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What human flaws are allegorically depicted in the fable. Name the allegorical images in the fables you read

What human flaws are allegorically depicted in the fable. Name the allegorical images in the fables you read

20.03.2019

A fable is a short story that has an allegorical meaning. Usually one of the main types of allegory in a fable is the embodiment of an abstract idea in a material image. As a rule, the main characters of the fable are conditional fabled animals. It is generally accepted that the images of animals are always allegorical.

In the fables of I. A. Krylov, animals act more often than people. Animals are present in all types of Krylov's fables: philosophical ("Two doves"), social ("The wolf and the lamb"), historical ("The wolf in the kennel"), everyday ("Pig under the oak"). It is generally accepted that the image of each animal in the fabulist is an allegory of some human trait character, for example Monkey, Pig - an allegory of ignorance; Donkey - nonsense; Cat - tricks; Rooster, Cuckoo - mediocrity, etc. The allegorical nature of animal images originates from Aesop's fables.

Aesop wrote fables for the sake of establishing morality in society, and allegory helped him to ridicule some specific human trait, a bad inclination, it served as an illustration of morality. In fables for Krylov, not only morality is important as the highest category of human behavior in society, in many ways Krylov is a follower of La Fontaine, a picturesque fabulist. We read Krylov's fables not because of morality, but because of the most interesting and witty story told. Therefore, one can not agree that the image of any animal in Krylov is only an allegory of one human vice. In most cases, the image of an animal in Krylov includes a combination of certain qualities and properties that make up a certain human character.

For example, the image of the Fox is not made up of cunning or flattery alone, but of cunning, flattery, deceit at the same time. And in accordance with the endowed character, she behaves in each specific everyday situation. In the fable "The Peasant and the Fox" the Fox at the end does what befits the Fox, without contradicting her character:

The fox became more satisfying,

The fox became fatter.

But things didn't get any better...

Choosing a darker night

At the kumanka, she strangled all the chickens ...

The donkey, one of the most frequently encountered heroes of Krylov's fables, is also endowed with a human character. He is stupid, stupid, ignorant, stubborn. And he always acts in a fable like a Donkey. The peasant instructed him to guard the garden, “The donkey, chasing birds from all donkey legs, raised such a gallop that he crushed and trampled everything in the garden.” Zeus made him taller, but still the Donkey remained a donkey:

Not even a year has passed

How did everyone know who the Donkey is:

My donkey stupidity entered the proverb.

And donkeys carry water.

From folk tales, proverbs in the mind of a Russian person, whole images of many animals are formed, for example, a fox, a wolf, a hare. And Krylov uses this in his fables, which is the nationality of Krylov's fables. But, of course, not all the animals in his fables are integral characters. For example, a bee is just a generalized allegory of diligence.

Every animal in Krylov still personifies a representative of any social group. The lion is always the king; Wolf, Fox, Bear - court nobles, officials; Lamb, Frog, Ant - "little" people standing at the very bottom of the social ladder: petty officials, peasants. Often the human character endowed with the beast in Krylov's fable merges with its social characteristics, and then the reader faces real ones that exist in society. social types. For example, in the fable "The Education of a Lion" behind the image of the old Lion we see a typical image of the Russian Tsar. Leo trusts to bring up his Lion cub to a representative of another nation, a foreigner; he cannot teach his own son how to govern the state, because he does not know how to do it, he does not know what is really going on in his state. And as a result, the Lion cub grows up the same as his father, a stranger to his people, cut off from the national soil.

Often in the fables of I. A. Krylov, it is easy to detect specific historical figures behind the images of animals. The lion cub from the fable "The Education of the Lion" is Alexander I; The wolf from the fable "The Wolf in the Kennel" is Napoleon. You can even say that the Wolf is not an allegory, but rather a metaphor related to Napoleon. In addition, in this fable, as in many others, the situation itself is metaphorical. You can, of course, talk for a long time about the fact that Napoleon wanted to conquer Russia, invaded Russia, reached Moscow, but, not calculating the strength of the enemy, fell into a trap and died. In short, this situation can be described as follows: a wolf in a kennel. The cuckoo is a metaphor, a direct allusion to the journalist Bulgarin, who we meet in two fables: "The Cuckoo and the Rooster", "The Cuckoo and the Eagle".

But it would be wrong to tie Krylov's fables only to some specific historical facts and events, to see specific people of that era behind the images of animals in historical fables. The artistic perfection and realism of the fables of I. A. Krylov lies precisely in the breadth of generalization, in typicality, in the accuracy of the selection of the fact that is the basis of the fable. The meaning of the fable, the images of animals implying specific persons, is always much broader than the historical fact itself that prompted the fabulist to create this fable. Although the fable "Quartet" refers to the opening of the State Council and behind the images of animals we can distinguish specific historical figures of that time, the "Quartet" is nevertheless perceived as a deep generalization that carries a universal meaning.

So, Krylov's images of animals are not just allegories of any one human trait; many of them convey the many-sided human character, represent a certain estate type and are a metaphor for a specific historical person. Krylov creates living, typical, realistic characters, generalizing and typing the very situation in which they act. This is the realism, innovation and durability of the fables of I. A. Krylov.

In which there is an allegorical meaning. Usually one of the main types of allegory in a fable is an allegory - the embodiment of an abstract idea in a material image. As a rule, the main characters of the fable are conditional fabled animals. It is generally accepted that the images of animals are always allegorical.
In the fables of I. A. Krylov, animals act more often than people. Animals are present in all types of Krylov's fables: philosophical ("Two doves"), social ("The wolf and the lamb"), historical ("The wolf in the kennel"), everyday ("Pig under the oak"). It is generally accepted that each animal in the fabulist is an allegory of some human character trait, for example Monkey, Pig - an allegory of ignorance; Donkey - nonsense; Cat - tricks; Rooster, Cuckoo - mediocrity, etc. The allegorical nature of animal images originates from Aesop's fables.

The fox became more satisfying,
The fox became fatter.
But things didn't get any better...
... Having chosen a darker night,
At the kumanka, she strangled all the chickens ...

Not even a year has passed
How did everyone know who the Donkey is:
My donkey stupidity entered the proverb.
And donkeys carry water.

Every animal in Krylov still personifies a representative of any social group. The lion is always the king; Wolf, Fox, Bear - court nobles, officials; Lamb, Frog, Ant - "little" people standing at the very bottom of the social ladder: petty officials, peasants. Often the human character endowed with the beast in Krylov's fable merges with its social characteristics, and then the reader faces real social types that exist in society. For example, in the fable "The Education of a Lion" behind the image of the old Lion we see a typical image of the Russian Tsar. Leo trusts to bring up his Lion cub to a representative of another nation, a foreigner; he cannot teach his own son how to govern the state, because he does not know how to do it, he does not know what is really going on in his state. And as a result, the Lion cub grows up the same as his father, a stranger to his people, cut off from the national soil.

So, Krylov's images of animals are not just allegories of any one human trait; many of them convey the many-sided human character, represent a certain class type and are a metaphor for a specific historical person. Krylov creates living, typical, realistic characters, generalizing and typing the very situation in which they act. This is the realism, innovation and durability of the fables of I. A. Krylov.

Need a cheat sheet? Then save - "Images of allegory in Krylov's fables. Literary writings!

ANNOTATION

Kazak Oksana Nikolaevna, Nazarovo, MOU secondary school No. 3, 5A class

"The image of the Wolf in the fables of I.A. Krylov"

supervisor: Kabasheva Oksana Leonidovna, teacher of Russian language and literature.

The purpose of the scientific work: to show how in different fables, through the images of the wolf, Krylov portrayed representatives of various social levels: kings, nobles, officials, etc., what human vices, ridiculed in the form of a wolf, have survived to this day.

Research methods: study, analysis, generalization

Main results scientific research(scientific, practical): a comparison of several fables was made, on the basis of which different characters and images of the allegorical character - the Wolf were identified.

INTRODUCTION

Relevance(slide number 2). Even in ancient Greece, the witty Aesop glorified the fable genre. In Russia in the 18th century, the fable became one of the most beloved genres in literature. Idioms from fables dispersed among the people. The moral of the fable has always unobtrusively taught, passed on wisdom from older generations to younger ones. Ivan Andreevich Krylov became a famous fabulist. Of the majority of children's fairy tales and poems, Krylov's fables are always the best, because they cut into memory and arise throughout life when they meet human vices. Often people can say that Krylov did not write at all for children, but is the meaning of his fables really not clear to children at all? Morality is clearly and competently spelled out, which is why absolutely any child can read Krylov's fables with great benefit. Nowadays, fables are often used by satirists to ridicule any vices in society, their political rivals.

The purpose of the work (slide No. 3) is to show how in different fables, through the images of a wolf, Krylov portrayed representatives of various social levels: kings, nobles, officials, etc., what human vices ridiculed in the image of a wolf have survived to this day.

Hypothesis (slide number 4). The wolf in Krylov's fables is the personification of greed, stupidity, injustice and other human vices.

