Ancient Egypt
ancient egypt name
historical region
and significant culture
civilization ancient world,
existing in northeastern Africa. Story
Ancient Egypt has
about 40 centuries and is divided into 4
period:
1. predynastic
2. dynastic
3. Hellenistic
4. Roman
Refers to the final
prehistoric
period.
Prehistoric
Egypt - period in
history of Egypt, from
appearance of man before
formation
agricultural
Egyptian
civilization. Hellenistic
period
Papyrus with fragments of Euclid's "Beginnings"
Hellenistic period –
it is a synthesis with the Greco-Macedonian culture under
power
the Ptolemaic dynasty.
Hellenistic Egypt
became one of the main
Greek
Hellenistic culture.
Literature of this period
is natural
continuation of the Greek
literature. Hieroglyphics
Hieroglyphic writing
consists of small
drawings of objects.
The Egyptians called
hieroglyphs "words
god" and used them
for high goals
for example, to
communicate through
funerary texts
with the gods and
spirits afterlife.
Slab stele (c. 2590-2565 BC) Egyptian
Princess Neferetiabet from her coffin at Giza
hieroglyphs carved and painted
on limestone. Hieratic
Hieratic is simplified, cursive
form Egyptian hieroglyphs. Like the hieroglyphs
hieratic was used in sacred and
religious texts. Demotic
Demotic letter (obsolete enchorionic
letter) - one of the forms of Egyptian writing,
used to write texts in later
stages of the Egyptian language. Coptic script
Coptic script - adapted
variant of the Greek alphabet Literary genres and
Topics
The only genre of literature explicitly mentioned
the ancient Egyptians had a genre of teaching or "sebayt".
The rest genre classification was made
modern Egyptologists. Most texts
written in verse, but some narrative
stories
were written
in
prose.
Majority
ancient Egyptian verses were in the form of couplets, but
sometimes both tertiary and quatrain were used.
The word sebayt in the Egyptian language means
"teaching". instructive
literature
The genre has
didactic and
believed to be in
Middle Kingdom in
education program
scribe. Nonetheless,
teachings often include
narrative
elements
entertaining
character.
keywords in
teaching in texts
are "know" (rh) and
"teach" (sba.yt).
"Loyal
teaching" narrative
literature
This includes fairy tales and stories. Fairy tales and
stories
are,
probably,
least
submitted
genre
from
preserved
Literature of the Middle Kingdom and Middle Egyptian
language.
"The Tale of the Court of King Cheops" Literature
In one of the papyri of the era of the New Kingdom is contained in the highest degree
a wonderful place where the authors of ancient teachings are praised:
They did not build themselves pyramids of copper
And bronze headstones.
Left no heirs behind
Children who have kept their names.
But they left their legacy in the scriptures,
In the teachings given by them.
Doors and houses were built, but they collapsed,
The priests of the funeral services have disappeared,
Their monuments covered with mud,
Their tombs are forgotten.
But their names are pronounced while reading these books,
Written while they lived
And the memory of who wrote them,
Eternal.
Translation by A. Akhmatova Poetry
POWER OF LOVE
Love for you entered into my flesh and into
blood
And with them, like wine with water, mixed,
As with spicy seasoning - orange
Or with milk - fragrant honey.
Oh hurry to your sister
As on the lists - a flying horse,
Like a bull running headlong to the manger.
Your love is a heavenly gift
Fire that ignites straw
Prey beating from the fly hunting falcon.
A small excerpt
poems translated by Anna
Akhmatova and Vera Potapova. Poetry
BY THE RIVER
Sister is on the other side.
Blocking the path of love
The river flows between us.
There is a crocodile on the shore.
I wade along the waves, crossing the current.
The heart is full of courage. Firmament is like
river.
A small excerpt
poems in translation
Anna Akhmatova and Vera
Potapova. Poetry
Will be a living deity
Making retribution for evil.
