Classicism (fr. classicisme, from lat. classicus - exemplary) - artistic style and aesthetic direction in European art XVII-XIX centuries
Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in every phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual features. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).
Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined features, mixing of which is not allowed.
As a certain direction, it was formed in France in the 17th century. French classicism affirmed the personality of a person as the highest value of being, freeing him from religious and church influence. Russian classicism not only adopted the Western European theory, but also enriched it with national characteristics.
Painting
Interest in art ancient Greece and Rome manifested itself in the Renaissance, which, after centuries of the Middle Ages, turned to the forms, motifs and plots of antiquity. The greatest theorist of the Renaissance, Leon Batista Alberti, back in the 15th century. expressed ideas that foreshadowed certain principles of classicism and were fully manifested in Raphael's fresco "The School of Athens" (1511).
AT early XVII centuries, young foreigners flock to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent among them was the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on topics ancient antiquity and mythology, which gave unsurpassed examples of geometrically accurate composition and thoughtful correlation of color groups. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antiquity landscapes of the environs of the "eternal city" streamlined the pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing peculiar architectural scenes.
Poussin's coldly rational normativism evoked the approval of the court of Versailles and was continued by court painters like Lebrun, who saw in classic painting an ideal artistic language for praising the absolutist state of the "sun king". Although private customers preferred various options Baroque and Rococo, the French monarchy kept Classicism afloat by funding academic institutions such as the School of Fine Arts. The Rome Prize provided the most talented students with the opportunity to visit Rome for a direct acquaintance with the great works of antiquity.
In the 19th century, classicism painting enters a period of crisis and becomes a force holding back the development of art, not only in France, but also in other countries. Artistic line David was successfully continued by Ingres, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, he often turned to romantic subjects with oriental flavor (“Turkish baths”); his portrait work is marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (like, for example, Karl Bryullov) also imbued classically shaped works with the spirit of reckless romanticism; this combination is called academism. Numerous art academies served as its breeding grounds. In the middle of the 19th century, the young generation gravitating towards realism rebelled against the conservatism of the academic establishment, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers.
Architecture
An example of British Palladianism -- London mansion Osterley Park (architect Robert Adam).
Charles Cameron. The project of decoration in the Adam's style of the green dining room of the Catherine Palace.
The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as the standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by the regularity of planning and the clarity of volumetric form. The order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity, became the basis of the architectural language of classicism. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical-axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.
The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture so much that they applied them even in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladio's precepts with varying degrees of fidelity until the middle of the 18th century.
By that time, the surfeit of the "whipped cream" of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Born by the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, the baroque thinned into rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and arts and crafts. For solving major urban problems, this aesthetics was of little use. Already under Louis XV (1715-74) urban planning ensembles in the “ancient Roman” style were being built in Paris, such as Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble laconicism" is already becoming the main architectural trend.
The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Saint-Genevieve church in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of Napoleonic Empire and late Classicism. In Russia, Bazhenov was moving in the same direction as Soufflet. The Frenchmen Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boulet went even further towards the development of a radical visionary style with an emphasis on the abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little use; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by modernists of the 20th century.
The architects of Napoleonic France drew inspiration from the majestic images of military glory left by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form of the triumphal arch of Carruzel and the Vendôme column. In relation to the monuments of military greatness of the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term "imperial style" is used - Empire style. In Russia, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov showed themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. In Britain, the Empire corresponds to the so-called. "Regency style" (the largest representative is John Nash).
In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, classicism had to get along with romantically colored eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with the discoveries of Champollion, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“Neo-Greek”), which was especially pronounced in Germany and the United States. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel are building up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon. In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque.
Romanticism
Ideological and artistic direction in European and American spiritual culture con. 18 - 1st floor. 19th centuries As a style of creativity and thinking, it remains one of the main aesthetic and worldview models of the 20th century.
Origin. Axiology
Romanticism arose in the 1790s. first in Germany and then spread throughout the Western European cultural region. His ideological ground was the crisis of rationalism of the Enlightenment, the artistic search for pre-romantic movements (sentimentalism, "storming"), the Great French Revolution, the German classical philosophy. Romanticism is an aesthetic revolution that, instead of science and reason (the highest cultural authority for the Enlightenment), puts the artistic creativity of the individual, which becomes a model, a "paradigm" for all types of cultural activity. The main feature of romanticism as a movement is the desire to oppose the burgher, "philistine" world of reason, law, individualism, utilitarianism, the atomization of society, a naive belief in linear progress - new system values: the cult of creativity, the primacy of imagination over reason, criticism of logical, aesthetic and moral abstractions, a call for the emancipation of a person’s personal powers, following nature, myth, symbol, the desire for synthesis and discovery of the relationship of everything with everything. Moreover, rather quickly, the axiology of romanticism goes beyond art and begins to determine the style of philosophy, behavior, clothing, as well as other aspects of life.
