Black Raven is a Russian folk ballad. Mythological ballads

38 Artistic originality of the ballad genre.

Folk ballads - these are lyrical-epic songs about tragic events in family and everyday life. In the center of ballads there is always a person with his moral problems, feelings, experiences. The hero of ballads differs from heroes-heroes who perform a feat, from fairy tale characters. This is a nameless person, experiencing, suffering and sometimes dying in difficult life circumstances. If there are heroic principles in epics, optimistic ones in fairy tales, then tragic pathos expressed in ballads.

"The ballad puts the focus on individual human destiny. Events of national significance, ethical, social, philosophical problems are reflected in ballads in the form of specific destinies of individuals and private family human relations." Russian ballads depict the era of the Middle Ages , the heyday of the genre falls on the XIV-XVII centuries. The plots of ballads are diverse, but ballads on family and everyday topics are more widespread. In these ballads, the main characters, as in fairy tales, are " good fellow"and" a beautiful girl. "They often tell about unhappy love and tragic events.

Exist two points of view on the origin of ballad songs. Some researchers (A.N. Veselovsky, N.P. Andreev) believed that ballads originated in "prehistoric" times. As evidence, they referred to the fact that the ballad songs preserved the oldest motifs of incest, cannibalism, transportation across the river as symbols of the transition from one state of life to another, the conversion of a person into a plant and animal, etc. Others (for example, V.M. Zhirmunsky) claimed that ballads originated in the Middle Ages. The second point of view in relation to Russian ballad songs seems to be more acceptable. The content of the ballad songs speaks for itself. As for the most ancient motifs, they testify to the connection between medieval song folklore and previous ideological and historical traditions.

Poetics. Ballads belong to the epic genre of poetry. The story in them is conducted from the third person, as if from the outside, from the narrator. The main sign of the epic nature of a ballad is the presence of a plot in them, but the plot does not appear the same as in other genres: in ballads, as a rule, only the climax and denouement are presented within the figurative image; the rest is only mentioned in general view. In a ballad, we are always talking about an event, which in itself is a continuation of the previous ones, but one can only guess about them. This makes the ballad story mysterious and at the same time contributes to the fact that it highlights the most necessary for the realization of the plan. The ballad avoids multiple episodes. Ballads have long been noticed plot dynamism. In them, the reception of an unexpected development of the action is frequent.

Poem. The verse of the ballad is closely connected with the melodic structure of singing, and the melodies include the features of the solemn chant inherent in the epic, and a piercing tonality. The intonation of misfortune and grief from such a combination of majestic sadness. The verse of a ballad is more mobile than that of an epic, it is closer to the verse of historical songs and differs from it only in strong emotional impulses as a result of a sharp emotional-intonational movement. The verse becomes especially expressive in the most dramatic moments of singing. In these cases, he takes properties from bitter weeping. In the genre that arose at the stage of transition from the "classic" epic epic to the new, a transition of archaic song forms to new ones, in which there are already lyrical qualities, is noticeable.

Between the world recreated in the ballad and its creator (and, consequently, the reader) arises space-time distance. The ballad space, emphatically "otherworldly", fundamentally different from everyday reality, is not just removed from the perceiving individual. It is qualitatively designated as belonging to another aesthetic and ethical system associated with folklore ideas, as V.G. Belinsky, pointing to the "fantastic and folk legend" underlying the ballad plot . Closed space(!)

Ballad lyricism is the result of the impact on the subject of some epic event, the reaction of the soul, experiencing its discovery of the ballad world.

Unmotivated Evil(ignoring the need for motivation). Over the life of ballad heroes, their feelings "a tragic fate weighs" (V.M. Zhirmunsky). That is why the hero of the ballad often seems to even voluntarily go to his death, resignedly accepts death.

The specifics of the conflict: behind the characteristically ballad situations of family drama, social inequality, captivity, captivity, etc. really due to the specific circumstances of the Middle Ages, a higher and eternal plan emerges, to which the folk ballad gravitates, striving to reduce various conflicts and conflicts to the most general, generic, unchanging confrontations: love-hate, good-evil, life-death. The main conflict in the ballad Man and Fate, Fate, Man before the court of Higher powers. Conflict is always tragic and inexplicable.

Ballad Function: the need to master the tragic sphere of being. The ballad genre responded to the needs of the individual to experience feelings and states that she was deprived of in everyday reality.

As a genre, the ballad of the old formation has remained a unique phenomenon in the history of folklore, and many properties of the genre have influenced the formation of song genres of a time closer to us.