Tasks (slide number 5):

analyze selected fables,

generalize allegorical images, draw conclusions,

Methods (slide number 6): study, analysis, generalization.

Object of study - fables by I.A. Krylov.

Subject of study - image of the Wolf in Krylov's fables.

Chapter I. ALLEGORY AS A MEANS

EXPRESSION IN A FABLE

We love to read Krylov's Fables since childhood. Various Krylov images are stored in our memory, which often appear in our memory in completely different life situations, and turning to them, we never cease to be amazed at Krylov's talent.

What is a fable? According to the explanatory dictionary, this is a "short, mostly poetic, moralizing text", that is, a fairy tale containing a lesson that is directly related to the inner spiritual qualities of a person based on such moral ideals as kindness, responsiveness, duty, justice and others. . Heroes in fables can be anything or anyone: people, animals, objects or plants that are endowed with various human qualities.

As a trope, allegory is used in poetry, parables, fables. The main way of depicting allegory is a generalization of human concepts; representations are revealed in the images and behavior of animals, plants, mythological and fairy tale characters, inanimate objects and acquire a figurative meaning.

Chapter II. THE IMAGE OF THE WOLF IN KRYLOV'S FABLES

"Wolf and Lamb"

2. "Wolf in the kennel"

3. Wolf and Crane

4. "Wolf and sheep"

5. Wolf and Fox

Let's choose for analysis some of the most famous fables.

1. Krylov's fable "The Wolf and the Lamb" slide number 9) , at first glance, it is a fairly traditional interpretation of a well-known plot. There are two main characters in the fable, whose images are equally important and cannot exist one without the other. If you recall the plot of the work, then already in its elements you can see a clearly expressed author's beginning: the "hungry Wolf" prowls near the stream, hoping to somehow satisfy his hunger, and at this time the Lamb comes to the same stream, who wants to get drunk. .. A "hungry" predator simply cannot refuse the food that has appeared! Shouldn't he really go looking for some more "food" if it has already appeared? The worst thing in his behavior, according to Krylov, is not this. The author, probably, would not have found what he should have condemned the Wolf for if the predator had immediately eaten the unfortunate Lamb? Then, strictly speaking, there would be no fable. To show not just strength, but forces of immoral, hypocritical and this is especially terrible in morally, Krylov portrays the Wolf, who persistently seeks to justify his attitude towards the defenseless Lamb with some, if not moral, then at least "legal" grounds. It is through the use of the epithet "legitimate" that Krylov's moral and aesthetic position is revealed. The very meaning of this word, the very "legality" implies that the Wolf wants to justify his behavior in the eyes of ... the same Lamb with the help of high motives. After all, no one will ever know what exactly happened between the Wolf and the Lamb, no one will care that the Wolf ate the latter - another victim of a ferocious predator ... And if anyone knew, would anyone from that the environment in which the heroes of the fable live, I would dare to condemn.

Wolf character:

- Characterizes a person who has power and uses his position.

In his own words, he shows disregard for the rules and an understanding of his own impunity.

He shows rudeness and anger in addressing the Lamb, calling him both a dog and an unclean snout.

He turns his essence inside out with only the words “You are to blame for the fact that I want to eat”, showing impudence and undisguised shamelessness.

Moral of the fable "The Wolf and the Lamb"

“The weak is always to blame for the strong”… The Wolf and the Lamb is one of the rare fables that begins with morality. Krylov immediately sets us up for what will be discussed. The prevailing opinion that, they say, whoever is stronger is right is shown in all its glory. Well, in fact, what can the Lamb prove to the hungry Wolf? But the Wolf, on the contrary, it would be worthwhile to think, no matter the hour, a force greater than his will be found. How will he speak then? How is the lamb?

What conclusions can be drawn?

Krylov in the fable "The Wolf and the Lamb" describes his favorite topic - lawlessness common people. The human vices ridiculed in the fable must be eradicated from human society, corrected. Krylov understands that a force acting as it pleases is difficult to stop. Like the Wolf, you don’t even need to justify yourself to anyone! I wanted the power of man to work for the restoration of justice.

in a fable "Wolf in the kennel" ( slide No. 10) it is already possible to talk not so much about allegory as about metaphor. In this fable, the image of the wolf refers to Napoleon. You can say for a long time that Napoleon was cunning, dexterous, smart, able to quickly and deftly adapt to the situation. But he did not calculate his capabilities and ended up "in the kennel" instead of the "sheepfold" ...

Moral of the fable "Wolf in the kennel"

Krylov's fable "The Wolf in the Kennel" is a patriotic work about the significant historical events of 1812. The hunter is Kutuzov, the Wolf is Napoleon, but even a detailed knowledge and understanding of history with a comparison of the behavior of these individuals does not fully cover the deep morality of the fable "The Wolf in the Kennel".

In Krylov's fable, much attention is paid to conveying the picturesqueness of all the paintings and the moods of the participants. The alarm in the kennel excites with the use of vivid and figurative expressions: “dogs are eager to fight” ... Moreover, the wolf’s dangerous cunning and resourcefulness are especially clearly described: “I came to put up with you not at all for the sake of a quarrel.” The behavior of the wolf is hypocritical, hiding his evil essence, he is trying to flatter.

Krylov very easily conveys the mind of the Huntsman, showing that he does not even listen to the wolf, because his hypocrisy in an attempt to save his own skin is understandable. Comparing the wolf and the dog, the author prefers the second, whose words become the beginning of the emerging morality: “You are gray, and I, my friend, are gray.”

Correlating the image of the wolf with the entire allegorical meaning of the fable, we immediately guess in it the conqueror Napoleon. But at the same time, the image of the wolf is in no way narrowed down to the image specific person, it is so broad and comprehensive that the fable does not lose its value even outside the context of the era.

In the fable "The Wolf and the Crane" there are two main characters. The wolf in this fable is cunning and treacherous. And the crane is stupid, because he fell for such a trick.

Moral of the fable:

Sometimes it happens that instead of gratitude, insidious people they say that it is not they who should, but we owe them that everything ended so well. Indeed, under other circumstances, the crane could become a dinner for the wolf. Therefore, when helping such people, you should not count on their gratitude. The moral lies much deeper, since the fable says that the crane not only took its nose, but also managed to save its stupid head from the wolf's mouth. Listeners need to learn the lesson that when faced with a cunning and evil person in life, you should not help him, expecting to receive a reward. The wolf in this fable is the personification of deceit and cruelty.

The fable "The Wolf and the Sheep" says that the government of animals decided to protect the sheep and passed a law:

How soon the wolf will start to rage at the herd,

And he will offend the Sheep,

That the Wolf is powerful here Sheep,

I don't understand faces

Grab by the collar and immediately present to the court,

In the neighboring forest or in the forest.

But the wolves still dragged the sheep.

Moral of the fable: At the time of Krylov, there were many laws that protected the rights of only a strong class, and those who were serfs were absolutely powerless. In this fable, such a law is ridiculed, which is impossible to fulfill, and everyone understands that he will not protect the disenfranchised. Strong, i.e. wolves can do as they please, despite the fact that according to the law they are weak, i.e. sheep could deal with offenders themselves. In real life, this is impossible to implement, i.e. such a law is just hypocrisy. The wolf in this fable is the image of a landowner, a nobleman who understands that everything is permitted to him.

The fable "The Wolf and the Fox" tells how the fox, having had enough in the chicken coop, also grabbed it in reserve. Suddenly a hungry wolf comes to her, a cunning fox did not say a word to him in reserve, but offered him to eat hay. Bewildered by the fox's kind words, the Wolf left fooled and hungry.

Morality:

We willingly give

What we do not need ourselves.

We will explain this with a fable,

Then that the truth is more tolerably half open.

The wolf in this fable is the personification of a loser, a naive and stupid person who is easy to fool. He will buy into any kind word or flattery.

CONCLUSION

The writer has many plots borrowed from the works of other fabulists. But Ivan Andreevich's connection with folk art, with the language of folk tales was so close that even these borrowed fables do not sound like translations. After all, the bright, well-aimed, lively Russian language of Krylov could not be borrowed from anyone (slide No. 11).

Krylov's poems, easy to remember, became proverbs, entered the golden fund of folk speech. There are many such proverbs and sayings from his fables in the Russian language: “And the chest just opened” (“Casket”), “You are to blame for the fact that I want to eat” (“The Wolf and the Lamb”), “Your snout is down "(" The Fox and the Marmot ")," Ai, Pug! She is strong to know that she barks at the Elephant ”(“ Elephant and Pug ”),“ And Vaska listens and eats ”(“ The Cat and the Cook ”) and many, many other no less wonderful and expressive.

Krylov - authentic folk writer, an artist of great power, and his influence on Russian literature was deep and positive.

In Krylov's fables, the vices of people are ridiculed unobtrusively through the images of animals. In folk tales, the Wolf is most often the personification of evil. Following the tradition of folklore, Krylov also ascribes various atrocities, deceit, and cruelty to the Wolf. But Krylov's Wolf is also stupid, naive.