Truly, who will go to the kingdom of the afterlife -
Will sail in a solar boat,
pouring out from there grace, pleasing to the temple.
Verily, who will go to the underworld
Will be among the wise, without interference
Speaking with the divine Ra. Functions of Literature
Throughout ancient Egyptian history,
reading and writing were the main
requirements for public service
institutions.
The scribes were responsible for preserving,
transmission and canonization of literary
classics, as well as for writing new compositions.
There was a practice oral reading texts.
Literature was created
predominantly male scribes.
It also served religious purposes. Conclusion
Thus, we can say that the ancient
Egyptian texts that have come down to us are prayers
gods and business records. artistic
literature was presented various genres
such as: the teachings of kings and wise men to their
sons, many tales of miracles and sorcerers,
story,
biography
dignitaries,
songs,
spells.
Egyptian fiction left us
lots of
fairy tales
various
content
and
origin.
The teaching genre became widespread. Egyptian literature, which appeared as part
Egyptian culture and disappeared with it,
lived more long life than lived
an independent Egyptian state; starting from 332
BC the state becomes part of
political peace Hellenism. though
original Egyptian culture continues to live
and develop in new political conditions
even in the first centuries of Roman domination.
Thank you!
Written art originates from ancient Egypt. It was ancient Egyptian literature that laid the foundation for the rapid development of writing as an art. The origin lasted from the pharaonic period until the Roman domination.
Some sources mention that literary writing in Egypt first appeared at the end of the fourth millennium BC. in the form of hieratic and hieroglyphic writing. At the beginning of the period of the Old Kingdom, namely in the 26-22 centuries BC. literary creativity manifested itself in letters, poems, funerary texts, religious hymns and even autobiographical records. But already at the beginning of the Middle Kingdom, narrative literature was born. Such a rapid development of the art of writing is due to the rise intellectual class scribes, the emergence of new cultural senses of individuality, and a significant improvement in literacy.
Following poems and narrative stories, there arises new genre- commemorative graffiti, which were performed on the walls of coffins and temples and very quickly gained popularity among scribes. They were autobiographical inscriptions on the tombstone, which were applied to perpetuate and glorify the name of the deceased nobleman. Not only the name was reproduced on the plate, but also all the titles, positions of the deceased, and lists of sacrificial gifts intended for him were also applied. A little later, descriptions of various episodes of a person’s life, which testified to his merits before the pharaoh, began to be added to this “dry” inventory of titles. That is, everything that could glorify and embellish his personality was described. It was commemorative graffiti that laid the foundation for such a genre as autobiography. In Hellenistic Egypt, the prophetic text is again revived.
The versatility of written art
With all confidence we can say that the Egyptian culture as a whole is one of the main sources world culture. Ancient Egyptian literature was one of the most colorful, vivid and artistically valuable manifestations of this culture and a deep, original person in general. The art of writing was inextricably linked with society and its ideology, in which religion played a huge role. Therefore, it is not at all surprising that a religious trace was imprinted on ancient Egyptian literature, and often in the most various works can be found religious outlook in all its colors. But this does not mean that the Egyptian literary art was mostly theological. On the contrary, this means that ancient Egyptian literature was rich in diverse and diverse genres.
The content of the article
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN LITERATURE, come down to our time literary monuments Ancient Egypt, dating from the period from the III millennium BC. before the start of the Christian era. Except for a few plots retold by Greek authors, we know this literature from Egyptian sources, the discovery of which began in the 19th century. and continues to this day.
TYPES OF LITERARY WORKS AND THEIR STYLISTICS
The surviving body of literary works includes short prose narratives, fairy tales and myths, fables, letters, didactic literature (proverbs and sermons), love songs and other types of non-religious poetry, as well as hymns. As far as is known, the Egyptians did not have an entertainment drama, but theatrical performances of myths, the characters of which sang and exchanged speeches, were an integral part of the cult of some deities. Several similar ritual dramas have been found. In addition, there is a large amount of non-literary written material, such as mathematical, medical, magical, legal texts, and business documents. historical documents(official decrees, autobiographical inscriptions, royal annals) we have the right to refer to literary works only in cases where they have a certain literary form.