Paradoxes of Romanticism
Paradoxically, romanticism combined the cult of the personal uniqueness of the individual with the attraction to the impersonal, elemental, collective; increased reflectivity of creativity -- with the discovery of the world of the unconscious; play, understood as the highest meaning of creativity, with calls for the introduction of the aesthetic into "serious" life; individual rebellion - with dissolution in the folk, tribal, national. This original duality of romanticism is reflected in his theory of irony, which elevates to the principle the non-coincidence of conditional aspirations and values with the unconditional absolute as the goal. The main features of the romantic style include the playful element, which dissolved the aesthetic framework of classicism; heightened attention to everything peculiar and non-standard (moreover, the special was not simply given a place in the universal, as the baroque style or pre-romanticism did, but the very hierarchy of the general and the individual was turned over); interest in myth and even an understanding of myth as an ideal romantic creativity; symbolic interpretation of the world; striving for the ultimate expansion of the arsenal of genres; reliance on folklore, preference for an image over a concept, aspirations for possession, dynamics for statics; experiments in synthetic unification of the arts; aesthetic interpretation of religion, the idealization of the past and archaic cultures, often resulting in social protest; aestheticization of everyday life, morality, politics.
A new look at the inner world
The rejection of the Enlightenment axiom of rationality as the essence of human nature led romanticism to a new understanding of man: the atomic integrity of the “I”, obvious to past eras, was called into question, the world of the individual and collective unconscious was discovered, the conflict was felt inner world with one's own "nature". The disharmony of personality and its alienated objectifications was especially richly thematized by symbols. romantic literature(a double, a shadow, an automaton, a doll, and finally - the famous Frankenstein, created by the imagination of M. Shelley).
Impact on science
Romantic natural philosophy, having updated the Renaissance idea of man as a microcosm and introduced into it the idea of similarity between the unconscious creativity of nature and the conscious creativity of the artist, played a certain role in the development of natural science in the 19th century. (both directly and through scientists - adherents of early Schelling - such as Carus, Oken, Steffens). The humanities also receive from romanticism (from the hermeneutics of Schleiermacher, the philosophy of language Novalis and F. Schlegel) an impulse significant for history, cultural studies, and linguistics.
Romanticism and religion
In religious thought, romanticism can be divided into two directions. One was initiated by Schleiermacher (Speech on Religion, 1799) with his understanding of religion as an internal, pantheistically colored experience of "dependence on the infinite." It significantly influenced the formation of Protestant liberal theology. The other is represented by the general trend of late romanticism towards orthodox Catholicism and the restoration of medieval cultural foundations and values. (See the work of Novalis "Christianity, or Europe", 1799, programmatic for this trend).
The historical stages in the development of romanticism were the birth in 1798-1801. the Jena circle (A. Schlegel, F. Schlegel, Novalis, Tiek, later Schleiermacher and Schelling), in the bosom of which the main philosophical and aesthetic principles of romanticism were formulated; appearance after 1805 of the Heidelberg and Swabian schools literary romanticism; publication of the book by J. de Stael "On Germany" (1810), with which the European glory of romanticism begins; the widespread spread of romanticism within Western culture in the 1820s-30s; crisis stratification of the romantic movement in the 1840s, 50s. into factions and their merging with both conservative and radical currents of "anti-burgher" European thought.
Classicism from a literary point of view
Classicism originated in Western Europe in the first half of the 17th century, when there was a period of strengthening of the so-called "absolutism", that is, the supreme power of monarchs. The ideas of absolute monarchy and the order generated by it served as the basis for classicism. This literary direction demanded from the authors strict observance of the prescribed rules, schemes, deviation from which was considered unacceptable.
Classical works were clearly divided into higher and lower genres. The highest genres were epic, epic poem, tragedy and ode. To the lowest - satire, comedy, fable. The main characters of the works higher genre there could only be representatives of the noble estates, as well as gods or heroes of ancient myths. Common, colloquial speech was forbidden. Especially solemn, pathos language was required when creating an ode. In the works of the lower genres, describing everyday life ordinary people, colloquial speech was allowed, and even slang expressions.
The composition of any work, regardless of genre, had to be simple, understandable and concise. Each character was subject to a detailed explanation by the author. In addition, the author of the work was obliged to observe the rule of "three unities" - time, place and action.
