Name: Secrets of painting by old masters.
Descriptions of techniques for working with paints in painting, which can be conditionally called classical. The book has two authors: one is famous painter and graphic artist the other is a specialist in the field of the history of painting technology. Useful as practical guide For contemporary artists and contributes to a better understanding of the work of the masters of the past.
Despite the fact that this book has a very specific title, it is still necessary to clarify its content. This is not a guide or tutorial, not essays about the great masters of the past, although some of them are described on its pages. Most likely, these are sketches, reflections, conversations about the peculiarities of the painting technique, which today, rather conditionally, is usually called classical. In order to make the contents of the first part of our book clear to the reader from the very first pages, let us first of all try to outline the range of problems considered in it. The history of painting, as a rule, is built using Hildebrand's terminology on the basis of the study of the "shared image". And yet it is worth regretting that art historians rarely come close to the picture, they do not sufficiently study the specifics of what I. E. Grabar called "artistic cuisine", considering it "extremely uninteresting and boring matter." Books about painting too rarely talk about those creative, creative processes, the living evidence of which is the painting itself.
CONTENT
Technical traditions of European easel painting 7
Introduction
The emergence of technology oil painting 14
Some concepts of painting technique 23
Three-stage painting method 49
The Five Roots of Picturesqueness 81
Two branches of the classical tradition 117
The birth of a new sense of picturesqueness 203
Experience in mastering the three-stage method of painting 236
Ways of development of wall painting 245
Encaustic. Resin and oil in antique painting 246
Oil wall painting of the Middle Ages and Renaissance 253
Fresco technique and its varieties 259
Mosaic and fresco in the interior 263
The proximity of easel painting and monumentalism in the painting of the old masters
Spatiality and flatness in wall painting and plafond
Methods and technique of working with wax, resinous-oil and silicate paints 294
How this book was created
List of illustrations 315
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Even those masterpieces of painting that seem familiar to us have their secrets. Recently, a strange and unusual discovery was made in art history - an American student deciphered musical notation, depicted on the buttocks of a sinner from a painting by Bosch. The resulting melody has become one of the Internet sensations of recent times.
Hieronymus Bosch, Garden earthly pleasures", 1500-1510.
Fragment of the right side of the triptych.
Disputes about the meanings and hidden meanings most famous work Dutch artist have not subsided since its inception. On right wing a triptych called "Musical Hell" depicts sinners who are tortured in the underworld with the help of musical instruments. One of them has notes imprinted on his buttocks. Oklahoma Christian University student Amelia Hamrick, who studied the painting, adapted the 16th-century notation to a modern twist and recorded "a 500-year-old ass-song from hell."
Nude Mona Lisa
The famous "Gioconda" exists in two versions: the nude version is called "Monna Vanna", it was painted by the little-known artist Salai, who was a student and sitter of the great Leonardo da Vinci. Many art critics are sure that it was he who was the model for Leonardo's paintings "John the Baptist" and "Bacchus". There are also versions that dressed in a woman's dress, Salai served as the image of Mona Lisa herself.
In 1902 Hungarian artist Tivadar Kostka Chontvari paints a painting " Old Fisherman". It would seem that there is nothing unusual in the picture, but Tivadar laid a subtext in it, which was never disclosed during the life of the artist.
Few people thought of putting a mirror in the middle of the picture. In each person there can be both God (the right shoulder of the Old Man is duplicated) and the Devil (the left shoulder of the old man is duplicated).
Twins at the Last Supper
Leonardo da Vinci, The Last Supper, 1495-1498.
When Leonardo da Vinci wrote " last supper", he gave special meaning two figures: Christ and Judas. He was looking for sitters for them for a very long time. Finally, he managed to find a model for the image of Christ among the young singers. Leonardo failed to find a sitter for Judas for three years. But one day he came across a drunkard lying in the gutter on the street. He was a young man who had been aged by heavy drinking. Leonardo invited him to a tavern, where he immediately began to write Judas from him. When the drunkard came to his senses, he told the artist that he had already posed for him once. It was a few years ago, when he sang in the church choir, Leonardo wrote Christ from him.
Innocent story "Gothic"
Grant Wood, american gothic", 1930.
Grant Wood's work is considered one of the strangest and most depressing in history. American painting. The picture with a gloomy father and daughter is overflowing with details that indicate the severity, puritanism and retrogradeness of the people depicted. In fact, the artist did not intend to depict any horrors: during a trip to Iowa, he noticed a small house in gothic style and decided to portray those people who, in his opinion, would be ideally suited as inhabitants. Grant's sister and his dentist are immortalized in the form of characters that the people of Iowa were so offended by.
