Based on Hesiod's poem "Works and Days"

The immortal gods living on the bright Olympus created the first human race happy; it was a golden age. God Kron ruled then in the sky. Like blessed gods, people lived in those days, knowing neither care, nor labor, nor sorrow. Nor did they know feeble old age; their legs and arms were always strong and strong. Their painless happy life was an eternal feast. Death, which came after their long life, was like a calm, quiet sleep. They had everything in abundance during their lifetime. The land itself gave them rich fruits, and they did not have to spend labor on cultivating fields and gardens. Their flocks were numerous, and they grazed quietly on rich pastures. The people of the golden age lived serenely. The gods themselves came to consult them. But the golden age on earth ended, and none of the people of this generation remained. After death, people of the golden age became spirits, patrons of people of new generations. Shrouded in mist, they rush all over the earth, defending the truth and punishing evil. So Zeus rewarded them after their death.

The second human race and the second age were no longer as happy as the first. It was the silver age. People were not equal either in strength or intellect silver age golden people. For a hundred years they grew up foolish in the houses of their mothers, only when they grew up did they leave them. Their lives were short adulthood, and since they were unreasonable, they saw many misfortunes and grief in life. The people of the Silver Age were rebellious. They did not obey the immortal gods and did not want to burn their sacrifices on the altars, great son Krona Zeus destroyed their kind on earth. He was angry with them because they did not obey the gods living on the bright Olympus. Zeus settled them in the underground gloomy kingdom. There they live, knowing neither joy nor sorrow; they, too, are honored by the people.

Father Zeus created the third generation and the third century - the age of copper. It doesn't look like silver. From the shaft of a spear, Zeus created people - terrible and powerful. The people of the copper age loved pride and war, plentiful with groans. They did not know agriculture and did not eat the fruits of the earth, which give gardens and arable land. Zeus gave them enormous growth and indestructible strength. Indomitable, courageous was their heart and irresistible their hands. Their weapons were forged from copper, their houses were made of copper, they worked with copper tools. They did not know even in those days of dark iron. With their with my own hands destroyed each other people of the copper age. They quickly went to dark kingdom terrible Hades. No matter how strong they were, yet the black death stole them, and they left the clear light of the sun.

As soon as this race descended into the kingdom of shadows, immediately the great Zeus created the fourth century on the earth that feeds everyone and a new race of people, a nobler, more just, equal to the gods race of demigods-heroes. And they all died in evil wars and terrible bloody battles. Some died at the seven gates of Thebes, in the country of Cadmus, fighting for the legacy of Oedipus. Others fell near Troy, where they came for the beautifully curly Helen, sailed across the wide sea on ships. When all of them were kidnapped by death, Zeus the Thunderer settled them on the edge of the earth, away from living people. The demigod-heroes live a happy, carefree life on the islands of the blessed by the stormy waters of the Ocean. There, the fertile land gives them fruits as sweet as honey three times a year.

The last, fifth century and the human race is iron. It continues to this day on earth. Night and day, without ceasing, sadness and exhausting work destroy people. The gods send people heavy worries. True, the gods and good are mixed with evil, but still there is more evil, it reigns everywhere. Children do not honor their parents; a friend is not faithful to a friend; the guest does not find hospitality; there is no love between brothers. People do not keep this oath, they do not appreciate the truth and kindness. Each other's cities are being destroyed. Violence reigns everywhere. Only pride and strength are valued. Goddesses Conscience and Justice left people. In their white clothes, they flew up to the high Olympus to the immortal gods, and only serious troubles remained for people, and they have no protection from evil

It is difficult to overestimate the role of ancient Greece in the development of human civilization. How many great poets and thinkers she revealed to the world! However, the real, everyday life of the ancient Greeks was far from being as bright and spiritual as it is commonly believed, and often difficult, dirty and disgusting.

1. The doctor could taste the patient's earwax

The main method of diagnosis by doctors in ancient Greece was the study of biological fluids. This method originates from Hippocrates, who believed that human organs secrete certain biological fluids, and each of them has a specific taste.

Greek physicians had to know the normal smell and taste of these fluids in order to be able to make a diagnosis from their change. Even vomit, sputum, urine, etc. - all this could be the subject of an organoleptic study. And visiting a doctor in ancient Greece, one could witness how he tastes the earwax or urine of the patient.

2. People wiped themselves with stones

In Europe, they did not know what toilet paper was until the 16th century. Therefore, they came up with other ways to wipe themselves. Some Greeks used a sponge attached to a stick for this, but not everyone had such a device. More often, pebbles or shards from broken ceramic dishes were used for these purposes. A very common disease in Greece was hemorrhoids, probably as a result of the use of stones and shards.

3. Athletes sold their sweat

Before the competition, Greek athletes took off all their clothes, smeared their bodies with oil and performed in this form, regardless of the type of competition - whether it was wrestling or running. After the competition, they cleaned off the remnants of dirt and sweat from their skin, and groups of slaves helped them in this. The cleaned dirt was not thrown away, but used for medical purposes.

People rubbed it on their skin, it was believed that it helps to relieve pain. But even if there was no effect, they were proud that now they smelled like Olympians.

4. Impurities in the treatment of female diseases

The Greeks believed that women had a unique susceptibility to impurities. These ideas have even been used in medicine. And when a woman fell ill, it was believed that the most disgusting impurities would be the best medicine for her. After the miscarriage, the woman was given a mixture of roasted mule dung mixed with wine to drink. If she had a premature birth, cow excrement was applied to her. The Greeks believed that the woman's uterus in this case had shifted from its place, but having felt the terrible smell of cow dung, it would return to its place.