Of the Russian writers, the most prominent representatives of classicism were A.P. Sumarokov, D.I. Fonvizin, M.V. Lomonosov, I.A. Krylov.
What is literary romanticism
At the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. after the changes and upheavals caused by the French Revolution, a new literary trend appeared in Western Europe - romanticism. Its adherents did not want to reckon with the strict rules established by classicism. They paid the main attention in their works to the image of the inner world of a person, his experiences, feelings.
The main genres of romanticism were: elegy, idyll, short story, ballad, novel, story. A counterweight typical hero classicism, which had to behave in strict accordance with the requirements of the society to which it belonged, the heroes romantic works could commit unexpected, unpredictable acts, come into conflict with society. The most famous representatives of Russian literary romanticism: V.A. Zhukovsky, A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, F.I. Tyutchev.
Classicism or neoclassicism of the beginning of the 20th century is also called the Empire style (from the French empire - empire) or the style of the Empire. He completed the evolution of classicism and demonstrated the triumph of state power. Empire absorbed ancient Egyptian motifs (geometry of Egyptian ornament, stylized sphinxes), motifs of Pompeii paintings, Etruscan vases, which were used in the interiors of palaces. The architecture is distinguished by massive porticos with Doric (sometimes Tuscan) columns, military emblems (eagles, laurel wreaths, military armor, announcer bundles). During this period, memorial structures (triumphal arches, memorial columns) were erected. If we consider the evolution of painting in France from classicism to Empire as a single line, it turns out that if classicism glorified the magnificent splendor palace life French kings, then the Empire - the military exploits of Napoleon and the tastes of the emerging bourgeoisie. The goals of glorifying the successes of the state were served by memorial architecture (triumphal arches, commemorative columns), repeating ancient Roman designs.
At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, a new trend in spiritual and artistic culture arose in Germany and other European countries, called romanticism. Romanticism became a kind of reaction to classicism with its cult of reason and rationalism. Romanticism was the first trend in art that recognized the artist as the subject of creativity and proclaimed the unconditional priority of the individual tastes of a creative person. Romanticism reached its greatest development in France (T. Gericault, E. Delacroix, G. Dore). Its largest representatives in Germany are F.O. Runge, K.D. Friedrich, P. Cornelius, in the UK: - J. Constable, W. Turner. In Russia, the features of romanticism manifested themselves in the work of O.A. Kiprensky, partly - V.A. Tropinina, S.F. Shchedrin, M.I. Lebedeva, K.P. Bryullov, F.A. Bruni, F.P. Tolstoy.
Romanticism contrasted the utilitarianism and materiality of the nascent bourgeois society with a break with everyday reality, leaving for the world of dreams and fantasies, idealization of the past. Romanticism is a world in which melancholy, irrationality, and eccentricity reign. Its traces appeared in the European consciousness as early as the 17th century, but were regarded by doctors as a sign of mental disorder. But romanticism opposes rationalism, not humanism. On the contrary, he creates a new humanism, offering to consider a person in all his manifestations.
The first signs of romanticism appear almost simultaneously in different countries, but each has contributed to its development. Germany is considered the birthplace of romanticism; the foundations of romantic aesthetics were laid here. From Germany, a new trend quickly spread throughout Europe. Romanticism embraced literature, music, theater, humanitarian sciences, plastic arts.
Philosophical and aesthetic theory early romanticism developed in Germany by A.V. and F. Schlegel, Novalis, I. Fichte, F.W. Schelling, F. Schleiermacher, L. Tieck, creative association which, which existed in 1798-1801, was called the Jena Romantics. Circle German romantics created an aesthetic concept of a new universal culture and helped form romantic philosophy in the first half of the 19th century, whose representatives include Friedrich Wilhelm Schelling (1775-1854), Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860), Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855).
The German philosopher Friedrich Schelling was close to the Jena romantics. Based on the provisions of Kant and Fichte, he created a romantic theory built on the basis of objective idealism. His main method of cognition is intellectual intuition, inherent in philosophical and artistic genius. Art is the highest form of comprehension of the world, the unity of the conscious and the unconscious ("The System of Transcendental Idealism", 1800). It merges together all kinds of activity - theoretical and practical, spiritual and sensual.