« The night Watch” or “Daytime”?
Rembrandt, The Night Watch, 1642.
One of the most famous paintings Rembrandt’s “Speech of the Rifle Company of Captain Frans Banning Cock and Lieutenant Willem van Ruytenbürg” hung in different halls for about two hundred years and was discovered by art historians only in the 19th century. Since the figures seemed to stand out against a dark background, it was called the Night Watch, and under this name it entered the treasury of world art. And only during the restoration, carried out in 1947, it turned out that in the hall the picture had managed to become covered with a layer of soot, which distorted its color. After clearing original painting it finally turned out that the scene presented by Rembrandt actually takes place during the day. The position of the shadow from the left hand of Captain Kok shows that the duration of the action is no more than 14 hours.
capsized boat
Henri Matisse, The Boat, 1937.
At the New York Museum contemporary art in 1961, Henri Matisse's painting "The Boat" was exhibited. Only after 47 days did someone notice that the painting was hanging upside down. The canvas depicts 10 purple lines and two blue sails on a white background. The artist painted two sails for a reason, the second sail is a reflection of the first one on the surface of the water. In order not to be mistaken in how the picture should hang, you need to pay attention to the details. The larger sail should be at the top of the painting, and the peak of the sail of the painting should be directed to the upper right corner.
Deception in a self-portrait
Vincent van Gogh, Self Portrait with a Pipe, 1889.
There are legends that Van Gogh allegedly cut off his own ear. Now the most reliable version is that van Gogh's ear was damaged in a small scuffle with the participation of another artist, Paul Gauguin. The self-portrait is interesting because it reflects reality in a distorted form: the artist is depicted with a bandaged right ear, because he used a mirror when working. In fact, the left ear was damaged.
Two "Breakfasts on the Grass"
Édouard Manet, Luncheon on the Grass, 1863.
Claude Monet, Breakfast on the Grass, 1865.
Artists Edouard Manet and Claude Monet are sometimes confused - after all, they were both French, lived at the same time and worked in the style of impressionism. Even the name of one of Manet's most famous paintings, "Breakfast on the Grass", Monet borrowed and wrote his "Breakfast on the Grass".
alien bears
Ivan Shishkin, "Morning in pine forest", 1889.
The famous painting belongs not only to the brush of Shishkin. Many artists who were friends with each other often resorted to "the help of a friend", and Ivan Ivanovich, who had been painting landscapes all his life, was afraid that touching bears would not turn out the way he needed. Therefore, Shishkin turned to a familiar animal painter Konstantin Savitsky.
Savitsky drew perhaps the best bears in history Russian painting, and Tretyakov ordered that his name be washed off the canvas, since everything in the picture “starting from the idea and ending with the execution, everything speaks of the manner of painting, of creative method characteristic of Shishkin.
Secrets of the Old Masters
old oil painting techniques
Flemish method of painting with oil paints
The Flemish method of writing with oil paints basically boiled down to the following: a drawing from the so-called cardboard (a separately executed drawing on paper) was transferred onto a white, smoothly polished ground. Then the drawing was outlined and shaded with a transparent brown paint(tempera or oil). According to Cennino Cennini, already in this form, the paintings looked like perfect works. This technique in its further development changed. The surface prepared for painting was covered with a layer of oil varnish with an admixture of brown paint, through which the shaded drawing shone through. Picturesque work ended with transparent or translucent glazing or semi-hull (semi-covering), in one go, letter. In the shadows, the brown preparation was left to show through. Sometimes, in preparation for brown, they wrote with the so-called dead colors (gray-blue, gray-greenish), finishing with glazing. The Flemish method of painting can be easily traced through many of Rubens' works, especially his studies and sketches, such as Sketch triumphal arch"Apotheosis of Duchess Isabella"
To preserve the beauty of the color of blue paints in oil painting (blue pigments rubbed in oil change their tone), recorded blue colors places were sprinkled (over a not completely dried layer) with ultramarine or smalt powder, and then these places were covered with a layer of glue and varnish. oil paintings sometimes glazed with watercolors; To do this, their surface was previously rubbed with garlic juice.