5. Sneezing as a method of preventing pregnancy

The Greek physician Soranus believed that women should be responsible for contraception. And if a woman becomes pregnant, then she herself is to blame. Soran taught women that it was enough for them to simply sneeze instead of using contraceptives. After making love, a woman should squat, sneeze and wash herself, and then she will not become pregnant. The absurdity of this idea is obvious. But Soran had several other similar tips in store.

6 Chastity Belts For Slaves

The Greeks did not allow their slaves to waste time making love. And to be sure, they made them wear something like a chastity belt. A metal ring was put on the genitals of the slaves, so tightly that the slaves experienced pain even during sexual arousal. And if the owner forced his slaves to wear a chastity belt, they did not resist, because they knew that there was an even more cruel alternative - to become a eunuch.

7. Ancient Greek ideas about lesbians

In ancient Greece, many men had rather strange ideas about lesbians, and they did not know what exactly they were doing. The Greeks came to the conclusion that women become lesbians who have a very large clitoris, the so-called “female penis”. And these ideas about the cause of female homosexuality lasted quite a long time.

8. Crocodile excrement as a cream

The Greeks often became victims of attacks by crocodiles. However, crocodiles not only posed a threat to life, but were also used for medical purposes, albeit in a somewhat strange way. The Greeks recommended treating scars around the eyes with crocodile dung, using them as eye shadow. A similar method is described in one of the medical documents of Ancient Greece.

9. Phallic processions

Once a year, a festival was held in Athens in honor of Dionysus, and the phallus served as a symbol of this deity. Men and women walked the streets proudly holding giant phalluses over their heads as a tribute to the god. These noisy and numerous processions were accompanied by special phallic songs and rude jokes. According to Aristotle, comedy was subsequently born from the initiators of phallic processions.

10. The first toast appeared in ancient Greece

Today, when we toast at parties, most of us don't give a second thought to where the tradition began, or for what reason. As it turned out, it originated in ancient Greece. The host of the celebration always took the first sip of wine to assure the guests that it was not poisoned - hence the phrase "to drink to someone's health" appeared.

For thousands of years, people have observed the movement of celestial bodies and natural phenomena. And they always wondered: how the Universe works. In ancient times, the picture of the structure of the universe was greatly simplified. People simply divided the world into two parts - Heaven and Earth. About how the firmament is arranged, each nation built its own ideas.

The earth in the view of the peoples of antiquity was a large flat disk, the surface of which is inhabited by people and everything that surrounds them. The Sun, Moon and 5 planets (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn), according to ancient people, are small luminous celestial bodies, attached to the sphere, which continuously rotate around the disk, making full turn during the day.

It was believed that the earth's firmament is motionless and is located in the center of the universe, that is, each ancient people one way or another, I came to the conclusion: our planet is the center of the world.

Such a geocentric (from the Greek word Geo - earth) view was present in almost all peoples ancient world- Greeks, Egyptians, Slavs, Hindus…

Almost all theories about the world order, the origin of heaven and earth that appeared at that time were idealistic, since they had a divine beginning.

But there were differences in the representation of the structure of the universe, since they were based on myths, traditions and legends inherent in different civilizations.

There were four main theories: different, but somewhat similar ideas about the structure of the universe by the ancient peoples.

Legends of India

The ancient peoples of India represented the earth as a hemisphere, leaning on the backs of four huge elephants, standing, in turn, on a turtle, and the black snake Sheshu closed the entire near-earth space.

The idea of ​​​​the structure of the world in Greece

The ancient Greeks claimed that the Earth has the shape of a convex disk, resembling a warrior's shield in shape. Around the land was surrounded by an endless sea, from which every night the stars came out. Every morning they drowned in its depths. The sun in the face of the god Helios on a golden chariot rose early in the morning from east sea, made a circle in the sky and again returned to its place in the late evening. And the vault of heaven was held on its shoulders by the mighty Atlas.

ancient greek philosopher Thales of Miletus imagined the Universe as a liquid mass, inside of which there is a large hemisphere. The curved surface of the hemisphere is the vault of heaven, and the lower, flat surface, freely floating in the sea, is the Earth.

However, this outdated hypothesis was refuted by the ancient Greek materialists, who provided convincing evidence of the roundness of the land. Aristotle was convinced of this, observing nature, how the stars change their height over the horizon, and the ships disappear behind the swell of the earth.

Earth through the eyes of the ancient Egyptians

The people of Egypt imagined our planet in a completely different way. The planet seemed flat to the Egyptians, and the sky in the form of a huge dome rested on four high mountains located at the four corners of the world. Egypt was located in the center of the earth.

The ancient Egyptians used the images of their gods to personify spaces, surfaces and elements. The earth - the goddess Gebe - lay below, above it, bending, stood the goddess Nut (starry sky), and the air god Shu, who was between them, did not allow her to fall to the Earth. It was believed that the goddess Nut swallowed the stars every day and gave birth to them again. The sun daily passed its way through the sky on a golden boat, which was ruled by the god Ra.

The ancient Slavs also had their own idea of ​​the structure of the world. The world, in their opinion, was divided into three parts:

Between themselves, all three worlds are connected, like an axis, by the World Tree. In the branches of the sacred tree live the stars, the Sun and the Moon, and at the roots - the Serpent. sacred tree was considered a support, without which the world would collapse if it was destroyed.

The answer to the question of how in ancient times people represented our planet helps to find ancient artifacts that have survived to this day.