A major historical figure was the German irrationalist philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer. In his main work, The World as Will and Representation (1819-1844), the world appears as an elemental "will to live." Schopenhauer called existing world"the worst possible", and his teaching - "pessimism". World history doesn't make sense. Suffering is the punishment for original sin, the guilt of a separate existence. The overcoming of selfishness and suffering takes place in the sphere of art and morality. At the heart of art lies the contemplation of ideas, freeing the subject from the power of space and time. The highest of the arts is music, whose goal is no longer the reproduction of ideas, but the direct reflection of the "will to live." The influence of Schopenhauer was experienced in Germany by R. Wagner, E. Hartmann, F. Nietzsche, T. Mann and others, in Russia by L. Tolstoy, A. Fet and others.
The outstanding Danish philosopher, theologian and writer Søren Kierkegaard created a subjective ("existential") dialectic of personality, passing through three stages on the way to God: aesthetic, ethical and religious. Kierkegaard believed that the purpose of philosophy is to know not some absolute spirit, but the everyday existence (existence) of a person. The external world, no matter what its ontological structure and no matter how perfect or imperfect it may be, is not able to help a person solve his internal problems. The outside world is a "broken" and meaningless being, the answer to it must be fear and despair ("Fear and Trembling", 1843). Earthly existence is "life in the paradoxical". The philosopher recommended that the individual completely surrender himself to the will of God, that is, to lead a "life in the religious." To think “existentially,” that is, on the basis of true existence, means to be infinitely devoted to Christian truth, even if this threatens with martyrdom. Kierkegaard's ideas influenced the entire European culture and even science (N. Bohr, the founder of quantum mechanics, admitted this).
The main representatives of romanticism in literature are Novalis, E.T.A. Hoffman, J. Byron, P.B. Shelley, V. Hugo, E. Poe, M.Yu. Lermontov, F.I. Tyutchev.
The German poet and philosopher Novalis (1772-1801) was a prominent member of the Jena circle of romantics. He tried to substantiate the philosophy of "magical idealism", which affirms the polarity and mutual transition of all things, the idea of the balance of reality, ideas and fantasies in every person.
The largest representative German romanticism Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann (1776-1822) was a versatile personality: he was still a talented composer and a brilliant artist. His works are characterized by subtle philosophical irony and bizarre fantasy, reaching the mystical grotesque. In his work, E.T.A. Hoffmann revealed a deep chasm between the way of life and thinking of the artist and ordinary person. The hero of most of his works is an unmercenary musician who despises material wealth and finds the meaning of his life in the love of art (The Worldly Views of the Cat Murr, 1822).
The denial of utilitarianism and the principles of bourgeois practicality, the victim of which was the human person, was expressed in their work not only by German, but also by English romantics. The largest among them was George Noel Gordon Byron (1766-1824). Byron, a member of the House of Lords, sang not the charms of court life, but "world sorrow", a romantic rebellion of a loner against the whole of society. His poem "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage" (1812-1818), philosophical poems"Manfred" (1817) and "Cain" (1821), a cycle of poems on biblical motifs, a novel in verse "Don Juan" (1819-1824) and lyrics convey thrill catastrophic human being, the loss of old ideals and values. He created a type of "Byronic" reflective hero: a disappointed rebellious individualist, a lonely sufferer, not understood by people, challenging the entire world order and God. Byron's work, which was an important stage in spiritual development European society and literature, gave rise to the phenomenon of Byronism at the beginning of the 19th century, including “Russian”.
The great French romantic writer Victor Hugo (1802 - 1885) created the inspired novels Notre Dame Cathedral (1831), Les Misérables (1862), The Man Who Laughs (1869) and others, where he denounced public sores and social injustice. The writer argued that injustice leads to poverty - a breeding ground for crimes, and that only radical changes in society will allow them to be eliminated. In the preface to the drama "Cromwell" (1827), Hugo placed a manifesto of the French romantics, where he opposed classical rule"three unities" and the formal delineation of genres, formulated the principles of a new, romantic dramaturgy. Hugo recognized the possibility of mixing the tragic and the comic.
A pessimistic view of the future, the mood of "world sorrow" was combined in romanticism with the desire for harmony in the world order, with the search for new, absolute and unconditional ideals. The work of the outstanding French poet Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867) is called "the poetry of decline and decay." He, an adherent of the theory of "art for art's sake", is considered the founder of symbolism. Disregarding generally accepted conventions, he expressed in his work admiration for evil, ugliness and all sorts of deviations from the norms of everyday life. In his poetry collection Flowers of Evil (1857), a yearning for perfect harmony is expressed.
The sharp discord between ideals and oppressive reality evoked in the minds of many romantics a painfully fatalistic or indignant feeling of "two worlds", a bitter mockery of the discrepancy between dreams and reality, elevated in literature and art to the principle " romantic irony". The great American romantic writer Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849) died at the age of 40. He began to write at the age of 16, but his poetic works did not receive recognition until C. Baudelaire translated them into French. In his later life, he suffered from depression and experienced a deep mental crisis. Edgar Allan Poe remained famous mainly for his masterfully written scary and detective stories.