Italian method of painting with oil paints
The Italians changed the Flemish method, creating a peculiar Italian way of writing. Instead of white soil, the Italians made colored; or white ground was completely covered with some kind of transparent paint. On gray ground1 they drew with chalk or charcoal (without resorting to cardboard). The drawing was outlined with brown glue paint, shadows were laid with it and dark draperies were prescribed. Then they covered the entire surface with layers of glue and varnish, after which they painted with oil paints, starting with laying lights with whitewash. After that, they wrote corpus in local colors on dried bleach preparation; gray soil was left in the penumbra. Finished painting with glazing.
Later, they began to use dark gray primers, performing underpainting with two colors - white and black. Even later, brown, red-brown and even red soils were used. The Italian way of painting was then adopted by some Flemish and Dutch masters(Terborch, 1617-1681; Metsu, 1629-1667 and others).
Examples of the application of the Italian and Flemish methods.
Titian initially painted on white grounds, then switched to colored ones (browns, reds, and finally neutrals), using impasto underpaintings, which were done by grisaille2. In Titian's method, significant specific gravity acquired the letter at one time, at one time without subsequent glazes ( Italian name this method alia prima). Rubens mainly worked on the Flemish method, greatly simplifying the brown shading. He completely covered the white canvas with light brown paint and laid shadows with the same paint, painted grisaille on top, then in local tones or, bypassing grisaille, wrote alia prima. Sometimes Rubens wrote in local more light colors on brown training and finished painting work glazes. Rubens is credited with the following, very fair and instructive statement: “Start to paint your shadows easily, avoiding introducing even an insignificant amount of white into them: white is the poison of painting and can only be introduced in highlights. Once white breaks the transparency, golden tone and warmth of your shadows, your painting will no longer be light, but will become heavy and gray. The situation is quite different with respect to lights. Here paints can be applied in body as needed, but it is necessary, however, to keep the tones clean. This is achieved by applying each tone in its place, one next to the other, so that with a slight movement of the brush it is possible to blur them without disturbing, however, the colors themselves. You can then go through such a painting with decisive final blows, which are so characteristic of great masters.
The Flemish master Van Dyck (1599-1641) preferred body painting. Rembrandt most often painted on gray ground, working through the forms with transparent brown paint very actively (darkly), he also used glazing. smears various colors Rubens applied one next to the other, and Rembrandt overlapped some strokes with others.
A technique similar to the Flemish or Italian - on white or colored soils using pasty masonry and glazing - was widely used up to mid-nineteenth century. Russian artist F. M. Matveev (1758-1826) painted on brown ground with underpaintings made in grayish tones. V. L. Borovikovsky (1757-1825) painted grisaille on gray ground. K. P. Bryullov also often used gray and other colored primers, painted over with grisaille. In the second half of the 19th century, this technique was abandoned and forgotten. Artists began to paint without the strict system of the old masters, thereby narrowing their technical capabilities.
Professor D. I. Kiplik, speaking about the meaning of the color of the ground, notes: Painting with a wide flat light and intense colors (such as the works of Roger van der Weyden, Rubens, etc.) require white ground; the painting, in which deep shadows predominate, is of dark ground (Caravaggio, Velasquez, etc.). “Light ground imparts warmth to the colors applied to it in a thin layer, but deprives them of depth; dark ground gives depth to paints; dark soil with a cold tint - cold (Terborch, Metsu)”.
“In order to evoke the depth of shadows on a light ground, the effect of the white ground on the paints is destroyed by laying the shadows with dark brown paint (Rembrandt); strong lights on dark ground are obtained only when the effect of dark ground on paints is eliminated by applying a sufficient layer of white in the highlights.
“Intense cold tones on an intense red ground (for example, blue) are obtained only if the action of the red ground is paralyzed by preparation in a cold tone or the cold color is applied in a thick layer.”
“The most versatile primer in terms of color is a light gray primer in a neutral tone, as it is equally good for all paints and does not require too impasto painting”1.
Primers of chromatic colors affect both the lightness of the paintings and their overall color. The influence of the color of the soil in case of corpus and glazing writing affects differently. So, green paint, laid with a non-translucent body layer on a red ground, in its environment looks especially saturated, but applied with a transparent layer (for example, in watercolor) loses saturation or completely achromatizes, since the green light reflected and transmitted by it is absorbed by the red ground.