Scientists find the first prototypes of geographical maps in different countries, they are known to us in the form of images on the walls of temples, frescoes, drawings in the first astronomical books. In ancient times, man sought to pass on information about the structure of the world to subsequent generations. Man's idea of ​​the Earth largely depended on the relief, nature and climate of the places where he lived.

The culture of Ancient Greece has existed since the 28th century. BC. and until the middle of the II century. BC. It is also called ancient - to distinguish it from other ancient cultures, and Ancient Greece itself - Hellas, since the Greeks themselves called their country that. The highest rise and flourishing is ancient Greek culture reached in the V-IV centuries. BC, becoming an exceptional, unique and largely unsurpassed phenomenon in the history of world culture.

The heyday of the culture of Ancient Hellas turned out to be so amazing that it still causes deep admiration and gives reason to talk about the real mystery of the “Greek miracle”. The essence of this miracle is, first of all, that Greek people almost simultaneously and in almost all areas of culture, it was possible to achieve unprecedented heights. No other nation, before or since, has been able to do anything like it.

Giving such a high assessment of the achievements of the Hellenes, it should be clarified that they borrowed a lot from the Egyptians and Babylonians, which was facilitated by the Greek cities of Asia Minor - Miletus, Ephesus, Halicarnassus, which served as a kind of windows open to the East. However, they used everything borrowed rather as source material, bringing it to classical forms and true perfection.

And if the Greeks were not the first, then they were the best, and to such an extent that in many respects they remain so today. The second clarification concerns the fact that in the field of economics and material production, the successes of the Hellenes may not have been so impressive. However, here, too, they were not only not inferior to some of their contemporaries, but also surpassed them, as evidenced by the victories in the Persian wars, where they acted not so much in numbers as in skill and intelligence. True, in military terms, Athens - the cradle of democracy - was inferior to Sparta, where the whole way of life was military. As for other areas public life and especially spiritual culture, then in all this the Greeks knew no equal.

Hellas has become the birthplace of all modern forms of state and government, and above all - the republic and democracy, the highest flowering of which fell on the years of the reign of Pericles (443-429 BC). For the first time in Greece Two distinct types of work stand out physical and mental, the first of which was considered unworthy of a person and was the lot of a forced slave, while the second was the only one worthy of a free person.

Although city-states existed in other ancient civilizations, it was the Greeks who had this type of social organization, which adopted policy form, with the greatest force showed all its advantages. The Greeks successfully combined public and private ownership, collective and individual interest. Similarly, they connected the aristocracy with the republic by spreading the values ​​of the aristocratic ethic - adversarial principle, the desire to be the first and the best, achieving this in an open and honest struggle - on all citizens of the policy.

Competitiveness was the basis of the whole way of life of the Hellenes, it permeated all its spheres, whether Olympic Games, a dispute, a battlefield or a theatrical stage, when several authors took part in the festive performances, bringing their plays to the audience, from which the best one was then chosen.

Polis democracy, excluding despotic power, allowed the Greeks to fully enjoy the spirit freedom which was the highest value for them. For her sake, they were ready to die. They viewed slavery with deep contempt. This is evidenced by famous myth about Prometheus, who did not want to be in the position of a slave even to Zeus himself, the main deity of the Hellenes, and paid for his freedom with martyrdom.

Lifestyle of the ancient Greeks cannot be imagined without an understanding of the place occupied by them a game. They loved the game. That is why they are called real children. However, the game for them was not just fun or a way to kill time. It permeated all activities, including the most serious ones. The game beginning helped the Greeks move away from the prose of life and rough pragmatism. The game led to the fact that they received pleasure and enjoyment from any business.

The way of life of the Hellenes was also determined by such values ​​as truth, beauty and goodness that were in close association. The Greeks had a special concept of "kalokagatia", which meant "beautiful-kind". "Truth" in their understanding was approaching what Russian word“truth-justice”, i.e. she went beyond the boundaries of "truth-truth", true knowledge, and acquired a moral value dimension.

Equally important to the Greeks measure, which was inextricably linked with proportionality, moderation, harmony and order. From Democritus, the well-known maxim has come down to us: "Adequate measure in everything is beautiful." The inscription above the entrance to the temple of Apollo at Delphi called for: "Nothing too much." Therefore, the Greeks, on the one hand, considered own an inalienable attribute of a person: along with the loss of property, the Hellenes lost all civil and political rights, ceasing to be a free person. At the same time, the pursuit of wealth was condemned. This feature was also observed in architecture, the Greeks did not create, like the Egyptians, gigantic structures, their buildings were commensurate with the possibilities of human perception, they did not suppress a person.

The ideal of the Greeks was harmoniously developed, free man, beautiful soul and body. The formation of such a person was provided by a thoughtful system of education and upbringing. which included two directions - "gymnastic" and "musical". The goal of the first was physical perfection. Its pinnacle was participation in Olympic Games ah, the winners of which were surrounded by glory and honor. At the time of the Olympic Games, all wars ceased. The musical, or humanitarian, direction involved learning all kinds of arts, mastering scientific disciplines and philosophy, including rhetoric, i.e. the ability to speak beautifully, to conduct a dialogue and an argument. Pse types of education rested on the principle of competition.

All this has done Greek polis exceptional, unique phenomenon in the history of mankind. The Hellenes perceived the policy as the highest good, not imagining their life outside its framework, they were its true patriots.

True, pride in their polis and patriotism contributed to the formation of Greek cultural ethnocentrism, due to which the Hellenes called their neighboring peoples "barbarians", looked down on them. Nevertheless, it was precisely such a policy that gave the Greeks everything they needed to show unprecedented originality in all areas of culture, to create everything that constitutes the “Greek miracle”.