Since ancient Egyptian writing does not provide for the transmission of vowels, very little is known about poetic metrics. Based on Coptic sources (Coptic is the latest version of the ancient Egyptian language and script, in which signs for vowels already appeared), researchers suggest that ancient Egyptian poetry was based on rhythm, but not on a regular size. Poetry differed from prose mainly in terms of vocabulary and the regular use of other stylistic devices. Beloved poetic device there was parallelism such construction of the text, in which the thought expressed in one line is repeated in the next line or lines, or is opposed to the thought expressed in another, adjacent line, or is more fully revealed in subsequent lines. Other techniques include repetitions, repetitions with minor changes, refrains and alliteration. Sometimes lines of poetry are combined into stanzas. Many of them are also used in Egyptian prose. Both in prose and poetry, wordplay is widely used. In religious texts, she may have had magical meaning. There are also many comparisons and metaphors especially in texts that claim to be elevated in style. In fairy tales, on the contrary, such devices are rare.
For the ancient Egyptians, it was not indifferent how a poem (or other text) “looks” on papyrus or on a wall. In some texts, lines that begin with the same word are arranged in such a way that their parallelism is available and visual perception. Egyptian was written either from right to left (the normal, most common direction), or from left to right, or from top to bottom. This facilitated the creation of elegant graphic compositions. For example, one vertical line could “limit” text consisting of several horizontal lines, or one horizontal line text consisting of several vertical ones. On the other hand, there are literary texts that are not organized graphically.
STAGES OF LITERARY DEVELOPMENT
From ancient kingdom(III millennium BC), few texts have been preserved that can be confidently attributed to literary ones. The most important ones Pyramid Texts. Although many of the spells included in Pyramid Texts, are not actually literary works, some of them are characterized by high poetry. One of the spells describes the deceased king, who, wanting to achieve power in the other world, devours the gods. This so-called cannibal anthem, even if you get to know him only by translation, breathes with genuine poetry. The ritual drama about the god Ptah from the time of the Old Kingdom was partially preserved in a later copy. In it, Ptah appears as the supreme deity, to whom all things are subordinate. teaching Ptahhotep, a collection of reasonable, albeit purely worldly advice, was also written during this period, but is known only from later lists.
characteristic of ancient Egypt literary style formed in the troubled period that followed the fall of the Old Kingdom. Perhaps it was then that some of the works known from later copies were created. So, a certain king wrote an instruction about public policy for his son Merikar. In another edifying essay, Teachings of Akhtoy, the position of a scribe, which opens up wide opportunities for a career, is contrasted with the miserable fate of representatives of all other professions. Sayings Ipuera describe the chaos that reigned in the country, testifying that no one was then protected from oppression and robbery. One more work Eloquent villager, represents the lamentations of the peasant who suffered from the arbitrariness, appealing for justice. In the end he wins the case after delivering several long and flowery speeches, composed in a very refined manner.
Middle Kingdom (22-11 centuries BC) classical era in the development of Egyptian literature. One of the works of this time, which remained popular for many hundreds of years, tells the story of the emigrant nobleman Sinuhet. It describes the escape of Sinuhet from Egypt to Syria, political reasons, his life in exile and return to his homeland. charming Tale of the victim shipwreck; her hero finds himself on a desert island and meets an old snake there, showing fatherly care towards him. Even simpler in plot and language Tales of Papyrus Westcar(King Cheops and magicians) several fairy tales united by a frame narrative. conversation frustrated with his soul can safely be called outstanding poetic work. His hero, having decided on suicide, convinces his soul not to leave him when he accomplishes his plan. Many religious hymns and, to a lesser extent, "worldly" songs also came from this period.