Secrets of making materials for oil painting
OIL PROCESSING AND REFINING
Oils from the seeds of flax, hemp, sunflower, as well as walnut kernels are obtained by squeezing with a press. There are two ways to squeeze: hot and cold. Hot when crushed seeds are heated and a highly colored oil is obtained, which is not very suitable for painting. Much better oil, squeezed from seeds in a cold way, it turns out less than with a hot method, but it is not contaminated with various impurities and does not have a dark brown color, but is only slightly colored in yellow. Freshly obtained oil contains a number of impurities harmful to painting: water, protein substances and mucus, which greatly affect its ability to dry out and form durable films. That's why; the oil should be processed or, as they say, "ennobled", removing water, protein mucus and all sorts of impurities from it. At the same time, it will also fade and discolor. in the best way oil refinement is its seal, that is, oxidation. To do this, freshly obtained oil is poured into wide-mouthed glass jars, covered with gauze and exposed in spring and summer to the sun and air. To clean the oil from impurities and protein mucus, well-dried black bread crackers are placed on the bottom of the jar, about as much as to occupy x / 5 jars. Then the jars of oil are placed in the sun and air for 1.5-2 months. Oil, absorbing atmospheric oxygen, oxidizes and thickens; under the action of sunlight, it bleaches, thickens and becomes almost colorless. Rusks, on the other hand, retain protein mucus and various contaminants contained in the oil. The oil obtained in this way is the best painting material and can be successfully used both for erasing with paints and for diluting ready-made paints. When it dries, it forms strong and resistant films that are incapable of cracking and retain their glossiness and brilliance when dried. This oil dries in a thin layer slowly, but immediately in its entire thickness and gives very durable shiny films. Raw oil dries only from the surface. First, its layer is covered with a film, and completely crude oil remains under it.
OLIFA AND ITS PREPARATION
Drying oil is called boiled drying vegetable oil(linseed, poppy, walnut, etc.). Depending on the cooking conditions of the oil, the cooking temperature, the quality and pre-treatment of the oil, drying oils of completely different quality and properties are obtained. drying oils: fast heating of oil up to 280-300° - hot way at which the oil boils; slow heating of the oil to 120-150°, excluding boiling of the oil during its cooking, - cold way and, finally, the third way - languishing oil in a warm oven for 6-12 days. The best drying oils suitable for painting purposes1 can only be obtained by the cold method and oil languishing. boil. The boiled oil is poured into glass vessel and openly put in the air and the sun for 2-3 months to brighten and compact. After that, the oil is carefully drained, trying not to touch the sediment that remains at the bottom of the vessel, and filtered. Oil languishing consists in pouring raw oil into a glazed clay pot and putting it in a warm oven for 12-14 days. When foam appears on the oil, it is considered ready. The foam is removed, the oil is allowed to stand for 2-3 months in the air and the sun in glass jar, then carefully drained without touching the sediment, and filtered through gauze. As a result of cooking the oil in these two ways, very light, well-compacted oils are obtained, which, when dried, give strong and shiny films. These oils do not contain protein substances, mucus and water, since water evaporates during the cooking process, and protein substances and mucus coagulate and remain in the sediment. For a better precipitation of protein substances and other impurities during the settling of the oil, it is useful to put a small amount of well-dried crackers from brown bread into it. While cooking the oil, put 2-3 heads of finely chopped garlic into it. Well-cooked drying oils, especially from poppy seed oil, are a good painting material and can be added to oil paints, be used to dilute paints in the process of writing, and also serve as integral part oil and emulsion primers.
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Zvenigorod, 1922
Yellow barn, 1909
Secrets of tonal painting by Nikolai Krymov. Mastery Lessons
Krymov never sought to create huge canvases. In his youth, this was due to limited funds: outwardly fit and respectable, the artist was in great need during his studies. Having no money for painting supplies, he used the paints that were cleaned from their canvases by wealthy students who preferred a “wide” painting style. “It is not at all necessary to paint huge canvases with broad strokes. You can write with one small brush on a small canvas and spend paint on a penny, ”he instructed his students much later. IN mature years big sizes The masters could no longer add anything to the canvas to the individuality: his landscapes, chamber in size, always remained monumental. But implicitly, the need for large canvases still existed, and the creation of such a work has always been both a joy and a revelation for Krymov.
In the painting "Summer Day" (1914), depicting bathers on the banks of a small river, he managed to convey that Dionysian connection with nature, which symbolist poets loved to glorify so much. Krymov observes the effect of reflection with attention and interest: the “inverted”, reflected world on the canvas doubles and changes in tone. “If you paint water and reflection in water, then remember that all contrasts come together,” the artist instructed.
In a prized artist European XVII century, such a work would be called "Landscape with bathers." This name would allow the author to bring concreteness and accuracy to the picture. Krymov called his work unpretentiously - "Summer Day". It gives the viewer the opportunity to speculate, fantasize, without depriving the work of authenticity. Pleasant bliss seems to be spilled over the green shore, where five bathers are located. Their softly luminous rose-golden bodies, penetrated by the sun and shrouded in moist vapors, gently contrast with the light grass. Sliding shadows whimsically decorate them. Compositionally, they are a unifying principle on the canvas, but still the image of nature is the main thing here.