In almost all areas, the Greeks put forward the "founding fathers" who laid the foundation for their modern forms. First of all, it concerns philosophy. The Greeks were the first to create a modern form of philosophy, separating it from religion and mythology, starting to explain the world from itself, without resorting to the help of the gods, based on the primary elements, which for them were water, earth, air, fire.

The first Greek philosopher was Thales, for whom water was the basis of all things. The peaks of Greek philosophy were Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. The transition from a religious-mythological view of the world to a philosophical understanding of it meant a fundamental change in the development of the human mind. At the same time, philosophy became modern both in terms of the method - scientific and rational, and in the way of thinking, based on logic and proof. The Greek word "philosophy" has entered almost all languages.

The same can be said about other sciences and, first of all, about mathematics. Pythagoras, Euclid and Archimedes are the founders of both mathematics itself and the main mathematical disciplines - geometry, mechanics, optics, hydrostatics. IN astronomy Aristarchus of Samos was the first to express the idea of ​​heliocentrism, according to which the Earth moves around the fixed Sun. Hippocrates became the founder of modern clinical medicine, Herodotus is rightfully considered the father stories like science. Aristotle's "Poetics" is the first fundamental work that no modern art theorist can bypass.

Approximately the same situation is observed in the field of art. Almost all types and genres contemporary art were born in Ancient Hellas, and many of them reached the classical forms and the highest level. The latter applies primarily to sculpture, where the Greeks are rightly given the palm. It is represented by a whole galaxy of great masters, led by Phidias.

This equally applies to literature and its genres - epic, poetry. The Greek tragedy, which has reached the highest level, deserves special mention. Many Greek tragedies are still on stage today. Born in Greece order architecture, which has also reached a high level of development. It should be emphasized that art was of great importance in the life of the Greeks. They wanted not only to create, but also to live according to the laws of beauty. The Greeks were the first to feel the need to fill all spheres of human life high art. They quite consciously strove for the aestheticization of life, for comprehending the "art of existence", in order to make a work of art out of their lives.

The ancient Greeks showed exceptional originality in religion. Outwardly, their religious and mythological ideas and cults are not too different from others. Initially, the growing array of Greek gods was quite chaotic and conflicted. Then, after a long struggle, the Olympian gods of the third generation are approved, between which a relatively stable hierarchy is established.

Zeus becomes the supreme deity - the lord of the sky, thunder and lightning. The second after him is Apollo - the patron of all arts, the god of healers and a bright, calm beginning in nature. Apollo's sister Artemis was the goddess of the hunt and the patroness of youth. Not less than important place occupied by Dionysus (Bacchus) - the god of the productive, violent forces of nature, viticulture and winemaking. Many rituals and merry festivities were associated with his cult - Dionysia and Bacchanalia. The god of the sun was Gelios (Helium).

The goddess of wisdom, Athena, who was born from the head of Zeus, enjoyed special reverence among the Hellenes. Her constant companion was the goddess of victory, Nike. The owl was the symbol of Athena's wisdom. No less attention was attracted by the goddess of love and beauty Aphrodite, who was born from sea foam. Demeter was the goddess of agriculture and fertility. The competence of Hermes included, apparently, largest number duties: he was the messenger of the Olympic gods, the god of trade, profit and material wealth, patron of deceivers and thieves, shepherds and travelers, speakers and athletes. He also accompanied the souls of the dead to underworld. into the domain of the god Hades (Hades, Pluto).

In addition to those named, the Greeks had many other gods. They liked to invent new gods, and they did it with passion. In Athens, they even set up an altar with a dedication: "to an unknown god." However, in inventing the gods, the Hellenes were not very original. This has been observed in other nations as well. Their real originality lay in the way they treated their gods.

At the heart of the religious ideas of the Greeks there was no idea of ​​the omnipotence of the gods. They believed that the world is governed not so much by divine will as by natural laws. At the same time, over the whole world, all the gods and people soars irresistible rock whose prejudice even the gods cannot change. Fatal fate is not subject to anyone, so the Greek gods are closer to people than to supernatural forces.

Unlike the gods of other peoples, they are anthropomorphic, although in the distant past the Greeks also had zoomorphic deities. Some Greek philosophers claimed that people themselves invented gods in their own image, that if the animals would decide to do the same, their gods would be like themselves.

The smooth and most significant difference between gods and people was that they were immortal. The second difference was that they were also beautiful, although not all of them: Hephaestus, for example, was lame. However, their divine beauty was considered quite achievable for a person. In all other respects, the world of the gods was similar to the world of people. The gods suffered and rejoiced, loved and were jealous, quarreled among themselves, harmed and took revenge on each other, etc. The Greeks did not identify, but did not draw an insurmountable line between people and gods. mediators between them were heroes, who were born from the marriage of a god with an earthly woman and who, for their exploits, could be introduced to the world of the gods.

The proximity between man and God had a significant impact on the religious consciousness and practice of the Hellenes. They believed their gods, worshiped them, built temples for them and made sacrifices. But they did not have blind admiration, trepidation, and even less fanaticism. We can say that long before Christianity, the Greeks already adhered to the well-known Christian commandment: "Do not make yourself an idol." The Greeks could afford to be critical of the gods. Moreover, they often challenged them. A vivid example of this is the same myth about Prometheus, who daringly challenged the gods, stealing fire from them and giving it to people.