The language and style of literature of the Middle Kingdom were considered exemplary for five hundred years. In the era of the New Kingdom, Akhenaten carried out a religious and literary revolution. Has changed narrative style, and began to write on spoken language. More natural graphics replaced the delights of the Middle Kingdom. And although the religious revolution was defeated, the literary revolution was a success. Nevertheless, Middle Egyptian continued to be considered a classical language, and attempts to write in it were renewed as long as hieroglyphic writing was preserved.
The rise and fall of the New Kingdom is reflected in several quasi-historical narratives. So, the story of King Apophis and Sekenenre tells about the beginning of the war, which led to the expulsion of foreign conquerors, the Hyksos, from Egypt. Another story tells of the capture of the city of Jaffa, an event that took place during the reign of the great conqueror Thutmose III, when Egypt was at the zenith of its power. A boastful account of the Battle of Kadesh extols in epic style the personal fighting prowess of Ramesses II. The decline of the empire was clearly reflected in Travels of Un-Amun, a story about an official sent to Lebanon for cedar wood. By that time, Egypt had lost its international prestige, and the petty Phoenician princelings met his envoy without any respect.
Tale of two brothers must have been written down from the words of a wandering storyteller. Parallels to its individual parts ( folklore motifs) are found in Asian and European tales and, in particular, in the Middle East. Fairy tales include doomed prince. The prince is predicted to be killed by one of the three beasts. He happily escapes two deaths, but the end of the text has not been preserved, and his further fate remains unknown.
Quite a lot of the so-called. school texts, i.e. texts copied for educational purposes by students of scribes. They are, as you might expect, full of bugs. "Exemplary" letters, which make up a significant part of these materials, give a realistic picture of their era. One letter, for example, tells of the hardships of soldiering in Palestine. The letters praise the fate of the scribe as happier than the fate of other professions.
Several collections of love songs are known. They remind song songs Solomon both by the set of comparisons and metaphors, and by the general tone. A number of drinking songs were also found, performed at feasts by blind harpists. They exalt the joys of life, and they were written on the walls of the tombs so that the dead also enjoyed similar joys. There are also poems praising the kings or telling about their exploits, for example, the already mentioned poem about Battle of Kadesh.
It differs from traditional hymns filled with monotonous epithets and titles of gods. Hymn to the Sun Akhenaten, imbued with love for nature; it almost completely lacks the concept of God as a moral authority.
The legend of Osiris is most fully expounded by the Greek writer Plutarch, but on the other hand, one papyrus from the time of the New Kingdom contains a very remarkable description Litigation of Horus and Seth. In this version of the myth, the gods are depicted without any reverence, either because faith in the gods gradually weakened, or because in Litigation reflected the views of more ancient era. The plot of the story is the final triumph of Horus over Set in a lawsuit over the rights to the throne of the deceased Osiris. another myth, Extermination of mankind, is a parallel to the story of Noah. God Ra (Re) decides to destroy people, but when the goddess Hathor, at his command, begins to kill them, he repents and saves those who are still alive. During the period of the New Kingdom, people increasingly turned their thoughts to the dangers of the other world and created many spells and ritual texts for the needs of the dead. Among them, the so-called Book of the Dead, Book breaths, The Book of Gates, The Book of the Underworld(Book of Amduat) and mouth opening ritual.
Literature late period(7th century BC 5th century AD, starting from the Sais period) differs significantly from everything that was created earlier. It was written in Demotic, as the then simplified Egyptian language is called. From that era have come down to us folk tales, which are grouped into cycles. The Haemowas cycle includes a strange tale Setne Haemowas and magic book. The book contained powerful spells and was carefully guarded - it lay in a chest placed in another chest, and snakes and scorpions guarded it. The whole atmosphere of these stories is completely different from that of the earlier Egyptian stories.