So, in Krylov's fables there is an image of the Wolf - greedy, treacherous, cunning, cruel, naive, stupid, and even there is a Wolf in the image of Napoleon.

NIA

Appendix 1. Fables of I.A. Krylov

Wolf and Lamb

With the strong, the weak is always to blame:
That's why in history we hear a lot of examples
But we don't write stories
But about how they say in fables ...

A lamb on a hot day went to the stream to get drunk:
And it's gotta be bad luck
That near those places a hungry wolf roamed.
He sees the lamb, he strives for prey;
But, to give the case a legitimate look and sense,
Screaming: "How dare you, insolent, with an unclean snout
Here is my pure muddy drink
With sand and silt?
For such audacity
I'll rip your head off."
"When the brightest Wolf allows,
I dare to convey that down the stream
From the Lordship of his steps I drink a hundred;
And in vain he will deign to be angry:
I can't make him sick of drinking." -
"That's why I'm lying!
Waste! Have you heard such insolence in the world!
Yes, I remember that you are still in last summer
I was somehow rude here;
I haven't forgotten that, buddy!
"Have mercy, I'm not even a year old yet." -
The lamb speaks. "So it was your brother." -
"I have no brothers." - "So this is godfather.
And, in a word, someone from your own family.
You yourself, your dogs and your shepherds,
You all want me bad
And if you can, then always harm me;
But I will reconcile with you for their sins.
"Oh, what am I to blame?" - "Shut up! I'm tired of listening.
Leisure time for me to sort out your guilt, puppy!
It's your fault that I want to eat."
Said in dark forest Lamb dragged.

Wolf in the kennel

The wolf at night, thinking to climb into the sheepfold,
Went to the kennel.
Suddenly the whole kennel rose up -
Feeling the gray so close to the bully,
The dogs are flooded in the stables and are eager to fight;
Houndsmen shout: "Oh, guys, thief!" -
And in a moment the gate is locked;
In a minute, the kennel became hell.
They run: another with a club,
Another with a gun.
“Fire!” they shout, “fire!” They came with fire.
My Wolf sits, huddled in a corner with his back.
Clicking teeth and bristling wool,
With his eyes, it seems that he would like to eat everyone;
But, seeing what is not in front of the herd
And what comes at last
Him to comb for the sheep, -
My trickster has gone
In negotiations
And he began like this: “Friends! why all this noise?
I, your old matchmaker and godfather,
I came to put up with you, not at all for the sake of a quarrel;
Let's forget the past, set a common mood!
And I, not only will not touch the local herds,
But he himself is happy to squabble for them with others
And with a wolf's oath I affirm
What am I ... " - "Listen, neighbor, -
Here the hunter interrupted in response, -
You are gray, and I, buddy, are gray,
And I have long known your wolf nature;
That is why my custom is:
With wolves, otherwise do not make the world,
Like skinning them off.”
And then he released a flock of hounds on the Wolf.

wolf and crane

That wolves are greedy, everyone knows;

Wolf, eat, never

Doesn't understand bones

In the new literary context of the XIX century. It was not for nothing that Krylov focused on the fable. In the fable tradition, the presence of “pretext and its play is, in fact, the law of the genre. Krylov remained faithful to the creative principle of the 18th century, mastered by him in dramaturgy. However, the processing of finished texts when creating their own works was not only individual feature Krylov.

In The Romance in Letters, Pushkin considers essentially the same way of creating a new text that Krylov used all his life. Pushkin attributes the following reasoning to his hero: “How strange it is to read in 1829 a novel written in 775. The incident is well confused - but Belkourg speaks sideways, but Charlotte answers wryly. Clever man could take ready plan, ready-made characters, correct the style and nonsense, supplement the omissions - and a wonderful original novel would have come out. This is how Pushkin builds his "Tales of Belkin" in the next 1830. In the post-romantic era, the artistic code of the past and, it would seem, of an outdated age is capable of generating new meanings.

Pushkin always felt for Krylov special interest, and in the 1830s. not only Krylov's memories of Pugachev rebellion or other eyewitness accounts of a bygone era. Krylov was not a museum relic. In him 18th tradition V. continued to live, organically developing and changing along with life itself, revealing their inner possibilities to the new literary era. Krylov was the link connecting the 18th century with the 19th. No wonder Krylov and Pushkin understood each other so well. Main Feature in Krylov's methods of qualitative transformation and use of folk elements - in a sharp change in their semantic and stylistic functions.

At the same time, Krylov's style is characterized by a new method of interpenetration of the style of the author's narration and the style of "inner speech" of the characters, which largely determined the development of realistic styles of Russian art. literature XIX V. The rudiments of forms of "improperly direct" or "experienced" speech can also be found in Russian literature of the previous era. But as a deep artistically conscious technique, this method of constructing the author's style began to be cultivated only with early XIX century, having received a peculiar and subtle development in the work of Krylov, Zhukovsky, Pushkin and Gogol.

Here are the related lines from Krylov's fable "Two Doves": This dove touched the speech:

It's a pity brother, but the desire to fly is great:

It interferes with both reasoning and feeling [...]

Here our wanderer flies; suddenly meet rain and thunder;

Beneath him, like an ocean, the steppe turns blue all around.

Where to go? Fortunately, the dry oak caught my eye,

Somehow nested, our Dove pressed against him […]

He trembles, breaks, beats;

Fortunately, the network is old: somehow it broke through,

Only sprained the leg and crushed the wing!

But not before them: he rushes away without memory.

Here, worse than that trouble, trouble over your head!

Wherever the evil hawk came from;

My dove did not see the light!

From the hawk of the forces of the latter waves.

Oh! strength in short! completely exhausted!

Already the claws of predatory over him are dissolved;

Already the cold plows into it from wide wings.

This technique, contributing to the vivid picturesqueness and drama of the image, expanding the stream of lively colloquial speech as part of the narrative style, merges in Krylov's work with the technique of internal dialogization of the author's tale, inherited from the Karamzin school, but received from Krylov a vivid realistic expressiveness.

For example, in the fable "Two Doves":

They did not see how time flew by;

They were sad, but never bored.

Well, it seems, where would you like Or from a sweetheart, or from a friend?

No, one of them decided to wander - to fly ...

It is in connection with this new Krylov principle of artistic and realistic reflection of life, which requires the wide use of the most diverse elements of living folk speech, imposing on the writer the duty to involve in the style of poetic depiction all everyday terminology, all the details of designations characteristic of everyday, life language, that the most imaginary protractedness of Krylov's exposition, which seemed to Zhukovsky a defect in Krylov's style.

New methods of narration and depiction, based on the semantics of a real everyday language with its different styles, either approaching bookish speech, or going deep into oral folk speech, were associated with the method of dramatic reproduction of an action, fact, object in their life dynamics, in their connections with other phenomena and things. Therefore, widely known and commonly used expressions of different styles and genres of the book and spoken language, regardless of their belonging to the system of the middle syllable, are involved by Krylov in the style of the fable, in the language fiction and are located within the same work in such combinations and combinations that were not characteristic of the styles of classicism. In the same fable by Krylov “The Lion and the Mosquito”, next to the picturesque and expressive expressions of everyday language, as if directly reflecting life facts and phenomena in their individual concreteness, there are also abstract bookish and traditional literary phrases and designations. For example:

Lion showed contempt for the mosquito dry […]

And calls the Lion to a deadly battle.

From Achilles suddenly becomes Omir.

These new forms of expression, developed by Krylov and partly already prepared by Novikov, Radishchev and Derzhavin, marked not only the complete disintegration of the system of three styles of the 18th century, but also a departure from recognizing the middle style as the central core new system Russian literary language. The contours and distinctive features of the new system of the Russian literary language were even brighter and wider in the work of Griboyedov, Pushkin, Gogol, Belinsky and Lermontov, in the language of leading figures in fiction and magazine prose of the 20-30s of the 19th century.

In the complex and multifaceted process of the formation of a new system of the Russian literary language, several stages are distinguished. The most important of them, which led to the disclosure of the national norm of the Russian literary language and its folk foundations, is most closely associated with the names of Krylov, Griboyedov and Pushkin.

As always, in the spontaneous regrouping of linguistic phenomena, due to various cultural, historical and socio-political reasons, separate, advanced plans for new stylistic formations are first put forward, bearing the grain and the harbinger of the future system. At the beginning of the XIX century. shoots of new Russian folk styles artistic speech most noticeable in the language of Krylov's fables. Here - at first in a narrow genre circle - peculiar principles and possibilities of intensive - on the basis of folk leaven - mixing and combining all those diverse styles of Russian literature, which, after Lomonosov's theory and practice, were distributed into three different literary and linguistic categories - high, mediocre and simple style, were outlined. . Here, oral folk Russian speech with a motley range of its class and professional tonalities and the language of folklore with its rich artistic tradition and the wisdom tested for centuries broke through in a wide stream into the styles of Russian book literature and, having formed with them new alloys, new amalgams, showed their miraculous power in the samples of the new Russian literary language.