If other peoples deified their kings and rulers, then the Greeks excluded such a thing. The leader of Athenian democracy, Pericles, under whom it reached its highest point, had nothing at his disposal to convince his fellow citizens of the correctness of his point of view, except for an outstanding mind, arguments, oratory and eloquence.

Has a special uniqueness Greek mythology. Everything that happens in it is as human as the gods themselves, which are described in Greek myths. Along with the gods, a significant place in the myths is occupied by the deeds and exploits of the "god-like heroes", who are often the main actors in the narrated events. In Greek mythology, mysticism is practically absent, mysterious, supernatural forces are not very important. The main thing in it is artistic imagery and poetry, playful beginning. Greek mythology is much closer to art than to religion. That is why it formed the foundation of the great Greek art. For the same reason, Hegel called the Greek religion "the religion of beauty."

Greek mythology, like all Greek culture, contributed to the glorification and exaltation not so much of the gods as of man. It is in the face of the Hellenes that man first begins to realize his boundless powers and possibilities. Sophocles remarks on this: “There are many great forces in the world. But there is nothing stronger than man in nature.” Even more meaningful are the words of Archimedes: "Give me a point of support - and I will turn the whole world upside down." In all this, the future European, the transformer and conqueror of nature, is already quite visible.

The evolution of ancient Greek culture

Preclassic periods

In the evolution of the culture of ancient Greece, they usually distinguish five periods:

• Aegean culture (2800-1100 BC).
• Homeric period (XI-IX centuries BC).
• The period of archaic culture (VIII-VI centuries BC).
• Classical period (V-IV centuries BC).
• The era of Hellenism (323-146 BC).

Aegean culture

Aegean culture often called Crete-Mycenaean, while considering the island of Crete and Mycenae as its main centers. It is also called the Minoan culture, after the legendary king Minos, under whom the island of Crete, which occupied a leading position in the region, reached its highest power.

At the end of the III millennium BC. in the south of the Balkan Peninsula. In the Peloponnese and the island of Crete, early class societies were formed and the first centers of statehood arose. This process was somewhat faster on the island of Crete, where by the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. the first four states appeared with palace centers in Knossos, Phaistos, Mallia and Kato-Zakro. Given the special role of palaces, the resulting civilization is sometimes called "palace".

economic basis Cretan civilization was Agriculture, which primarily grew bread, grapes and olives. Animal husbandry also played an important role. Crafts reached a high level, especially bronze smelting. Ceramic production also developed successfully.

The most famous monument of Cretan culture was the Palace of Knossos, which went down in history under the name "Labyrinth", of which only the first floor has survived. The palace was a grandiose multi-storey building, which included 300 rooms on a common platform, which occupied more than 1 hectare. It was provided with an excellent water supply and sewerage system and had terracotta baths. The palace was simultaneously religious, administrative and shopping center, there were craft workshops. The myth of Theseus and the Minotaur is associated with him.

reached a high level in Crete sculpture small forms. In the cache of the Palace of Knossos, statuettes of goddesses with snakes in their hands were found, which are full of grace, grace and femininity. best achievement Cretan art is painting, as evidenced by the preserved fragments of the murals of Knossos and other palaces. As an example, one can point to such bright, colorful and juicy drawings as "The Flower Picker", "The Cat Waiting for the Pheasant", "Playing with the Bull".

The highest flowering of Cretan civilization and culture falls on the XVI-XV centuries. BC, especially during the reign of King Minos. However, at the end of the XV century. BC. flourishing civilization and culture suddenly perish. The cause of the disaster, most likely, was a volcanic eruption.

Emerging in the south of the Balkans Part Aegean culture and civilization was close to Cretan. She also rested on the centers-palaces that developed in Mycenae, Tiryns, Athens, Nilose, Thebes. However, these palaces differed markedly from the Cretan ones: they were powerful citadels-fortresses surrounded by high (more than 7 m) and thick (more than 4.5 m) walls. At the same time, this part of the Aegean culture can be considered more Greek, since it was here, to the south of the Balkans, in the 3rd millennium BC. came the actual Greek tribes - the Achaeans and the Danaans. Due to the special role of the Achaeans, this culture and civilization is often called Achaean. Each center-dvorep was an independent state; there were a variety of relationships between them, including contradictions and conflicts. Sometimes they united in an alliance - as was done for the march on Troy. Hegemony among them more often belonged to the Mycenae.

As in Crete, the basis economy Achaean civilization consisted of agriculture and cattle breeding. The owner of the land was the palace, and the whole economy had a palace character. It included all kinds of workshops in which agricultural products were processed, metals were melted, fabrics were woven and clothes were sewn, tools and military equipment were made.

Most early monuments Achaean culture had a cult, funeral character. These include, first of all, the so-called "shaft tombs", hollowed out in the rocks, where many beautiful items made of gold, silver, ivory, as well as a huge amount of weapons, have been preserved. Gold has also been found here. funeral masks Achaean rulers. Later (XV-XIIJ centuries BC), the Achaeans build more grandiose mortuary structures - "dome tombs", one of which - "Agamemnon's tomb" - included several rooms.

A magnificent monument to the secular architecture was the Mycenaean palace, decorated with columns and frescoes. Also reached a high level painting, as evidenced by the paintings of the surviving walls of Mycenaean and other palaces. Among the most clear examples Murals include the frescoes "Lady with a Necklace", "Fighting Boys", as well as images of hunting and battle scenes, stylized animals - monkeys, antelopes.