Demotic literature also includes ritual drama (for example, Lamentation of Isis and Nephthys), animal tales, fables, and what, with some stretch, could be called historical fiction. see also BOOK OF THE DEAD.
Initially, writing was used exclusively for economic or sacred purposes. From the era of the Old Kingdom, practically no written monuments have come down to us, with the exception of hieroglyphic laudatory inscriptions and prayers on the walls of tombs. The first economic documents are meager records that “so many animal carcasses were brought in, so many sheaves of barley were collected from one field.”
The end of the Old Kingdom in the history of the written monuments of Ancient Egypt is marked by the spread of tombstones of a laudatory nature. The rise of the cult of Osiris and the connection of the myth of the dying and resurrecting Osiris in connection with the cult of the dead give rise to the first monuments of funeral literature, which can be classified as literary works. On the walls of the tomb of a rich man, the entire “autobiography” is written on his behalf: merits before the pharaoh, personal virtues are listed, the wealth of the deceased and the position that he occupied during his lifetime are described. These are the so-called "Pyramid Texts", the oldest of the texts that made up the canon of the "Book of the Dead" many centuries later.
Obviously, in the era of the Old Kingdom cultural tradition preserved exclusively in oral creativity. This tradition started even earlier.
Middle Kingdom. The heyday of ancient Egyptian literature - the Middle Kingdom. During this period, written works appeared that formed the backbone classical literature Ancient Egypt.
First of all, it should be noted the work that continues the tradition of tomb inscriptions - "The Tale of Sinuhet". This biography was extremely widely disseminated and has come down to our days in many lists, moreover, made at a much later time.
Sinukhet, as follows from this work, is a nobleman who lived at the court of two pharaohs. Most likely it's not just historical figure. Sinuhet may have been the author of his own life-description. In the first person, the story is told about the valor of Sinuhet in the royal retinue, about how, after the death of the pharaoh, he fled abroad to escape the riots. Settling in Syria, Sinukhet managed to achieve nobility and wealth there, thanks to his talents, but then returned to his homeland and served the new king.
The Tale of Sinuhet is a combination of autobiography, fiction and historical monument. The author not only inserted into the text excerpts from various state documents of his era, illustrating the narrative. With remarkable literary talent, he builds his work, bringing out a harmonious composition. The figurative and colorful language of the work earned him well-deserved fame for many centuries of the existence of the Egyptian kingdom.
Another literary genre that has become extremely widespread in Egypt during the Middle Kingdom is fairy tales. This genre, no doubt, originates in the tradition of oral art. The stories are extremely varied in subject matter.
One of the most interesting collections of fairy tales - Papyrus Westcar - is dedicated to stories from the reign of the last pharaohs of the Old Kingdom. Among the texts of this papyrus, fantasy stories predominate - tales of sorcerers performing miracles at the court of Pharaoh Cheops. In one story, for example, a court magician cuts off a bird's head, then puts it back on, and the bird comes to life. In these and similar tales, the author's fiction is closely intertwined with Egyptian mythology. The plots of a number of fairy tales have something in common with the most important myths, such as, for example, "The Tale of Truth and Krivda".
Many fairy tales are, in fact, literary processed testimonies of contemporaries about certain historical events- about the quarrel between the pharaoh and his commander, about the storming of a foreign city.
Egyptian fairy tales include all sorts of genres: a description of a journey, a moralizing story, even an adventurous story. In most of these works, especially those related to early period formation of Egyptian literature, a strong element of the fantastic, characteristic in general for the folk writing tradition.
The era of the Middle Kingdom also includes historical works proper, in particular the Leiden papyrus and the papyrus of the Hermitage, which record the testimonies of noble Egyptians who survived the horrors of anarchy in the country after the fall of the Old Kingdom. These works, known as "The Sayings of Ipuwer" and "The Prophecy of Neferti", describe the events that took place in the country after its breakup into independent nomes, after the fall of the power of the pharaohs.