Krylov's fables were already perceived by contemporaries as "genuinely Russian in both meaning and expression", as "extremely Russian". In them, everyone felt "the spirit of the Russian people, the bend of his mind, the warehouse of his speech." "Even in translations and imitations, Krylov knew how to remain Russian."

According to V.G. Belinsky, Krylov, with his fables, “fully expressed the whole side of the Russian national spirit... And all this is expressed in such original Russian images and expressions that are not transmitted to any language in the world; all this represents such an inexhaustible wealth of idioms, Russianisms that make up the national physiognomy of the language, its original means and original, native wealth - that Pushkin himself is not complete without Krylov in this regard.

There were special reasons that led to the fact that it was in Krylov's fables that the features of the new national-Russian verbal and artistic style appeared more sharply, brighter and more fully.

The style of the Russian fable developed in close connection with the history of the Russian proverb and saying. The fable originally belonged to the sphere of a simple folk syllable. "Piitika fables" most of all allowed liberties, which was facilitated by the free verse, which was established in it, close to colloquial speech. At the same time, "the fable requires the poetry of the mind."

The Russian fable has become a living response to everyday life with its rough language, with its various voices. She demanded the naturalness of thoughts and images. Aiming to be an expression folk spirit and approaching folklore, it at the same time had the entire arsenal means of expression poetic language. Within its limits, the fusion of oral folk speech and folk poetry with the achievements of literary and linguistic culture.

The fable genre was consecrated by the authorities of Aesop, Phaedrus, La Fontaine. The motives of many Russian fables, their plots are repeated from century to century, passed from one writer to another. But the forms of presentation of the same topic are changeable and heterogeneous. “The main thing in a fable is a story ...” He “should be created by a poet; it constitutes its character, strength and glory. A story in a fable is like a syllable in prose.

The fable became a creative laboratory in which the originality of the individual style was honed and the properties of the Russian language were tested. For a fable, language and style are "a great thing, if not the main thing." That is why it is in the history of the fable language that the variety of methods of mixing and merging is most clearly and brightly indicated. literary styles with the poetry of living folk speech. The history of the fable, as in miniature, reflects the history of the simple and middle styles of Russian literature. language XVIII and the beginning of the 19th century. and their role in the creation of a new system of the all-Russian national language.

The style of Krylov's fable is the pinnacle of Russian national achievements along the way.

About the language of Krylov's fables, Acad. A.V. Nikitenko:

“The amazing ability to collect oneself, to concentrate in one thought or dimension, with an unusual separation and clarity of concepts, gave the author the opportunity to group and withstand all the particulars in the most concise and few features, and a subtle knowledge of the language in all its modifications and formations, from the highest to the most inferior, endowed him with ways to give these features such precision and plastic appearance, as if they were carved from copper. Often one short turn of speech was enough for him to paint a picture, one word, or, so to speak, a stroke of his brush to give this picture a certain shade, color. And as he thought and expressed himself according to the thoughts and hearts of his people, it is not surprising that many of the turns of his speech soon turned into folk proverbs and sayings.

In terms of depth and variety of reflections of live colloquial speech, in terms of the breadth of coverage of social varieties of oral vernacular from all genres of Russian literature XVIII and the beginning of the 19th century. only comedy and satire could compete with the fable. But the fable in this respect had a clear advantage over both satire and comedy. In the fable, the voice of the narrator, then teaching, then accusing and indignant, then reproducing someone else's speech of the author directly and openly sounded - among the voices of various fable characters. The fable is a mobile and syncretic genre. She combined elements of a story, a fairy tale, an essay, a dramatic scene, a public satire, and a personal epigram. The genre limits of the fable in the works of I.A. Krylov.

A.A. Bestuzhev in the article “A Look at the Old and New Literature of Russia” spoke about Krylov as follows: “His every fable is a satire, all the more powerful because it is short and told with an air of innocence. When you read his poems, you don't even notice that they are stacked - and this is the height of art. It is a pity that Krylov gave the theater only two comedies.

Krylov's fable language is endowed with enormous generalizing power. It revealed the breadth of the semantic volume of folk expressions and their sharp, tenacious imagery.

This amazing fusion of Krylov's individual style with the all-Russian style of national expression is explained by the fact that the image of the narrator of the fable in Krylov is immersed in the sphere of Russian folk thinking, the national Russian psychological structure, folk expressive assessments.

In Krylov's fable, the expression of the story is constantly changing. It follows from the situation, it is prompted by objects and their typical assessments in colloquial, everyday language. It seems that the narrator only skillfully combines the expressive colors of folk speech, constantly changing his point of view, taking different poses, most often ironic, For example, in the fable "Squirrel":

Squirrel has finally become and old,

And Leo got bored: it’s time for her to retire.

Belka was resigned,

And sure enough, a whole cartload of nuts was sent to her.

Glorious nuts, which the world has not seen;

All for selection: nut to nut - a miracle!

Only one thing is bad -

Squirrel hasn't had teeth for a long time.

The narrator's lively interest in the events and persons depicted is reflected in the affective judgments that are inserted every now and then about the incidents described. These judgments are values embodied in walking folk sayings and familiar sayings, correspond to the point of view of the characters. They are natural and popular. For example, in the fable "The Bear in the Nets":

Bear

Got caught in the net.

Jokes on death from afar as you want boldly:

But death up close is another matter entirely.

Bear doesn't want to die.

When the narrator takes the point of view of the characters themselves, then the expression sympathetic to them clothes the forms of expression, as if determining their choice and selection. Events and objects in this case are named and depicted from the point of view of the actors themselves. Their evaluations, their judgments, definitions are reflected both in the choice of expressions and in their connection, in the very order of words, in the direction of stylistic inversions. For example, in the fable "Golik":

Dirty Golik got a great honor...

Already he will not have sex in the kitchens of revenge;

He was entrusted with the master's caftans.

But this magnification of the golik, which is reflected in the promotion of the pronoun he - to him in first place, in the intensifying particle already, in the contrasting symmetry of the word arrangement of the two last verses, is ironically illuminated by the narrator's parenthesized explanation:

(As you can see, the servants were drunk).

The narrator suddenly, with a sudden change of expression, ironically exposes the truth. The tone of his speech breaks.

This expressive contrast between the main chain of the narrative style and the author's notes, sometimes put in brackets, this revealing function of brackets is one of Krylov's favorite stylistic devices. In the fable "Fish Dance":

"Great sovereign! Here they do not live - paradise.

We only prayed to the gods for this,

So that your priceless days will be extended.

(And meanwhile the fish were fighting in the pan.)

The tale expression in Krylov's fable style is ironically contradictory. The author's notes placed in brackets are especially contrastingly crafty. In the fable "Donkey":

My Donkey pouted: he began to put on airs, be proud (Of course, he heard about orders)

And he thinks that now he has become a big gentleman.

But a new rank came out to the Donkey, poor thing, sideways (That can serve as a lesson to more than one Donkey).

Overflows and contrasts of expression in the language of Krylov's fables are aggravated different types mixing the narrative style with someone else's speech, with the speech of the characters.

In the fable story, the forms of "unproperly direct" or "experienced" speech, characteristic of the derived heroes, imperceptibly intervene. Someone else's speech enhances the democratic unpretentiousness, the "common people" of the fable language, its colloquial syntactic structure. For example, in the fable "Three Men":

Three Men went into the village to spend the night.

Here, in St. Petersburg, they hunted as a cart;

We worked, took a walk and now kept the way home to our homeland.

And since the little man does not like to sleep skinny,

Then our guests asked themselves to have dinner.

In the village, what kind of pickle:

They put an empty cup of cabbage soup on the table,

Yes, bread was served, yes, what was left, porridge.

It wouldn’t be in St. Petersburg, but that’s not what we are talking about:

Anything is better than going to bed hungry.

Mobility, variability of expression and, at the same time, its peculiar detachment from personal predilections give Krylov's fable style the character of realistic objectivity. The narrative is directly correlated with the corresponding life episodes, which are, as it were, reproduced in their very course and development. The author often appears as an eyewitness or participant in events that quickly unfold before him. His point of view either merges with the perception of the characters, or separates from it.

It is curious that the perplexity of the imaginary reader in Krylov's fable is addressed not to the author, but to the heroes of the fable. For example, in the fable "The Peasant and the Dog":

A man, a big housekeeper,

Prosperous house owner

The dog hired and guarded the yard And baked bread And moreover, weeded and watered the seedlings -

What nonsense did he come up with?

The reader says - there is no warehouse,

Let them guard the yard;

Yes, you have seen that where dogs baked bread. Or watered the seedlings?

Reader! I would be wrong around

When I would say "yes" - yes, the point here is not

And the fact that our Watchdog took it all for it And he said to himself a fee for three.