The historical framework of romanticism is limited to the period from 1770 to 1840. In its development, experts distinguish three stages: pre-romanticism (1770-1800); mature romanticism (1800-1824), caused by the French Revolution of 1789 and the military campaigns of Napoleon (Goya, Géricault, the early work of Delacroix); the heyday of romanticism - from 1824 to 1840 (the mature art of Turner and Delacroix). If pre-romanticism was dominated by the tastes and forms of English sensibility, then mature romanticism is completely French. During this period, a new historical painting appears and modern school landscape. In the third period, called the "romantic movement", the concept of genius occupied a dominant position, embodied in mature creativity Turner and Delacroix.
The main representatives of romanticism in fine arts painters E. Delacroix, T. Gericault, F.O. Runge, C. D. Friedrich, J. Constable, W. Turner.
The head of the Romantic school of painting in France was Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863), recognized the greatest decorator of his time. The masterpiece of his work is the painting "Liberty Leading the People", written in the midst of revolutionary events 1830 and embodied the rebellious pathos characteristic of romanticism. This picture combines the features of a modern Parisian with classical beauty and the mighty power of Nike of Samothrace. Delacroix is considered the creator of historical painting of the New Age. Delacroix was not only the greatest French Romantic painter, but a remarkable writer.
Spain gave the world one of the greatest Romantic painters, Francisco José de Goya (1746-1828). He gained fame in the field of creating portraits of the Spanish nobility and representatives of the royal court. Goya becomes the most fashion artist, is elected a member of the Madrid Academy of Arts, becomes the court painter of King Charles IV. Goya's art is filled with passionate emotionality, fantasy, social grotesque. Introduced in the late 80s fantasy elements in the 90s, they form a holistic concept artistic vision peace. It is based on phantasmagoria, religious insight and social grotesque. In 1799, Goya completed his most famous series of engravings - the album "Caprichos" (80 sheets with artist's comments), dedicated to human madness and stupidity, is a satire on human existence.
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CLASSICISM, one of the most important areas of art of the past, an artistic style based on normative aesthetics, requiring strict adherence to a number of rules, canons, unities. The rules of classicism are of paramount importance as a means to ensure the main goal - to enlighten and instruct the public, referring it to sublime examples. The aesthetics of classicism reflected the desire for the idealization of reality, due to the rejection of the image of a complex and multifaceted reality. In theatrical art, this direction has established itself in creativity, first of all, French authors: Corneille, Racine, Voltaire, Moliere. Classicism had a great influence on Russian national theater(A.P. Sumarokov, V.A. Ozerov, D.I. Fonvizin and others).
"Classicism" (from the Latin "classicus", i.e. "exemplary") assumed a stable orientation of the new art to the antique way, which did not at all mean a simple copying of antique samples. Classicism carries out continuity with the aesthetic concepts of the Renaissance, which were oriented towards antiquity.
SENTIMENTALISM(fr. Sentiment) - a trend in European literature and art of the second half of the 18th century, formed within the framework of the late Enlightenment and reflecting the growth of democratic sentiments in society. Originated in the lyrics and the novel; later, penetrating into theatrical art, he gave impetus to the emergence of the genres of "tearful comedy" and petty-bourgeois drama.
ROMANTICISM- (French romantisme, from medieval French romant - novel) - a direction in art that was formed within the general literary trend at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. in Germany. It has become widespread in all countries of Europe and America. The highest peak of romanticism falls on the first quarter of the 19th century.
the French word romantisme goes back to the Spanish romance (in the Middle Ages, the Spanish romances were called so, and then the chivalric romance), the English romantic, which turned into the 18th century. in romantique and then meaning "strange", "fantastic", "picturesque". At the beginning of the 19th century romanticism becomes the designation of a new direction, opposite to classicism.
Entering into the antithesis of "classicism" - "romanticism", the direction assumed the opposition of the classicist requirement of rules to romantic freedom from rules. This understanding of romanticism persists to this day, but, as the literary critic J. Mann writes, romanticism is “not just a rejection of the ‘rules’, but following the ‘rules’ more complex and whimsical.”
The center of the artistic system of romanticism is the individual, and his main conflict- individual and society. The decisive prerequisite for the development of romanticism was the events of the French Revolution. The emergence of romanticism is associated with the anti-enlightenment movement, the causes of which lie in disillusionment with civilization, in social, industrial, political and scientific progress, which resulted in new contrasts and contradictions, leveling and spiritual devastation of the personality.