The apogee of the culture of Achaean Greece falls on the 15th-13th centuries. BC, but by the end of the XIII century. BC. it begins to decline, and during the XII century. BC. all palaces are destroyed. The most likely cause of death was the invasion northern peoples, among whom were the Greek Dorians, but the exact causes of the disaster have not been established.

Homeric period

Period XI-IX centuries. BC. in the history of Greece it is customary to call Homeric. since the main sources of information about him are the famous poems " Iliad" And "Odyssey". It is also called "Dorian" - referring to the special role of the Dorian tribes in the conquest of Achaean Greece.

It should be noted that the information from the Homeric poems cannot be considered completely reliable and accurate, because they actually turned out to be mixed narratives about three different eras: the final stage of the Achaean era, when the campaign against Troy was made (XIII century BC); Dorian period (XI-IX centuries BC); early archaic, when Homer himself lived and worked (VIII century BC). To this we must add the fiction, hyperbolization and exaggeration, temporary and other confusions, which are characteristic of epic works, and so on.

However, based on the content of Homer's poems and data archaeological sites, we can assume that from the point of view of civilization and material culture the Dorian period meant a certain gap in continuity between epochs and even a rollback, since some elements of the already achieved level of civilization were lost.

In particular, was lost statehood, as well as the urban, or palace way of life, writing. These elements of Greek civilization were actually born anew. At the same time, emerged and became widespread the use of iron contributed to the accelerated development of civilization. The main occupation of the Dorians was still agriculture and cattle breeding. Horticulture and winemaking developed successfully, and olives remained the leading crop. Trade retained its place, where cattle acted as a "general equivalent". Although the rural patriarchal community was the main form of organization of life, the future urban policy was already emerging in its depths.

Concerning spiritual culture, here the continuity was preserved. This is convincingly evidenced by the Homeric poems, from which it is clear that the mythology of the Achaeans, which forms the basis of spiritual life, remained the same. Judging by the poems, there was a further spread of the myth as a special form of consciousness and perception of the surrounding world. There was also an ordering of Greek mythology, which acquired more and more complete, perfect forms.

Period of archaic culture

Archaic period (VIII -VI centuries BC) became a time of rapid and intensive development of Ancient Greece, during which all the necessary conditions and prerequisites for the subsequent amazing rise and flourishing. Profound changes are taking place in almost every area of ​​life. For three centuries, ancient society made the transition from the village to the city, from tribal and patriarchal relations to relations of classical slavery.

The city-state, the Greek policy becomes the main form of socio-political organization of public life. Society seems to be trying all possible forms state structure and government - monarchy, tyranny, oligarchy, aristocratic and democratic republics.

The intensive development of agriculture leads to the release of people, which contributes to the growth of handicrafts. Since this does not solve the "employment problem", the colonization of near and far territories, which began in the Achaean period, is intensifying, as a result of which Greece is growing territorially to an impressive size. Economic progress contributes to the expansion of the market and trade, based on the emerging money circulation system. Started coinage speeds up these processes.

Even more impressive successes and achievements take place in spiritual culture. An exceptional role in its development was played by the creation alphabetic writing, which became the greatest achievement of culture archaic greece. It was developed on the basis of the Phoenician script and is distinguished by its amazing simplicity and accessibility, which made it possible to create an extremely effective education system, thanks to which there were no illiterates in ancient Greece, which was also a huge achievement.

During the archaic period, the main ethical standards and values ancient society, in which the affirming sense of collectivism is combined with an agonistic (competitive) beginning, with the assertion of the rights of the individual and the individual, the spirit of freedom. A special place is occupied by patriotism and citizenship. Protecting one's policy is perceived as the highest virtue of a citizen. During this period, the ideal of a person is also born, in which the spirit and body are in harmony.

The embodiment of this ideal was facilitated by the appearance in 776 BC. Olympic Games. They were held every four years in the city of Olympia and lasted five days, during which the "sacred peace" was observed, stopping all hostilities. The winner of the games enjoyed great honor and had significant social privileges (tax exemption, life pension, permanent places theater and festivals). The one who won the games three times ordered his statue from the famous sculptor and placed it in the sacred grove that surrounded the main shrine of the city of Olympia and all of Greece - the temple of Zeus.

In the archaic era, such phenomena arise ancient culture, How philosophy And spider. Their ancestor was Fal ee, in which they are not yet strictly separated from each other and are within the framework of a single natural philosophy. One of the founders ancient philosophy and science is also the semi-legendary Pythagoras, in whom science, taking the form mathematics, is a completely independent phenomenon.

A high level in the era of archaic reaches art culture. At this time it develops architecture, resting on two types of orders - Doric and Ionic. The leading type of construction is the sacred temple as the abode of God. The most famous and revered is the temple of Apollo at Delphi. There is also monumental sculpture - first wooden, and then stone. Two types are most widespread: a naked male statue, known as a “kouros” (figure of a young athlete), and a draped female statue, an example of which was a bark (upright girl).

Poetry is experiencing a real flowering in this era. The greatest monuments The epic poems of Homer, the Iliad and the Odyssey, already mentioned above, became ancient literature. A little later, Homer was created by another famous Greek poet— Hesiod. His poems "Theogony", i.e. the genealogy of the gods, and the "Catalogue of Women" supplemented and completed what Homer created, after which ancient mythology acquired a classic, perfect look.

Among other poets, the work of Archilochus, the founder of lyric poetry, deserves special mention, whose works are filled with personal suffering and feelings associated with the difficulties and hardships of life. The lyrics of Sappho, the great ancient poetess from the island of Lesvos, who experienced the feelings of a loving, jealous and suffering woman, deserve the same emphasis.