Another genre that took shape in the literature of Ancient Egypt in the era of the Middle Kingdom is all kinds of moralistic writings. A significant part of them are, as one might assume, texts written by teachers in schools of scribes for educational purposes. The authors of the "Instructions" and "Speeches" inspire students with moral standards, call for obedience and reverence. Another favorite theme in didactic works is the praise of the advantages that education and the position of a scribe give. It is rather interesting to trace what arguments the authors of these instructions give against this or that occupation. The main object of criticism of scribes-mentors is military service. The hardships and troubles that lie in wait for the recruit are described extremely vividly. One involuntarily gets the impression that the author just wants to intimidate the student, and not lead him to an independent conclusion about the preference for the service of an official.
Sometimes the mentor simply does not have enough convincing arguments - then he resorts to malicious ridicule. For example, not finding enough reasons why one should prefer the job of a scribe to the much more relaxed position of a temple priest, the instructor simply ridicules the priests who "wash only by vow, and not by necessity."
In general, the “Instructions” is a very diverse in language, style and subject matter, a superbly developed genre, in which, apparently, the rhetorical tradition of the Egyptians was embodied. The protagonist-mentor in such works is a respected person - or an official who has achieved high position, or a large nobleman or court sage. Some of the instructions were compiled on behalf of the pharaoh and were collections of advice to the heir on public administration.
Among other literary works of the Middle Kingdom era, the Tale of the Eloquent Peasant deserves special mention. Its plot is simple. The peasant is driving along the road, which was blocked by some petty official, who collects bribes from travelers for passing through his land. The peasant has nothing to pay, and the official takes away his donkey. Then the unfairly robbed peasant comes to the pharaoh's palace and begins to complain about fate and the offender. The pharaoh is attracted by the eloquence of the complainer, unusual for simple peasant. He orders the peasant to be brought closer and, after listening to complaints, decides to reward the peasant for such a talent, showers him with gifts and leaves him at court.
“The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant”, perhaps the first work in the history of world literature, the hero of which is a representative of the lower strata of the population, speaking with accusatory speeches against a more high-born or wealthy offender.
The Middle Kingdom left to the descendants many works of poetic creativity. Basically, this is philosophical poetry of secular or religious themes, imbued with either moods of the vanity of human existence, or, on the contrary, praises of life and calls to care more about today than about the afterlife. Examples of these two directions of poetic creativity are "The Conversation of the Disappointed with His Soul" and "The Song of the Harper". The "Song", apparently performed during feasts and festive feasts, is full of cheerfulness and love of life. "Conversation" is a dialogue of a desperate person with his own soul. The soul tries to return joy to him, draws colorful pictures of fun and life, but in the end gives up before the owner’s argument and agrees that his desire to die is quite justified and that life on earth is really nothing.
Along with philosophical writings poets of the Middle Kingdom created many examples of magnificent stucco love lyrics, which were repeatedly translated into many modern languages.
Working with Egyptian poetic legacy- a little-known side of the work of Anna Akhmatova, who created the best translations of the love lyrics of Ancient Egypt in Russia.
New kingdom. The new kingdom is the time of "powerful" literature. At this time, during the period of the highest heyday of the Egyptian kingdom, the literary canon was formed. Numerous papyrus scrolls from the time of the New Kingdom contain descriptions of myths in poetic and prose form, life-descriptions of the pharaohs and the history of victorious campaigns.
Mythology is important component the religious worldview of the ancient Egyptians, which previously existed almost exclusively in the form of oral art, the chants of priests and was only partially reproduced in tomb inscriptions and prayers (mainly the myth of Osiris). Now the canon of mythological tales is being formed, which includes both cosmological myths and the history of the creation of all living things. It is interesting to note the similarities of some plots Egyptian mythology with modern Sumerian. Especially a prime example intersections - the story of how Isis (aka Inanna of the Sumerians) deceives Ra-Amon, the god of the Sun, by deceit, his secret name, which gives power over Ra. In the Sumerian-Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh, the episode with the revelation of the secret name of the supreme deity and the pursuit of Inanna occupies a very significant place.
