicians- vaishyas, not kshatriyas, as one might assume. The leadership of large trading firms is mainly those who, according to the canon, should be warriors or rulers. And in countryside there are even impoverished Brahmins cultivating the land...

To understand the contradictory reality of modern caste society, neither recreational tourist trips nor search queries like “India caste photos” will help. It is much more effective to get acquainted with the opinions of L. Alaev, I. Glushkova and other orientalists and Hindus on this issue.

Only tradition can be stronger than the law

The Constitution of 1950 affirms the equality of all estates before the law. Moreover, even the slightest manifestation of discrimination - the question of origin at the time of employment - is a criminal offence. The irony of the collision of the modernist norm with reality is that the Hindus accurately determine the group affiliation of the interlocutor in a couple of minutes. Moreover, the name, facial features, speech, education and clothing are not of decisive importance here.

The secret to maintaining the meaning of endogamy lies in positive role, which she can play in social and ideological terms. Even the lower class is a kind of insurance company for its members. Castes and varnas in India are a cultural asset, moral authority and a system of clubs. The authors of the Indian constitution were also aware of this, recognizing the initial endogamy of social groups. In addition, universal suffrage, unexpectedly for the modernizers, became a factor in strengthening caste identification. Group positioning facilitates the tasks of propaganda and the formation of political programs.

This is how the symbiosis of Hinduism and Western democracy develops in a contradictory and unpredictable way. The caste structure of society demonstrates both illogicality and high adaptability to changing conditions. Castes in ancient India were not considered eternal and indestructible formations, despite the fact that they were consecrated by the law of Manu from the “code of honor of the Aryans”. Who knows, perhaps we are witnessing the realization of an ancient Hindu prediction that "in the era of Kali Yuga, everyone will be born as Shudras."

Allan Rannu, a hereditary orientalist, talks about human destiny and about the four varnas as tools for understanding the world and oneself.

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