The work of Anacreon, who sang beauty, love, joy, fun and enjoyment of life, had a great influence on European and Russian poetry, in particular on A.S. Pushkin.

Classical period and Hellenism

The classical period (5th-4th centuries BC) was the time of the highest rise and flourishing of ancient Greek civilization and culture. It was this period that gave rise to everything that would later be called the "Greek miracle."

At this time, it is affirmed and fully reveals all its amazing possibilities. antique polis, in which lies the main explanation of the "Greek miracle". becomes one of the highest values ​​for the Hellenes. Democracy also reaches its peak, for which it owes primarily to Pericles, an outstanding politician antiquities.

IN classical period Greece is going through a storm economic development, which is further enhanced after the victory over the Persians. The basis of the economy was still agriculture. Along with it, handicrafts are intensively developing, especially metal smelting. Commodity production is growing rapidly, in particular grapes and olives, and as a result, there is a rapid expansion of exchange and trade. Athens is becoming a major trading center not only within Greece, but throughout the Mediterranean. Egypt, Carthage, Crete, Syria, and Phenicia are actively trading with Athens. Construction is underway on a large scale.

Reaches the highest level . It was during this period that such great minds of antiquity as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle created. Socrates was the first to focus not on questions of the knowledge of nature, but on the problems of human life, the problems of good, evil and justice, the problems of man's knowledge of himself. He also stood at the origins of one of the main directions of all subsequent philosophy - rationalism, the real creator of which was Plato. With the latter, rationalism fully becomes an abstract-theoretical way of thinking and extends to all spheres of being. Aristotle continued the line of Plato and at the same time became the founder of the second main direction of philosophy - empiricism. according to which the real source of knowledge is sensory experience, directly observable data.

Along with philosophy, other sciences are also successfully developing - mathematics, medicine, history.

An unprecedented flourishing in the era of the classics is experienced by artistic culture, and first of all - architecture And urban planning. A significant contribution to the development of urban planning was made by Hippodames, an architect from Miletus, who developed the concept of a regular city planning, according to which functional parts were distinguished in it: community Center, residential area, as well as commercial, industrial and port areas. The main type of monumental building is still the temple.

The Acropolis of Athens has become a true triumph of ancient Greek architecture, one of the greatest masterpieces of world art. This ensemble included the front gates - the Propylaea, the temple of Nike Apteros (Wingless Victory), the Erechtheion and the main temple of Athens Parthenon - the temple of Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin). The Acropolis, built by the architects Iktin and Kalikrat, was located on a high hill and, as it were, hovered over the city, was far visible from the sea. Particularly admirable was the Parthenon, which was decorated with 46 columns and rich sculptural and relief decoration. Plutarch, writing about his impressions of the Acropolis, noted that it included buildings "grand in size and inimitable in beauty."

Among the famous architectural monuments there were also two buildings classified as one of the seven wonders of the world. The first was the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, built on the site of a beautiful predecessor temple of the same name, burnt by Herostratus, who decided to become famous in such a monstrous way. Like the previous one, the restored temple had 127 columns, inside it was decorated with magnificent statues by Praxiteles and Scopas, as well as beautiful picturesque pictures.

The second monument was the tomb of Mausolus, the ruler of Cariy, which later received the name "Mausoleum in Galikarnassus." The construction had two floors with a height of 20 m, the first of which was the tomb of Mausolus and his wife Artemisia. In the second floor, surrounded by a colonnade, sacrifices were kept. The roof of the mausoleum was a pyramid crowned with a marble quadriga, in the chariot of which stood sculptures of Mausolus and Artemisia. Around the tomb were statues of lions and galloping horsemen.

In the era of the classics, the highest perfection reaches the Greek sculpture. In this genre of art, Hellas is recognized as undeniable superiority. antique sculpture represents a whole galaxy masters of genius. The greatest among them is Phidias. His statue of Zeus, which was 14 m high and adorned the temple of Zeus at Olympia, is also one of the seven wonders of the world. He also created a 12 m high statue of Athena Parthenos, which was located in the center of the Athenian Acropolis. Another of his statues - a statue of Athena Promachos (Athena the Warrior) 9m high - depicted a goddess in a helmet with a spear and embodied military power Athens. In addition to the named creations. Phidias also took part in the design of the Athenian Acropolis and in the creation of its plastic decoration.

Among other sculptors, the most famous are Pythagoras Regius, who created the statue "Boy taking out a splinter"; Miron - the author of the sculptures "Discobolus" and "Athena and Marsyas"; Polykleitos the master bronze sculpture, who created the "Dorifor" (Spearman) and " wounded amazon”, and also wrote the first theoretical work on the proportions of the human body - “Canon”.

The late classics are represented by the sculptors Praxiteles, Skopas, Lysippus. The first of these was glorified primarily by the statue "Aphrodite of Cnidus", which became the first nude female figure in Greek sculpture. The art of Praxiteles is characterized by a wealth of feelings, exquisite and subtle beauty, hedonism. These qualities were manifested in such works of his as “Satyr pouring wine”, “Eros”.

Skopas participated together with Praxiteles in the plastic design of the temple of Artemis in Ephesus and the mausoleum in Halicarnassus. His work is distinguished by passion and drama, elegance of lines, expressiveness of postures and movements. One of his famous creations is the statue "Bacchae in dance". Lysippus created a bust of Alexander the Great, at whose court he was an artist. From other works, one can point to the statues “Hermes Resting”, “Hermes tying a sandal”, “Eros”. In his art, he expressed the inner world of a person, his feelings and experiences.