Realism- (lat. real, real) - a direction in literature and art, which aims to faithfully reproduce reality in its typical features.
Signs:
1. Artistic depiction of life in images, corresponding to the essence of the phenomena of life itself.
2. Reality is a means of a person's knowledge of himself and the world around him.
3.Typization of images. This is achieved through the veracity of details in specific conditions.
4. Even in a tragic conflict, art is life-affirming.
5. Realism is inherent in the desire to consider reality in development, the ability to detect the development of new social, psychological and social relations.
Realists denied the "dark set" of mystical concepts, sophisticated forms of modern poetry.
Young realism frontier era had all the signs of a transforming, moving and acquiring the truth of art, and its creators went to their discoveries through subjective attitudes, reflections, dreams. This feature, born of the author's perception of time, determined the difference between the realistic literature of the beginning of our century and the Russian classics.
The prose of the 19th century was always characterized by the image of a person, if not adequate to the ideal of the writer, then embodying his cherished thoughts. From the works of the new era, the hero almost disappeared - the bearer of the ideas of the artist himself. There was a tradition Gogol and especially Chekhov.
Modernism- (fr. newest, modern) - art born in the 20th century.
This concept is used to refer to new phenomena in literature and other arts.
Modernism in literature- this is literary direction, an aesthetic concept that was formed in the 1910s and developed into an artistic direction in the literature of the war and post-war years.
The founders of modernism are M. Proust "In Search of Lost Time", J. Joyce "Ulysses", F. Kafka "The Process".
heyday modernism belongs to 1920. The main task of modernism is to penetrate into the depths of consciousness and subconsciousness of a person, to transfer the work of memory, the peculiarities of perception of the environment, in how the past, present and the future are refracted in “instant moments of being”. The main technique in the work of modernists is the "stream of consciousness", which allows you to capture the movement of thoughts, impressions, feelings.
Modernism influenced the work of many writers of the 20th century. However, his influence was not and could not be all-encompassing. Traditions literary classics continue their life and development
Postmodernism a term denoting structurally similar phenomena in the world public life and culture of the second half of the 20th century: it is used both to characterize the post-non-classical type of philosophizing, and for the complex of styles in art. Postmodern is the state of modern culture, which includes the pre-post-non-classical philosophical paradigm, pre-post-modern art, as well as the mass culture of this era. Arising as an antithesis to modernism, open to understanding by only a few, postmodernism, dressing everything in a game form, levels the distance between the mass and elite consumers, reducing the elite to the masses (glamour). Modernism is an extremist denial of the Modern world (with its positivism and scientism), and postmodernism is a non-extremist denial of the same Modern.
The crisis of classicism was a natural consequence of the historical situation that developed in Europe in the first decades of the 19th century. At the beginning of the century, wars blazed in Europe, causing a surge of high patriotic feelings. The victory over Napoleonic France did not bring peace: the rise of national liberation movements, alternating periods of revolutions and restorations contributed to the widespread fermentation of minds.
“The current century,” wrote the Decembrist P.I. Pestel, is marked by revolutionary thoughts from one thing! end of Europe to the other, from Portugal to Russia, and excluding united state... The spirit of transformation makes minds bubbling everywhere, so to speak.”
Aroused by the revolutions and warmed up by the war, the intensity of passions under the conditions of the reactionary political regimes that were established as a result of the restoration of the monarchy could not find a worthy social application. In addition, in the reigning legal order, the mind was quite clearly marked by its bourgeois essence. Between it and those lofty ideals that were proclaimed by the philosophers of the Enlightenment of the 18th century and inscribed on banners French Revolution, the abyss lay. This caused a critical review of the essence of many ideas and principles of enlightenment and their artistic reflection. Therefore, it is quite natural that as soon as the proclamation of the “kingdom of reason” by the rationalist philosophy of the Enlightenment collapsed, they were also questioned. artistic principles classicism in many aspects associated, as noted above, with the enlightenment of the 18th century.
Caused by a huge upheaval in the social and spiritual life of Europe, romanticism reflected the complexly unstable state of that transitional era, when a struggle unfolded between two social formations Dying feudalism and young, growing capitalism. Hence the “complex and always more or less obscure reflection of everything characteristic of romanticism: shades, feelings and moods that embrace society in transitional eras, but its main note is the expectation of something new, anxiety before the new, a hasty, nervous desire to know this new” .