In the language of Krylov's fables, a common type of colloquial Russian language was crystallized, rich in expressive colors, saturated with folk images and proverbs, saturated with the poetry of oral folk speech, therefore, more democratic and more expressive than the salon style of the "middle class", which was cultivated by Russian Europeans from the school of Karamzin .

The language of Krylov's fables had a tremendous formative influence on the new stylistic system of the Russian literary language, not only because it embodied the main trends in the development of the Russian literary language in the 19th century with extraordinary depth and clarity, but also because it contained with conquering power and amazing the ingenious verbal skill of Krylov himself, as a great folk poet, was revealed in artistic fullness.

Acad. I.I. Sreznevsky wrote about the expressiveness of Krylov’s language in the following way: “You can, so to speak, chemically separate what exactly Krylov acted and acts on his readers, giving freedom to the expressiveness of the language. It is possible to separate words in his language as true images of his concepts and images: both beautiful and diverse and rich is his choice of words, so rich that from Krylov’s fables alone you can choose quite big dictionary Russian language, incomplete most of all in the subject matter, since Krylov did not happen to talk about many subjects. It is possible to separate in his language a lot of turns, special ways of combining words and, at the same time, different modifications of words: in this respect, Krylov's language is, if not richer, then not poorer than words. It is possible to separate in it a huge number of expressions, those connections of words that are inseparable for the mind in the same way as the syllables of one word: many of them are the old property of the people, etched from some of its layers by foreign languages and foreign customs; many arose from the soul of Krylov, and the roads with their expressiveness are no less than those. It is possible to separate in the language of Krylov a lot of proverbs and sayings, and those taken from the people and given to them by the people, do not differ from each other in any way, if you do not know that one or the other of them was in use before Krylov, and one or the other went to move only after Krylov. Behind all this easily separable remains something that is not distinguished by any chemical decomposition: the connectedness of the parts into one whole, the vitality of the living, without which Krylov would not be Krylov, without which no collections of words, phrases and expressions, sayings and proverbs can replace his fables. included in his fables, no matter how seductive forms you give them. That is why Krylov is great in the expressiveness of the language, that for him the riches of Russian speech were not someone else's good, one way or another picked up, but the property of his soul.

Krylov not only actively owned all the means artistic expression, which Russian speech culture had at the beginning of the 19th century, but also significantly enriched the treasury of Russian literary style. The use of folk speech in the style of Krylov turned out to be deep and effective because, in assessing its poetic possibilities and in its artistic use, Krylov relied both on his ingenious instinct for the Russian language and on all the experience of previous Russian literature.

Behind many verses of Krylov's fables stands in the background a long string of verses of the previous tradition that they deny. Against the background of old stylistic constructions, the artistic novelty and individual originality of Krylov's images and designs stood out especially impressively and sharply. An illustration can be the lines from the fable "The Donkey and the Nightingale", dedicated to the description of the art of the nightingale:

Here the Nightingale began to show his art:

Snapped, whistled In a thousand frets, pulled, shimmered;

That tenderly he weakened

That small fraction suddenly crumbled through the grove.

In these lines, Krylov offers a new, original stylistic solution to an artistic task that was of particular interest to poets of the 18th and early 19th centuries - to give a figurative description of the music of a nightingale's voice. It can be proved that in Krylov's style here, with unusual sharpness and independence, those contrasting and, in any case, distant, various forms of expression are combined and transformed, which - in relation to this topic - were established, on the one hand, in Derzhavin's style, and on the other - in the style of Karamzin and his school 23*.

Already M.V. Lomonosov in his "Rhetoric" (§ 58) places a description of the singing of the nightingale, partly inspired by Pliny the Younger 24*:

“What a great surprise this is worthy! in just a small neck of a tender bird, there is only tension and strength of voice. For when, evoked by the warmth of the spring day, it flies up onto the branch of a tall tree, suddenly the voice strains without rest, then sorts through it in various ways, then strikes with a break, then twists up and down, then suddenly it utters a pleasant song and between a strong elevation rumbles gently, whistles, clicks, leads, wheezes, crushes, groans tiredly, swiftly, thickly, thinly, sharply, stupidly, smoothly, curly, pitifully, evenly.

This style of Lomonosov's description, which itself depends on the style of Pliny, determines the images and grammatical forms of the depiction of nightingale singing in Russian lyric poetry. XVIII style V.

The description of the singing of the nightingale was one of the favorite topics of the poetic language, and a rare one among the poets of the 18th and early 19th centuries. did not undertake to resolve this stylistic problem. Yes, Mich. Popov in his "Leisure" includes in the parable "The Nightingale" such verses depicting the singing of the nightingale:

Grumbled, crushed, squealed, curly, thick, thin,

Equally, inertly suddenly, suddenly languidly, gently, loudly,

Moaned, wheezed, clicked, creaked, pulled, wagged,

And with such a difference he captivated people and birds.

It is easy to notice in the style of this description the same tendency as in Lomonosov's, to designate the "thousand modes" of nightingale singing with professional verb designations or a cluster of emotional adverbs. At the same time, except for squealing, creaking, pulling, wagging, all other verbs are taken from the description of Lomonosov, as well as all adverbs, except for obliquely, languidly, heavily, loudly.

Thus, Derzhavin borrows only four verbs from Lomonosov's description:

You flip, twist, roll […] and moan […]

The epithet "tear-off" and "swiftness, pleasantness" also goes back to Lomonosov's style. But Derzhavin owns a lyrical, figurative representation of the effect of nightingale singing on man and nature. And in general, Derzhavin’s entire description of the nightingale’s singing takes on a more abstract character (cf. “loudness, liveliness, clarity”, “swiftness, pleasantness, brevity”).

Derzhavin twice more in his lyrics depicts the singing of a nightingale. In the anacreontic song Nightingale in a Dream, Derzhavin does without words with the sound r, trying to show "the abundance, flexibility, lightness of the Russian language and its ability to express the most tender feelings."

Here the voice of the nightingale is sung like this:

It sounded, then it was given,

He groaned, then he smiled,

In hearing from afar he, -

And in the arms of Kalista Songs, sighs, clicks, whistles Sweetened the sweet dream.

In the play The Abode of Virtue, when describing the singing of the nightingale, Derzhavin uses some of the same images and expressions that are found in his poem The Nightingale:

... Sounds jerky

Thunder rolls after thunder

And he forces himself to listen to nature;

Then, tired

His quieter, quieter voice As if sedately descends And, groaning sweetly, falls silent in delight

Ya.K. Grotto compared with Derzhavin's verse:

And he forces himself to listen to nature -

verses of the Krylov's fable:

Everyone then listened to the Favorite and the singer of Aurora.

One of the Radishchev poets, I.I. Chernyavsky, in the poem "Mistake" the singing of the nightingale is also described. In the style of description, Lomonosov's expressions are mixed with the phraseology of the sentimental-lyrical style:

nature's sweet-voiced singer,

Shut up, calm down, sigh, zanoet,

Hidden in the density of branches,

Rattle, whistle again;

The anthem is harmonious, sonorous and consonant

Rumbles, whistles, rattles, clicks,

The child nightingale sang.

Spins, crushes, sorts out -

Languishing, sighing, moaning,

In the forests, in the darkness of the night of an idle Spring, a diverse singer Grumbles, and whistles, and thunders ...

Obviously starting from the stylistic resolution of the theme of the nightingale, which was proposed by Lomonosov, struggling with the forms of the Lomonosov language, Karamzin eliminates from the description of the nightingale's singing all professional and everyday designations of its knees and frets. In 1793, Karamzin wrote the poem "To the Nightingale" in four-foot chorea. Here it is depicted in an elegiac style, as "feelings ache and languish from harmony" of nightingale singing. Emotional epithets are attached to the nightingale. The image of the singing itself is absent altogether.

Sing in the darkness of the quiet grove,

Gentle, meek nightingale!

Sing in the light of the moonlit night!

Your voice is dear to my soul 5 ().

This poem by Karamzin had a huge impact on the style of sentimental-elegiac lyrics associated with the theme of the nightingale. The development of the same style, but with the introduction of a contrasting theme, is observed, for example, in the poem by A. V ... a (A. Voikov) “To my nightingale”

Do not torment your hearts with a languid song, nightingale!

It's sad to live in captivity

It's sad to live without friends...

In a bitter and evil lot, You are not dear to my soul.

It is hard to doubt that a variation of the same style, the same meter and rhythm, but with a bias towards Russian motives, is also a poem by I.A. Krylov "To the nightingale":

Why is this whistle dull,

A resident of the groves, a friend of the fields?

Not from the city, my dear,

Have you arrived, nightingale?

Prof. G.A. Gukovsky pointed out that in "Hippocrene" there is a poem "To the Nightingale", close to Krylov's.

But Karamzin also has another poem, The Nightingale (1796). This poem is written in iambic tetrameter. It is clearly opposed to Derzhavin's Nightingale. It also describes the singing of the nightingale - without the use of at least one professional, everyday term:

What wonderful art!