Another canon taking shape during the New Kingdom is the Book of the Dead. Obviously, by the neo-dynastic time, the cult of veneration already dead developed in full, which made it possible to bring together all the texts, rituals, prayers and spells associated with the administration of this cult. Lists « Books of the dead" in in large numbers were found in Egyptian tombs different periods, but since the time of the New Kingdom, the "Book" has not undergone significant changes.
Develops at this time and historical literature-tour. In addition to the genre of “autobiographies” and tomb inscriptions, which has firmly entered the literary tradition, chronicles of kingdoms are compiled at the courts of the pharaohs, lists of rulers of different dynasties and eras are created. The purpose of the compilers of these scrolls is to show the continuity and divine origin of the power of the pharaohs. These documents serve as a serious help to modern historians in recreating the history of Ancient Egypt, since their data, as a rule, are confirmed by various independent sources.
Part historical works of this type is a transformation of a long-standing hymn tradition, originating in the tomb inscriptions of the pharaohs and widespread even in the era of the Middle Kingdom.
oral tradition. Oral creativity the ancient Egyptians - not mythological poetry, not hymns and moralizing stories, but the work of the common people - has come down to our time thanks to the tombs of the nobility. On the walls of many tombs, next to the images of people working in the field or on the construction site, artists, apparently in order to please the “ear” of the inhabitant of the tomb, often attributed rhythmic poetic lines - the texts of songs with which the workers set the rhythm for themselves and encouraged each other. Most likely those who recorded these samples folk poetry, slightly ennobled them, adjusting them to the long-established norms of the literary language.
Artistic techniques. That in the ancient Egyptian literary tradition there were clear, once for all developed rules, there is no doubt. The works of most genres are strictly sustained within the framework of a single style for this genre. Kit literary devices, used by Egyptian writers and poets, is not too great, but a skillful combination of these techniques allowed a talented scribe to create a genuine work of art.
A favorite technique of Egyptian poets is parallelism in the construction of phrases and parts of a line. There are no indications of how the ancient Egyptian language could sound, but it can be assumed that with the exquisite construction of phrases and lines of the work, which can be seen in most examples of literature, rhythm could be one of the main requirements to a good work.
The form of poetic compositions of the ancient Egyptian authors, apparently, was almost higher than the content. In one message, a scribe (probably a mentor who received a letter from a student) analyzes the message that came to him from the point of view of constructing sentences and ruthlessly criticizes the addressee for the fact that “one is mixed with another, disgusting is adjacent to good and the words are neither sweet nor bitter. Judging by the importance that most authors of this kind of letters attach to refinement of style, stylistics was one of the fundamental subjects in the schools of scribes.
The literature of Ancient Egypt is striking in its imagery difference. The comparisons used by co-writers are vivid and precise. So, in one of his life-descriptions, the pharaoh says about himself that, having become angry at his enemies, he became like a snake in the desert.
A large number of images came to secular literature from a closely related religious literary tradition.
Ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt is the name of a historical region and culture of a significant civilization of the ancient world that existed in northeast Africa. The history of Ancient Egypt has about 40 centuries and is divided into 4 periods: 1. pre-dynastic 2. dynastic 3. Hellenistic 4. Roman
Predynastic Period prehistoric period. Prehistoric Egypt - the period in the history of Egypt, from the appearance of man to the formation of the agricultural Egyptian civilization.
Hellenistic period Papyrus with fragments of Euclid's Elements The Hellenistic period is a synthesis with Greek Macedonian culture under the rule of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Hellenistic Egypt became one of the main centers of Greek Hellenistic culture. The literature of this period is a natural continuation of Greek literature.