Classicism gravitated towards the expression of “eternal truths of “eternal beauty”, to balance and harmony. In contrast to it, the art of the era of romanticism sought to know the world and man in all their diversity, to capture the variability of the world, the transitional states of nature, the subtlest shades of the movements of the soul. Romanism greatly expanded both the thematic boundaries of art and the range of means artistic expressiveness, the hierarchy of arts established by classicism and artistic genres, while those of them in which the aesthetics of romanticism found its most complete expression began to develop especially rapidly. The diversity of genres, the search for new, more diverse, flexible and emotionally rich artistic forms became the most important features of the creative creed of romanticism.
Romanticism was a powerful ideological and artistic trend that covered all areas of spiritual life / Europe, was reflected in religion, philosophy, politics. This movement was especially fully and vividly embodied in literature, music and painting, constituting a whole "epoch of romanticism" in their history. The dispute between the “romantics” and the “classics” that unfolded in literary and artistic criticism of the 1820s and 11830s played important role in the fate of literature and art, helping to overcome the outdated aesthetic norms of classicism and paving the way for new, progressive phenomena artistic life.
In various areas of artistic creativity romantic tendencies appeared differently. But the general "spirit of transformation" inherent in romanticism was expressed in a persistent desire to overcome canonical rigidity. artistic techniques classicism and create a more diverse and more flexible system of means of aesthetic expression. This militant "anti-canonism" of the Romantics was also reflected in those new architectural views that began to take shape in the 1830s.
The aesthetic program put forward by romanticism in its emotional and ideological orientation was already completely different than the one professed by classicism. The ideals of "calmness" and "noble simplicity", the program unification of the architectural language of classicism of romance were perceived by "scholasticism, which prescribes buildings to be ranked according to one measure and built according to one taste."
“Architecture,” Gogol argued, “should be as capricious as possible: take on a stern appearance, show a cheerful expression, breathe antiquity, shine with news, pour terror, sparkle with beauty, be either gloomy, like a day engulfed in a thunderstorm with thunder clouds, or clear, like the morning in the sunshine."
Developing the romantic concept of the spiritual and emotional fullness of architecture. Gogol contrasts the "monotony" and "scholasticism" of classicism with "inspired gloomy" gothic architecture, which "gives more revelry to the artist", and the architecture of the East, "which was created by imagination alone, oriental imagination, hot, wonderful." Paying tribute to the works of architects Ancient Greece, full of "slimness and simplicity", he condemned the classic architects for distorting the essence of Attic architecture, turning its techniques into fashion.
P. Ya. Chaadaev expressed similar thoughts. In one of his "philosophical letters", published in 1832 in the magazine "Telescope", he contrasted "Greek style" with "Egyptian and Gothic style." According to Chaadaev, the first "refers to the material needs of a person", the other two - "to his moral needs", because they have "a common ideal character, very clearly manifested in some kind of uselessness or, better, in the exceptional idea of a monument, which is especially dominates them." Chaadaev, like Gogol, was attracted by the special spirituality and emotional tension of Gothic. “It seems to me that the Gothic tower deserves special attention, as one of the most beautiful creations of the imagination,” wrote the author of Philosophical Letters, “it, like a mighty and beautiful thought, aspires to heaven alone, takes you away from the earth and takes nothing from the earth , belongs to a special rank of ideas and does not stem from the earthly: a most wonderful vision, without beginning or cause on earth.
The opposition of the "spiritual" to the "earthly", so clearly felt in this passage from Chaadaev's "philosophical writing", is very characteristic of the aesthetics of romanticism, especially on final stage its development. According to one of the ideologists of romanticism, German philosopher F.-W. Schelling, those were the years when "the human spirit was uninhibited, considered itself entitled to everything that exists to oppose its real freedom and ask not about what is, but what is possible."
The looseness of the human spirit and at the same time the desire to delve into the "secrets of the soul", the keen attention to the human personality, to the unique, individual both in the human character and in the phenomena of life are the most important features of the aesthetic program of romanticism. The heroes of Beethoven, Byron, Pushkin, Lermontov passionately assert their human individuality, their right and ability to resist society, the "crowd", fate itself. V. S. Turchin in the book “The Age of Romanticism in Russia” notes that “if late classicism acquired an increasingly state character, then young romanticism appealed to individual consciousness, being interested in the fate of a person who entered the new century.”
Romantic poets painfully felt "the tightness of the limits of classic poetry" and saw "freedom of choice and presentation as the primary goal of romantic poetry." Similar statements were made in the 1830s by architects and aestheticians, who, reflecting on the fate of architecture, came to the conclusion that it was necessary to critically revise the “five rules of the Vignolovs” and other canons of classicism.