As waves crash after wave

At first, like a distant flute

Easy, free, without barriers,

Sing softly, gently start

So fast are your roulades

And you incline everything to attention;

merge with one another;

At first, a pleasant whistle and trill

You rattle ... and suddenly you weaken;

You murmur like a languid stream;

And revitalizing the feeling with a feeling,

With gracious meekness you sigh

You strive your song with the river:

Like a gentle May breeze.

Krylov includes in his style both the Karamzin word art and a comparison with a distant flute. The verses echo Karamzin's style:

That gently he weakened

And languid in the distance resounded with a flute.

But Krylov also retained the verbs, ascending to Lomonosov, adopted by Derzhavin, he clicked and whistled. He uses the verb “pulled” used by M. Popov, introduces the verb “shimmered” (cf. in Derzhavin “rolls”; in Derzhavin and Karamzin also - “murmur”). In addition, the verb “crush” found in Lomonosov, Popov, Chernyavsky and others to designate one of the modes of nightingale singing was replaced by Krylov in a poetic way:

That small fraction suddenly scattered through the groves.

It is clear that Krylov excluded the Karamzin roulades, but instead it appeared folk expression"in a thousand ways".

Krylov's free iambic served as a flexible tool for distributing expressive power. The contraction and lengthening of the multi-foot iambic verse corresponded to the diversity of the expressive flow of speech. V.A. Zhukovsky found that in the fable "The Hermit and the Bear" verses

fly "fly with the fly":

A fly has landed on a friend's nose -

He cheated on a friend -

Looked -

And the fly on the cheek - drove - and the fly again

On a friend's nose.

Here, the consonances and conciseness of syntagmas, instantly replacing one another and moving in intonationally connected pairs, convey the whirling and flights of a fly.

Immediately after these verses “there are others, depicting the contrary, the slowness of the bear. Here all the words are long, the verses stretch:

Here is Mishenka, without saying a word,

A weighty cobblestone in the paws raked,

He squatted down, does not translate the spirit,

He himself thinks: shut up, I’ll blow you up!

And, a friend has a fly on his forehead,

What strength is there, grab a friend with a stone in the forehead.

All these words: Mishenka, weighty, cobblestone, squatting, translating, thinking, at a friend's, ambushed perfectly depict slowness and caution: five long, heavy verses are quickly followed by a half-line:

Grab a friend in the forehead.

This lightning, this is a blow. Here is true painting and what an opposite last picture with the first.

Gogol pointed to the same property of Krylov's language, to its expressive figurativeness:

“You can’t grasp his verse either ... It sounds where the subject sounds; moves where the subject is moving; it grows stronger where the thought grows stronger, and suddenly becomes light, where it gives way to the frivolous chatter of a fool. His speech is submissive and obedient to thought and flies like a fly, now suddenly appearing in a long, six-fingered verse, now in a quick one-foot, calculated number of syllables, it betrays its most inexpressible spirituality. It is worth recalling the majestic conclusion of the fable "Two Barrels":

A great man is only visible in deeds,

And he thinks his thoughts firmly Without noise.

Here, from the very placement of the words, the magnitude of a person who has gone into himself is heard, as it were.

According to P.A. Pletnev, Krylov, for the depiction of an object and the embodiment of ideas, “chooses with amazing intelligibility and accuracy only them and their characteristic expressions, turns of speech, arrangement of words, even their sounds.”

Krylov, with extraordinary clarity in the style of his fables, showed all the diversity and richness of the visual and expressive means of the living Russian language.

Very subtle and artistic in Krylov's style are the methods of expressive sound expression of natural phenomena and the language of animals. In the fable “Leaves and Roots”, the whisper and babble of leaves, or rather sheets, is conveyed by a skillful selection of words with noisy, toothy, whistling phonemes:

"Who are you there?

Leaves rustled on wood.

In the fable “The Fly and the Travellers”, not only the rhythm of the fussy throwing of the fly, but also its buzzing is reproduced in syntax and in the euphony of speech.

In the fable "The Pig" with inimitable comicality, the grunting speech of the pig is symbolized by rhymes - consonances on p:

Khavronya grunts: Well, right they flog nonsense,

I did not notice any wealth:

Everything is just manure and rubbish,

And, it seems, no longer sparing the snout,

I dug up the whole back yard there.

In the fable "The Pestilence of Beasts", the lowing of a humble ox consists of syntagmas instrumented on ы and on у - with preceding dental or labial-nasal phonemes:

You sin. Tom is five years old when stern in winter. We were skinny.

The evil one prompted me to sin;

You couldn't find a loan from anyone,

From the haystack at the priest, I pulled a tuft of hay.

M. Lobanov remarked about these verses: “In the speech of an ox, we hear lowing, and so natural that its words cannot be replaced by other sounds.” The expressive expressiveness and figurativeness of Krylov's fable style is based not only on the variety of rhythm, not only on sound metaphors and onomatopoeia, but also on peculiar forms of syntactic symmetry. Krylov widely uses the technique of repeating the same word in correlative and rhythmically homogeneous adjacent syntagmas either to reproduce tempo, rhythm, increase in action, or to expressively illuminate the character and his changing attitude to action, or to ironically demonstrate alternation different actions with the same subject or object, or for contrasting actions. In these cases, the image becomes dynamic, and its reproduction reaches the power of almost direct perception, almost material tangibility. In the compared syntagmas, their grammatical structure is sometimes of the same type, sometimes symmetrically modified.

The fox sees the cheese, - The fox was captivated by the cheese ...

("A Crow and a fox*)

The lion turns his head, the lion shakes his mane:

But our hero carries his own:

Either it will clog in the nose of the Lion, then it will bite in the ear of the Lion.

Lion pissed off...

("The Lion and the Mosquito")

Pushes the horse back, throws the horse sideways;

The Horse set off with all four legs To the glory.

And finally, my poor man turned gray,

My poor man has lost weight;

Like his gold, My poor man turned yellow.

("Poor rich man *)

The fox became fuller,

The fox became fatter

But things didn't get any clearer.

("The Peasant and the Fox")

I crawled up a tree, the snake sat on it,

My snake sang like a beautiful nightingale.

I could force the cuckoo to honor the Nightingale,

But I could not make a Nightingale Cuckoo.

("The Cuckoo and the Eagle")

Why, without fear of sin,

The cuckoo praises the Rooster?

Because he praises the Cuckoo.

("The Cuckoo and the Rooster")

With such a wealth of phonetic and intonation-rhythmic devices of artistic expression, the expressive consonance of words in Krylov's verse cannot be perceived as a poetic accident. Punching convergence of homonymous expressions achieves sharp semantic effects. Here, both the unexpectedness of semantic comparison and the novelty of morphological awareness of elements can be effective and significant. In some cases, consonances enhance the reproducing, pictorial function verbal image:

"Have mercy!" says: “At your command, I am called a nightingale in the forest here;

And they dare to laugh at my stump.

("The Cuckoo and the Eagle")

Boreas roars and tears into tatters of the Sail.

("Guns and Sails")

And tightly so he cracked on the kingdom,

What a quagmire the state has gone.

("The Frogs Asking for the King")

But at night my madman wandered into the thicket,

That he could not move back or forward.

("Owl and Donkey")

This also includes punning combinations of words of the same root, which have already diverged somewhat in their meanings:

I read everything

And I read

The better: to blow them up with a spade, with a plow or a plow.

("Gardener and Philosopher")

A pig once wormed its way into the manor's yard;

Around the stables there and kitchens piled up;

In a litter, in manure, she wallowed;

In the slops up to the ears I bought to my fill:

And from the guests home Came a pig pig.

("Pig)

But besides these diverse and stylistically sophisticated means of poetic expressiveness and inventiveness, the innermost semantic forms of artistic metamorphization are also original in Krylov's language.

Pushkin also noted the boldness of expressions as a characteristic feature of Krylov's style. In the outline of the article "There are different kinds of courage" Pushkin quoted bold expressions from the writings of Derzhavin, Zhukovsky, Calderon and Milton. And next to them from Krylov's fable "The Ant": "Krylov says about the brave ant that:

He even walked alone on a spider.

Krylov's language is very rich in such bold expressions. The structure of the image in Krylov always rests on a witty, new, unexpected, but deeply justified convergence of outwardly dissimilar meanings and concepts. At the same time, this boldness of expression stems from the deep penetration of the fabulist into the figurative element of the folk language. Krylov's bold expressions are alien to sophistication. They seem to be a natural, albeit unforeseen, result of the semantic merging of familiar but previously unrelated words and phrases. For example, in the fable "Donkey" about a donkey with a call:

Wherever my noble lord goes,

Incessantly ringing around the neck a new rank ...

And in moralizing

But an important rank on a rogue is like a bell:

The sound from it is both loud and distant.

In the fable "Parnassus"

And the new choir of singers brought such game,

As if the convoy had moved,

In which a thousand unoiled wheels.