Hieroglyphics Hieroglyphic writing consists of small drawings of objects. The Egyptians called hieroglyphs "words of the god" and used them for lofty purposes, such as communicating through funerary texts with the gods and spirits of the afterlife. A slab stele (c. 2590-2565 BC) of the Egyptian princess Neferetiabet from her coffin at Giza with hieroglyphs carved and painted on limestone.
Hieratic is a simplified, cursive form of Egyptian hieroglyphs. Like hieroglyphs, hieratics were used in sacred and religious texts.
Demotic Demotic writing (obsolete enchorionic writing) is one of the forms of Egyptian writing used to write texts in the later stages of the Egyptian language.
Literary Genres and Themes The only genre of literature explicitly mentioned by the ancient Egyptians was the genre of teaching or "sebayt". The rest of the genre classification was made by modern Egyptologists. Most texts were written in verse, but some narrative stories were written in prose. Most ancient Egyptian verse was in the form of couplets, but sometimes both three and four lines were used. The word sebayt means "teaching" in the Egyptian language.
Instructive Literature The genre is didactic in nature and is believed to have been part of the curriculum of scribe education in the Middle Kingdom. However, teachings often include narrative elements of an entertaining nature. The keywords in teaching in the texts are "know" (rh) and "teach" (sba. yt). "Loyal Teaching"
narrative literature This includes fairy tales and stories. Fairy tales and stories are probably the least represented genre of the surviving literature of the Middle Kingdom and the Middle Egyptian language. "The Tale of the Court of King Cheops"
Literature One of the papyri of the New Kingdom era contains a most remarkable passage, where the authors of ancient teachings are praised: They did not build themselves pyramids of copper And tombstones of bronze. They left no heirs behind them, Children who kept their names. But they left their legacy in the writings, In the teachings they made. Doors and houses were built, but they collapsed, The priests of the funeral services disappeared, Their monuments were covered with mud, Their tombs are forgotten. But their names are pronounced, reading these books, Written while they lived, And the memory of the one who wrote them is Eternal. Translation by A. Akhmatova
Poetry THE POWER OF LOVE Love for you entered my flesh and blood And with them, like wine with water, mixed, As with spicy seasoning - orange Or with milk - fragrant honey. Oh, hasten to your sister, Like a flying horse in the arena, Like a bull, headlong running to the manger. Your love is a heavenly gift, Fire, igniting the straw, Prey beating the flying falcon. A small excerpt from a poem translated by Anna Akhmatova and Vera Potapova.
Poetry BY THE RIVER Sister is on the other side. Blocking the way of love, A river flows between us. There is a crocodile on the shore. I wade along the waves, crossing the current. The heart is full of courage. The firmament is like a river. A small excerpt from a poem translated by Anna Akhmatova and Vera Potapova.
Poetry Truly, who will go to the afterlife - Will be a living deity, Creating retribution for evil. Truly, whoever passes into the kingdom of the dead - Will sail in the boat of the sun, Pouring grace from there, pleasing to the temple. Truly, whoever passes to the afterlife will be among the wise men, without interference Speaking with the divine Ra.
Functions of Literature Throughout ancient Egyptian history, reading and writing were the basic requirements for service in public institutions. The scribes were responsible for the preservation, transmission and canonization literary classics and also for writing new essays. There was a practice of oral reading of texts. Literature was written primarily by male scribes. It also served religious purposes.
Conclusion Thus, we can say that the ancient Egyptian texts that have come down to us are prayers to the gods and household records. Fiction was represented by various genres, such as: teachings of kings and wise men to their sons, many fairy tales about miracles and sorcerers, stories, biographies of dignitaries, songs, spells. Egyptian fiction has left us many tales of various content and origin. The teaching genre became widespread.
Egyptian literature, which arose as part of Egyptian culture and disappeared with it, lived a longer life than the independent Egyptian state lived; starting from 332 BC this state becomes part of the political world of Hellenism. However, the original Egyptian culture continues to live and develop in the new political conditions, even in the first centuries of Roman domination. Thank you!