In the era of the classics, the Greek literature. Poetry was represented primarily by Pindar. not accepted Athenian democracy and expressed in his work nostalgia for the aristocracy. He also created iconic hymns, odes and songs in honor of the winners of the Olympic and Delphic Games.

chief literary event becomes the birth and flourishing of the Greek tragedy and theatre. The father of tragedy was Aeschylus, who, like Pindar, did not accept democracy. His main work is "Chained Prometheus", whose hero - Prometheus - became the embodiment of the courage and strength of man, his godliness and willingness to sacrifice his life for the sake of freedom and well-being of people.

In the work of Sophocles, who glorified democracy, Greek tragedy reaches a classical level. The heroes of his works are complex natures, they combine adherence to the ideals of freedom with the richness of the inner world, the depth of psychological and moral experiences, and spiritual subtlety. Oedipus Rex was his most famous tragedy.

The art of Euripides, the third great tragedian of Hellas, reflected the crisis of Greek democracy. His attitude towards her was ambivalent. On the one hand, she attracted him with the values ​​of freedom and equality. At the same time, she frightened him by allowing an unreasonable crowd of citizens to decide too important issues according to their mood. In the tragedies of Euripides, people are shown not "as they should be", as was the case, in his opinion, in Sophocles, but "what they really were." The most famous of his creations was "Medea".

Along with the tragedy is successfully developing comedy, whose "father" is Aristophanes. His plays are written in a lively, close to spoken language. Their content was made up of topical and topical topics, among which one of the central ones was the theme of peace. The comedies of Aristophanes were accessible to the common people and were very popular.

Hellenism(323-146 BC) became the final stage of ancient Greek culture. In this period high level Hellenic culture is generally preserved. Only in some areas, for example in philosophy, does it fall somewhat. At the same time, the expansion of Hellenic culture took place on the territory of many eastern states that arose after the collapse of the empire of Alexander the Great. where it connects with oriental cultures. It is this synthesis of Greek and Eastern cultures and forms it. what is called Hellenistic culture.

Her education was influenced primarily by Greek image life and the Greek education system. It is noteworthy that the process of spreading Greek culture continued after Greece became dependent on Rome (146 BC). Politically, Rome conquered Greece, but Greek culture conquered Rome.

Of the areas of spiritual culture, science and art developed most successfully in the Hellenistic era. In science the leading positions are still occupied mathematics, where such great minds as Euclid and Archimedes work. Through their efforts, mathematics not only progresses theoretically, but also finds wide applied and practical applications in mechanics, optics, statics, hydrostatics, and construction. Archimedes also owns the authorship of many technical inventions. Astronomy, medicine, and geography also have significant successes.

In art greatest success accompanies architecture and sculpture. IN architecture along with traditional sacred temples, civil public buildings- palaces, theaters, libraries, gymnasiums, etc. In particular, the famous library was built in Alexandria, where about 799 thousand scrolls were stored. Museyon was also built there, which became largest center science and art of antiquity. Of the other architectural structures, the Lighthouse of Alexandria, 120 meters high, is included among the seven wonders of the world. Its author was the architect Sostratus.

Sculpture also continues the classical traditions, although new features appear in it: internal tension, dynamics, drama and tragedy increase. Monumental sculpture sometimes takes on grandiose proportions. Such, in particular, was the statue of the sun god Helios, created by the sculptor Kheres and known as the Colossus of Rhodes. The statue is also one of the seven wonders of the world. She had a height of 36 m, stood on the shore of the harbor of the island of Rhodes, but crashed during an earthquake. This is where the expression "colossus with feet of clay" comes from. Famous masterpieces are Aphrodite (Venus) de Milo and Nike of Samothrace.

In 146 BC. Ancient Hellas ceased to exist, but the ancient Greek culture still exists today.

Ancient Greece had a huge impact on the entire world culture. Without her there would be no modern Europe. The Eastern world without Hellenic culture would be very different.

The first ideas of the Greeks about the Black Sea region and about the peoples that inhabited it were formed long before colonization thanks to travelers and merchants. The sea was rich in fish, and the coastal lands were rich in ship and construction timber, iron ore. But navigation in the Black Sea was a danger to sailors. Due to the weak indentation of the coast, there were few convenient places for harbors, there were almost no islands and peninsulas, so familiar to the Mediterranean Greeks. For a long time, the northern borders remained unknown.
The sea, which the Greeks called Pontus, was considered part of the Ocean that surrounded the inhabited earth, its bay. In the Ocean, according to ancient ideas, there was an entrance to the kingdom of the dead, so swimming on it was equated with a trip to Hades. In the same place, in the Ocean, where chaos reigned, one could meet the "islands of the blessed", on which the souls of heroes lived. Such ideas, as well as the difficulties of navigation, for a long time held back the development of the Black Sea coast and were reflected in the very name of the sea - Pont Aksinsky -. Later, during the period of colonization, it will be called Euxine - "hospitable".
Numerous information about the Black Sea region, often colored by fiction, has been preserved in myths, legends and poems.

Achilles - the son of King Peleus and the Nereid (sea goddess) Thetis - was among the most famous and beloved heroes in Greece, who was revered as a god. He is one of the main characters of Homer's Iliad, who undertook a campaign against Troy under the leadership of Agamemnon. Many legends are devoted to his posthumous fate.

The descendant of Io in the thirteenth generation was the most famous and beloved hero of Hellas - Hercules, the son of Zeus and Alcmene. At the behest of Apollo, to redeem serious crime, Hercules entered the service of King Eurystheus and, performing his tasks, performed twelve labors.