No less original and deep in Krylov's fables is the stylistic application of the grammatical forms of folk speech and no less artistically expressive here are new formations according to the Russian folk model.

In the language of Krylov's fables, with unprecedented freedom and breadth, an expressive game of tense forms of the Russian verb was revealed. The effects of stylistic replacements of some forms of time with others, subtle semantic nuances associated with transitions and transfers of tenses of the verb, the wide inclusion of colloquial, folk forms of expression of the verb tense give the language of Krylov's fable liveliness, figurativeness and dramatic sharpness. This is especially evident when comparing Krylov's fables with their relatives from other writers. For example, A.E. Izmailov in the fable "Decrepit Lion" the whole story consists of a chain of forms of the past tense perfect look to depict actions of a non-durable and imperfect form - to represent actions and states of a continuous or multiple:

In the cave, the decrepit Lion lay before the end...

Suddenly, with rage, the killers ran to him,

Half-dead attacked:

A huge, terrible bull Pricked him with horns;

The horse beat with its hooves, and the wolf bit with its teeth ...

Not so in Krylov's fable "The aged lion." Here in the narration, the plan of the past (represented by the forms of the past tense of the perfect form with a touch of effectiveness) emotionally merges with the pictorial present. In the description itself, the perspective of the past continuous is delimited from the present according to the principle of contrast:

Mighty Lion, storm of the forests,

Comprehended by old age, lost strength.

There is no fortress in the claws, there are no those sharp teeth,

How did he terrify enemies,

And the frail legs hardly carry him.

And what hurts the most

Not only is he now fearless for animals,

But everyone, for the old grievances of Leo, in revenge,

The interruption insults him.

Here, the verbs, sometimes associated with animate, sometimes inanimate producers, get the meaning of either an active action or a state (“And the frail legs hardly drag themselves themselves”). Emotional adjectives ("sicker", "not fearful"), expressing a qualitative state, become in a row with them. And then - there are new expressive variations of the forms of time: the future of the perfect form to denote an instantaneous and repetitive action and an unexpected present with a particle like:

That proud horse beats him hard with a hoof,

Then the wolf will burst with a tooth,

Then the ox will butt with a sharp horn.

A poor lion in only great grief,

Squeezing the heart, endures everything and waits for the evil death,

Only expressing his grumbling with a deaf and languid roar,

As he sees that the donkey is there, they strain his chest,

Going to kick him

And he only looks at the place where it would be more painful.

Against this background, the aoristic meaning of the past perfect stands out especially impressively and sharply:

"Oh Gods!" cried out the groaning Lion then:

"In order not to live up to this shame,

Send me one end soon!

As my death is not evil,

Anything is easier than being hurt by a donkey.”

It is easy to see that such a figurative use is combined with a variety of modal shades in the forms of the verb, which is alien to the language of A.E. Izmailov.

In order to make it clearer how deep in the history of the Russian literary language the stylistic tradition of fable narration, destroyed by Krylov, went, we can also cite a fable by V.K. Trediakovsky "The Elderly Lion"

Coming into old age, Leo became immensely weak:

And having lost his strength, he dragged a little members.

Then the cattle not only despised him,

But they themselves had already attacked him;

And so, that already a donkey in the cattle of all, like a serf, He was not ashamed to lie down in the forehead with a hoof.

Krylov uses all the variety of colloquial and folk-descriptive methods of expressing the forms of the past tense.

In the fable “The Frogs Asking for the King”, the range of forms of expression of the past tense is even wider and more diverse. Here, to express the daring arbitrariness of actions, folk descriptive forms from dai and infinitive are boldly used.

Then they dared to crawl up to the Tsar with devotion:

First, face down before the Tsar;

And there, who is bolder, let me sit sideways to him;

Let me try to sit next to him;

And there, which are still far away,

They sit back to the Tsar.

The king endures everything by his grace.

After a while, you'll see who wants to

He jumps on him...

In the fable system of Krylov, the most diverse forms of expressing the temporal and modal shades of the Russian verb are used and the expressive possibilities inherent in them are revealed. Here is a selection of descriptive forms of the past tense from a particle and an infinitive to express a rapidly begun and impetuously flowing chaotic action.

The monkey decided to work:

I found a chump and, well, fiddling with it.

("Monkey")

Seeing the Elephant, well, rush at him And bark, and squeal, and tear.

("Elephant and Pug")

And new friends well cuddle,

Well kissing;

They do not know with joy, to whom they should be equated.

("Dog Friendship")

In the Monkey's fable:

The beauties are gone. For dear guests A great number of nets are spread out below.

Well, in them they tumble, ride And wrap themselves, and curl.

In the fable "The Frog and the Ox":

A frog in the meadow, seeing Vol, -

She herself ventured to catch up with him in stature:

She was envious.

And well, bristle, puff and pout.

In the fable “Shadow and Man”, infinitive forms from verbs of motion are widely used to denote rapid attacks on past actions, their sudden occurrences and changes - along with elliptical, verbless constructions with the same meaning:

A scoundrel wanted to catch some shadow of his:

He to her, she forward, he adds a step,

She went there, he finally run away;

But the faster he is, the faster the shadow fled,

All without giving, like a treasure.

Here my eccentric suddenly set off back;

In the same way, with extraordinary art, Krylov uses folk forms past tense of an instantaneous arbitrary action, homonymous with imperative mood and interjectional forms of the “ultra-instant look”:

Happen to be here Fly.

("Fly and Roadmen")

And here's another problem:

Then bad weather happened.

("Hunter")

Happen, however, that the comb is lost.

("Combine")

No matter how you take it, meet Moska them.

("Elephant and Pug")

But Skvorushka hear that the Nightingale is praised, -

And Skvorushka was envious, unfortunately ...

("Starling")

An then quietly walk To the Brahmin in the cell of the overseer.

("The slander")

Here everyone dozed off, who was lying, who was sitting,

Suddenly, a bear comes from the forest, a bear opens its mouth.

("Dog, Man, Cat and Falcon")

Monkey, in the mirror seeing his image,

Quietly bear's foot.

(with Mirror and Monkey)

What strength is there - to grab a friend with a stone in the forehead.

("The Hermit and the Bear")

And they grab a log.

("Miller")

Then the knight jumped into the saddle and threw the reins.

("Knight")

Particularly diverse and rich in subjective expressive nuances in Krylov's language are the methods of using the present imperfect and the future tense of the perfect form to denote past actions.

For example:

There was no urine for the poor girls:

They are weekdays, a holiday - all the same;

There is no peace for the old woman.

During the day, she will not let the spirit translate for yarn.

Dawn, where they still sleep, and they have long gone to dance the spindle.

Perhaps sometimes the old woman would be late:

Yes, there was a cursed rooster in that house:

As soon as he sings - the old woman got up,

He will put on a fur coat and three-pieces,

At the stove, the flame blows,

He wanders, grumbling, to the spinners in peace,

Pushes them apart with a bony hand,

And they are stubborn, - with a stick,

And sweet at dawn breaks their dream.

What will you do with her?

("The Lady and the Two Maids")

Wed in the fable "Shadow and Man":

Here is my eccentric suddenly set off back.

He looks around: and the shadow has already begun to chase after him.

In the fable "The Peasant and the Robber":

The robber ripped off the peasant like a sticky.

“Have mercy,” the peasant will cry: “I am lost.”

In connection with the richness and variety of temporal and aspectual forms and meanings in Krylov's language, there is freedom and sharpness in combining verbal stems with prefixes to denote spatial and quantitative modifications of the action. Much later V.I. Dahl pointed to the richness of prefix verbal word formation as a great advantage of Russian folk speech, as a source of its artistry and figurativeness.

Krylov, even before Dahl, was able to appreciate the expressive power of this feature of the Russian spoken language and, with extraordinary skill, used the techniques of prefix verbal word creation for figurative and visual-tactile transmission of movements and states.

In the "Lion" fable, the differences in prefixed verbs express the difference in attitude towards tribute from the side of the lion and the nobles:

So, no matter how hard it is, neither the poor nor the rich,

I have to collect wool

So as not to sleep on bare stones?

Deer, chamois, goats, fallow deer,

They pay almost no tribute;

Collect wool from them as soon as possible:

From this they will not decrease;

On the contrary: it will be easier for them.

He hung on it and did not unclench his tooth.

("Dog, Man, Cat and Falcon")

He, picking up his gun with him,

He went home without a soul.

Krylov's style is unusually diverse. More P.A. Pletnev noted one characteristic feature of this style - the absence of self-repetitions in it. Even the old thought, "several times appearing among his predecessors", clothed by him in new images, is "like a creature trembling with the freshness of being."

The style of Krylov's fables still continues to be an unsurpassed example of the laconic, picturesque and fast dramatic Russian skaz style.

“Krylov’s glory,” according to Belinsky, “everything will grow and flourish more magnificently until the sonorous and rich language in the mouth of the great and mighty Russian people ceases.”