The pathos of romantic individualism was also reflected in architecture, but very indirectly, in accordance with the peculiarities of its artistic and figurative structure. The problem of the relationship between the general and the individual, translated into the language of architectural forms, turned into a relationship between the canonical norm and originality. In contrast to the normativity of classicism, romanticism put forward the principle of free choice of artistic techniques.
In the same 1834, when Gogol's "Arabesques" were published, on May 8, at the solemn act of the Moscow Palace Architectural School, the young architect M. D. Bykovsky delivered a speech "On the groundlessness of the opinion that Greek or Greco-Roman architecture can be that the beauty of architecture is based on the five known ranks, that is, on the canons of the five orders developed by the architects of antiquity and the Renaissance.
The essence of the new views that Bykovsky expressed in his speech is clear from its very title. His theoretical position corresponds to the aesthetics of romanticism, which considered it unacceptable to restrict the freedom of artistic creativity with a system of canonical rules. “It will seem strange to everyone,” Bykovsky argued, “that the elegant can be subordinated to the same, ubiquitous and by no means unchanged formulas,” although, he noted, such an opinion, “so false in its beginnings ... has already taken root and solemnly gravitates over the finest works the human spirit." Bykovsky saw the reason for such an uncreative, mechanical repetition of the canonical forms of architecture of the past in a misunderstanding that "the history of the architecture of any nation is closely connected with the history of its own philosophy." Each era produces its own architectural style, which meets its spiritual needs and the customs of this nation, therefore, the repetition of the compositional techniques of "one chosen century" is, according to Bykovsky, "a reckless intention to suppress the fine arts." According to him, “just as inconsistent with common sense is the assessment of the dignity of the beauty of art by means of a linear measure and the idea that the columns of this or that order alone should determine all the dimensions of the building, all the strength of its character.”
The most important feature public consciousness the first decades of the 19th century became historicism: the centuries-old path of development of society and culture began to be regarded as a single process in which each link had its own specific historical significance. Paying tribute to the ancient era, which created monuments that were exceptional in their artistic perfection, historians and art historians of the new generation sought to explore and realize the significance of subsequent eras in common process development of world culture. Combining the worldview principles of historicism with a romantic passion for antiquity and exoticism, the aesthetics of those years called on contemporaries to become the spiritual heirs of all wealth. human culture created by both the West and the East. “Tired of the monotony of classicism,” the Moscow Telegraph magazine wrote in 1825, “the brave minds of Europeans dare to fly in all other directions ... We want to know and comprehend the spirit of all mankind.”
The growing interest in antiquities, in the Middle Ages, led to the appearance of a number of buildings "in the Gothic style." In Russian architecture, along with romantic neo-Gothic, other trends arose, connected with the appeal to the architectural traditions of ancient Russian architecture and the experience of folk, folklore architecture. The growing interest in the art of Ancient Egypt and the exoticism of the East, characteristic of the artistic life of Russia and all of Europe at the beginning of the 19th century, caused the emergence of various kinds of “oriental” trends in architecture.
Just as in literature, music, and painting, romanticism sharply expanded thematic boundaries, “introduced medieval themes, exotic themes, folklore themes,” in architecture it led to the emergence of a number of stylistic trends that differ significantly in their artistic settings from the architecture of classicism.
New artistic outlook, born of romanticism, the desire to know and comprehend the "spirit of all mankind", the growing awareness that modern culture should become the heiress of the culture of all previous epochs, led to the conclusion that “all kinds of architecture, all styles” can and should find application in architecture.
Formulating new architectural principles from the standpoint of romantic aesthetics, N.V. Gogol in the article cited above argued that “the city must consist of diverse masses if we want it to please the eyes. Let it combine more diverse tastes. Let it rise in the same street: both gloomy Gothic, and oriental burdened with luxury, and colossal Egyptian, and Greek imbued with a slender size. Romanticism played a very important role in the overall process of the artistic evolution of architecture. Acting as the ideological opponent of the aging classicism, romanticism actively contributed to the departure of architecture from the creative method that underlay classicism. On the other hand, the program "anti-canonism" of the Romantics and the new architectural concept put forward by them, based on the appeal to the heritage of "all styles", contributed to the development of a new creative method, which became the leading one in the architecture of the middle and second half of XIX century, and determined the artistic and stylistic features of eclecticism.
The result of the development of this new creative method was the formation of a number of stylistic trends in the architecture of the 1820s and 1830s. One of them was the stylistic Neo-Gothic, which turned out to be perhaps the most consistent embodiment of the artistic ideals of romanticism in the architecture of that period.