Plunging into the contemplation of this or that landscape, we sometimes forget that this name, which comes from the French word paysage, (and it, in turn, is derived from the word pays - country, area), means such a genre visual arts, in which the main subject of the image is wild or, to one degree or another, nature transformed by man. And if nature as such is unchanging, then there are many ways to depict it. Heroic, epic, romantic landscapes succeed each other in the same sequence as the centuries. The change of tastes and predilections in the works of the same author makes it possible to see his works for decades different and changed.
In the painting “Autumn”, unpretentious in theme, but sonorous and decorative in color, Krymov justifiably boldly uses the traditions of Russian signs, popular prints. Conciseness, clarity, stinginess visual means exactly match the creative intent. It would seem that far behind (in 1907-1909) left the artist's creative rethinking of what is called "primitive" in art. But the elements of this "naive" vision of the world are obvious.
The whole Krymov family (he, wife, sister, nephews) spent the summer of 1917-1918 in the Ryazan province on the estate of Vsevolod Mamontov, a friend of Nikolai Petrovich. Usually, when choosing housing for the summer, the artist always sought to find a house that would have a balcony on the second floor, from where it would be convenient to paint landscapes. That is why the “top view” is chosen in this painting, as if the painter is flying low above the ground on a fabulous flying carpet. The low flight allows a good view of the "toy house", although by definition it should be a solid village hut. Bright sunlight as if he deprived him of weight, and the logs - of gravity. A leisurely movement of the gaze along the canvas allows you to see a small clearing framed by Christmas trees, and on it - a cozy home and golden trees. Everything is dominated by the poetic-contemplative state of the artist, which allows him to look equally attentively at the earth and at the sky.
Krymov worked in nature only in the summer. But, despite the fact that winter landscapes are painted from memory (the exceptions are the "roofs" seen through the window) and there is an element of fantasy in them, they are at the same time very reliable in conveying the state of nature, the landscape environment, lighting and color.
The winter landscapes of the artist, arranged in a certain order, could give a detailed and resonant in color story about this season: winter is the time short days and long evenings winter - the rest of nature invisible to the eye and a quite tangible pause for the villagers between sufferings; winter is the time of holidays and games, but also the time of tireless everyday work; winter is a caring and tidy mistress, covering all unattractiveness with snow. And the snow! It can be dry, prickly, hard, or it can be soft and fluffy. His coldness is deceptive: he carefully covers winter crops so that in spring they will give new shoots. And he is also an optical instrument, refracting in which the world is painted in fabulous colors.
This is exactly how he is in the Crimean "Winter Evening" (1919). The shaded foreground reveals to the world lilac-blue snows, from under whose guardianship the bushes are hardly selected. And in the background, where people are walking slowly, and in the third, where a sleigh heavily loaded with hay is slowly moving, it is pinkish-lilac. It is whitest of all on the roofs of the huts, but having absorbed the ghostly warmth of the short rays of the setting sun, it is highlighted with pale ocher and silver.
An artist should be happy, for whom the beauty of the surrounding world is valuable in itself, no matter what fateful events occur!
From 1920, for eight years, Krymov, with his wife and relatives, traveled for the summer near Zvenigorod: after all, these were the famous Levitan places - Savvinskaya Sloboda. They lived in the house of the artist Alexei Sergeevich Rybakov, which was located near Krymov. The charm of these places gave a creative impetus to the artist.
It is difficult to find a more modest and everyday look than in the painting "Grey Day" (1923). How not to remember Alexander Blok: “But even like this, my Russia, you are dearer to me than all the edges ...”
Wanting to expand the boundaries of the picture in depth, the artist did not close himself in a narrow horizontal space along a wicker fence, but gave a panoramic view of distant meadows stretching to the horizon. Almost half of the canvas (in the found position of the horizon line, the “slightly” valued by the artist appears) is given to the sky, through which intermittent gray rain clouds are moving rapidly. These two elements - heaven and earth (the word "element" seems too strong for such a chamber landscape) - are inextricably linked: the rain that poured from the clouds made the grass, bushes, thatched roofs wet, and the swift wind shaggy and tears the foliage of the old willow in the center paintings. In that small canvas Krymov seeks to fix a certain moment or “state” he saw in the landscape.