The term "allegory" comes from Greek word meaning "allegory". This concept is an expression of the abstract, abstract content of thought (judgment, concept) with the help of a specific image. That's what an allegory is. An example is the image of death as a skeleton with a scythe, as well as justice in the form of a woman whose eyes are blindfolded, in one hand there are scales, and in the other - a sword.

In allegory, therefore, a specific image acquires abstract meaning. He summarizes. The concept is contemplated through this image. This element of abstract content, which makes a concrete image subservient to the judgment or concept behind it, constitutes the allegory's characteristic feature. This value in itself is not artistic element, and the fact that it is always present in one way or another in allegory, in the eyes of many, casts doubt on the belonging of the latter to artistic techniques.

The double nature of allegory

In fact, having a dual nature - logical timing (connection of the image with a specific concept) and poetic correlation of the received specific expression, allegory in pure form should be categorized as so-called applied poetry. But this does not mean, however, that the allegorical image in itself cannot be artistic. Everything depends on the degree of emphasis on its connection with the object being expressed, on the measure of its independence. The more the allegorical meaning is emphasized, the more accurate is the correspondence between the expressed idea and the image, the more abstraction colors the image, detracting from its artistic value and independence. In such cases, the concrete expression is directed towards the idea, that is, the image has a certain tendency.

This is especially evident in various didactic poetic genres that use such a tool as allegory. Examples: fable, parable. They are usually built entirely on this technique. This is also characteristic of other allegorical works, the basis of which is the intention to illustrate or explain something abstract with concrete.

Emotional coloring of abstract thoughts when using allegory

And vice versa, the more vivid the independence and concreteness of the image, the more direct its action, the less consistently the logical correlation with the expressed idea is carried out, the more artistic the allegory is. In this case, the most abstract thought can acquire an emotional coloring, acquire artistic tangibility and the concrete visibility that an allegory receives. An example is the figurative allegory expressed in Tyutchev's poem, in the last stanza ("Send, Lord, your joy"), developed over the remaining four stanzas. The artistic implementation of the "three keys" by Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin of the abstract concepts of oblivion, inspiration and youth seems to be the same. It is also a means such as allegory. Examples from fiction, present in the works of other authors, we will give below.

Where can allegory be used?

This tool is very common in various fields of art. The allegory, examples of which we have given, as an allegory has the closest connection with a metaphor, is often considered as a widespread, developed metaphor or as a whole series of images that are combined into a single closed whole. It is feasible not only in poetry, but also in various plastic arts. Such as sculpture or allegory in painting, examples of which are "Mercy" by Charles Lebrun, "Allegory of Painting" by Jan Vermeer.

Allegory in literature

It is widespread for depicting artistic reality, it is traditionally used both in book literature as well as in folklore. The dictionary of literary terms defines this means as an image through a specific image of an abstract concept.

Allegory, examples from fiction of which we will discuss below, is very often used in fables and fairy tales. In them, under the guise of animals, various human vices can be implied. Important political and historical events can be depicted allegorically.

In Russian literature, the masters of using this tool were I. A. Krylov and M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. Each in their own genre, they created magnificent examples of works (allegorical). The use of this technique by both authors is difficult.

"Wise Scribbler"

There is always a philosophical, deeper meaning hidden under the outer layer; allegory has several meanings for these writers. An example is the fairy tale "The Wise Piskar" written by Saltykov-Shchedrin, in which the type of the so-called moderate liberal is depicted under the guise of a small fish. This is a cowardly person who is always afraid for his life. He is not interested in anything but his life. The scribbler fenced himself off from the world, deprived himself of all joys, brought no benefit to anyone. He did not want to fight for his rights, for his life, preferring to vegetate for a century. Therefore, the outcome of the existence of this liberal scribbler is logical. The author concludes that such people cannot be called citizens, since they are just useless scribblers. From them, no one is cold, nor warm, nor dishonor, nor honor. They just take up space for free and eat food. It is clear that the author of the work means, depicting wise scribbler, supporters of liberalism - a political direction. Summarizing the image more broadly, we can say that other passive citizens are also meant, who look at the lawlessness committed by the authorities and are silent, fearing for own life. But, besides this meaning, contemporary to Saltykov-Shchedrin, one can find in this fairy tale an eternal one: in order to live a bright, full life and not regret the empty years in old age, one should live, go towards fate, be open to it, win, take risks. and not be afraid of everything.

"Wolf and Lamb"

Krylov's fables are no less multilayered. Under the every-minute, actual meaning, universal deep ideas are hidden in them, which allegory expresses. An example is the fable "The Wolf and the Lamb", depicting the relationship between the people and the authorities, modern to the author - this is the interaction between subordinates and all-powerful. At the same time, it also refers to the relationship between the weak and the strong in any area of our lives. Often, unfortunately, a dishonest person, having met a weaker one on his way, tries to prove his power and strength to him, in every possible way mocking an innocent creature.

"Bear in the province"

Both Krylov and Saltykov-Shchedrin follow the traditions of the people in their works. Most often, therefore, they display human vices, as well as social events, depicting them in the form of animals, the lives of various animals and birds. But we can easily recognize hints, understand from individual details what the author wanted to say. For example, in another fairy tale by Saltykov-Shchedrin called “The Bear in the Voivodeship”, the author, under a series of Toptygins, means the mayors who were sent in order to restore order. In folklore, the Bear is the personification of ignorance, brute force, stupidity. Saltykov-Shchedrin adheres to a similar interpretation. Its mayors are shown as stupid barbarians who destroy everything in their path. Their main concern is to curry favor with their superiors in every possible way - the authorities. These people do not care about the fate of the people.

In the image of the Bear, Krylov also displays various bosses. For example, in a fable called "The Bear at the Bees", an embezzler is depicted who was admitted to state good. Mishka dragged all the honey into his lair. The bear is presented here as an "old rogue", an unscrupulous thief.

Works depicting the helplessness of the masters

Both of these authors and another type of allegory are used. In their works, people often become heroes. Through specific situation and here various human vices are denounced. More topical works can be found in Saltykov-Shchedrin than in Krylov. This writer, as you know, actively fought against social vices, advocating the abolition of serfdom, ridiculing arrogant conceited gentlemen who could not take a step without "uneducated" and "dirty" peasants. Dedicated to this topic are some of the most famous fairy tales created by the pen of Saltykov-Shchedrin. These are "The Wild Landowner" and "The Tale of How One Man Feeded Two Generals."

The helplessness of the presented landlords is revealed in these fabulous situations. They are unable to survive without the use of peasant labor. Without peasant supervision in everyday life, landowners are doomed to savagery. The centuries-old life in which serfdom existed completely deprived them of all kinds of skills. These gentlemen turn out to be only capable of "eating", "playing bullets", and scolding "homely" peasants.

In the two tales presented, the state of affairs is shown in allegorical form, which was typical for Russia of the contemporary author of the time, when the question of the abolition of serfdom was at the forefront.

"Wolf in the kennel"

In Krylov, we can also find many current fables. Almost all of his works are written as a response to a social event in the field of art or politics. For example, everyone knows that the fable "The Wolf in the Kennel" depicts allegorically the events of 1812, Patriotic War or rather, Napoleon's attempt to start peace negotiations with Russia. Meaning the wolf Bonaparte, and M.I. Kutuzov is depicted as a gray-haired hunter. Once in Russia (to the kennel), the Wolf himself is not happy about this. The kennel became hell for him. This hero decides to enter into negotiations, but the hunter does not give in to cunning tricks.

"Demyanov's ear"

Consider another well-known fable of this writer called "Demyanova's ear". This work ridiculed the meetings organized by "lovers of the Russian word." Depicting a domestic scene in which Demyan, a hospitable host, treats his guest's ear so that he is then unable to get up from the table, Krylov meant by this the writers' meetings, in which the playwrights brought listeners "to white heat" with their various " creations." This scene is an example of the use of such a tool as an allegory, examples of which we have already given from Krylov's fables. The moral of the work says that if you do not know how to be silent in time and not feel sorry for your neighbor, you should know that the prose and verses of such an author will be more nauseating than Demyanova's fish soup.

Use of folk allegory in works

The real virtuosos were I.A. Krylov and M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin in using such a technique as allegory. Examples from the literature created by these authors, which we have cited, as well as their other works, entered the treasury cultural heritage. These writers, using the tradition of allegory in the popular imagination, complicated and developed it in their works. Both authors created both topical, topical works, as well as philosophical, universal, deep creations. Not without reason, these creators of fairy tales and fables for readers of all ages remain favorite writers to this day.

We considered such a thing as allegory. Examples from the literature in this article have been presented only a few. In fact, there are many more. The 5 examples of allegory highlighted by us in the headlines are just some of the most bright works. It will be very interesting to get acquainted with other works of Krylov and Saltykov-Shchedrin. Examples of allegory in the Russian language, thanks to the work of these and other authors, are very numerous today. This tool enriches our speech. Allegory is widely used today in oral speech. Try to compose examples of sentences depicting such concepts as love, death, glory, justice as living beings.