Addition

Russian folk ballads are works of rich vital content, high artistic perfection, and wonderful art of the word. This is manifested primarily in the mastery of the plot: on the one hand, in the selection of situations of great emotional power, and on the other, in the precise characterization of the characters in their actions. In the ballads, in a summary of the episode, limited in time and place of action, the tragedy of the position of an innocently dying person, usually a woman, is skillfully revealed. The tragic in a ballad is, as a rule, terrible. This is often a crime, an atrocity committed against a close or dear person, which creates a particularly acute tension. Prince Roman deals with his wife with terrible cruelty; the sister recognizes the bloody shirts of her brother, who was killed by her "robber husband." A significant role in the course of the action is played by the unexpected, for example, the sister's recognition of her brother's shirts, the involuntary poisoning of her son's mother. The episode, which serves as the plot center of the ballad, has no exposition, but sometimes receives a brief motivation in denunciation or slander, which then drive the actions of the characters.Motivation is sometimes combined with the mystery that arises as a result of a prediction (prophetic dream, omen) or prediction of events.The tragic in the plots of ballads is manifested not only in the actions of the characters (murder, torture), but also in the peculiarities of their mental states.The tragic fate of a person in a feudal society, the suffering and death of victims of despotism, as well as a tragic mistake, deceit, slander, which "lead to the death of people. The tragic thing is the late repentance of a mother or husband who killed an innocent son or wife, in the late recognition of a dishonored sister by a brother. The ballad differs from other folklore genres in its depth of psychological depiction, the ability to reveal complex and intense experiences, including the state of mind of the killer, his remorse and remorse. Characters of ballads are peculiar strong passions and desires. Avdotya Ryazanochka goes to the camp to the enemies in order to free the captives; the girl flees from captivity: freedom is dearer to her than life; unable to escape from her pursuers, she throws herself into the river; defending the right to love, the girl prefers to die, but not to be forcibly married. In reckless anger, a husband can destroy his beloved wife. Characters are possessed by such feelings as horror, despair, severe suffering, unbearable grief. Their experiences are most often expressed in action, in deeds. In the ballad “Well Done and the Princess,” the king’s anger at the young man, at the servants, is expressively conveyed at first, and the change in the king’s state of mind is motivated in a peculiar way. Feelings are transmitted in their external expression. In the ballad “Prince Roman Lost His Wife,” the daughter learns about the death of her mother: As the princess fought on the damp ground, She cried in a loud voice. And further: She beat her hands on the oak table. Experiences are also expressed in the speech of the characters, in monologues and dialogues. It often takes a peculiar form. Sophia, who loves Vasily, stands on the kliros in the church. She wanted to say: "Lord, forgive me." Meanwhile, she said: "Vasilyushko, Vasily, my friend, touch me, Touch me, move over, Let's hug and kiss." Ballad-type works are more realistic than others poetic genres, since in the latter there is neither such a thorough psychological development of images, nor so many opportunities for showing everyday details. The realism of ballads lies in the vitality of conflicts, in the everyday typification of characters, in the plausibility of events and their motivation, in everyday details, in the objectivity of the narrative, in the absence of fantastic fiction. The latter is present only occasionally in the denouement of events and is used to morally condemn the villains. This is the motif of intertwining trees on the grave of the perished, which serves as a symbol of true love. The motive of turning a girl into a tree is also usually in the denouement of events. The originality of the ballad is manifested primarily in its difference from other genres. The ballad is a poetic genre, but its verse, although sometimes close to the epic, differs in that it is shorter, usually two-strike, while the epic verse is usually three-strike. The similarity with the epic verse is manifested in the presence of a pause approximately in the middle of the line. Traveled // Mitriy Vasilievich In the open field, // on a good horse, Sitting // Domna Alexandrovna In a new hillock, // under a slanted little window, Under a crystal // under a piece of glass. She thought, // thought, She blasphemed him, // blasphemed him. In epics, and often in historical songs, the positive hero triumphs, but in ballads he dies, and the villain does not receive direct punishment, although sometimes he grieves and repents. Heroes in ballads are not heroes, not historical figures, but usually simple people; if these are princes, then they are bred in their personal, family relationships, and not in state activities. The ballads are close to epics and historical songs in epic, narrative, plot, but their plots are less developed and usually come down to one episode. They reveal the relationships of the characters in more detail than the plot situation in lyrical songs. Ballads differ from them in the absence of lyricism, which appears only in later works and testifies to the destruction of the genre. However, ballads interact with other genres. They contain epic formulas, epithets: They lead the cross in a written way, Bow in a learned way In the early ballads, epithets are not uncommon: a good horse, a feast of honors, oak tables, a damask sword. But the structure of a ballad is different from that of an epic. Is in ballads fabulous motifs: predictions, transformations. In the ballad "The Prince and the Old Women" the princess is revived with living water; in the variant of the ballad "Slandered Wife", the snake that the young man wanted to kill promises to help him in gratitude for the rescue, but her words turn out to be slander. Unlike epics and historical songs, the meaning of which is patriotic and historical ideas, the meaning of ballads is in expressing moral assessments of the behavior of characters, in deep humanism, in protecting the free expression of feelings and aspirations of the individual.

Scientists note the difficulty of genre classification folk ballad, since it does not have a clear form of performance, does not have a stable everyday use (ballads are performed mainly from time to time, sometimes on famous holidays), and "the rhythmic structure of the ballad opens up scope for the most peculiar musical possibilities"19. Apparently, the ballad is determined by its own genre specificity, and the researchers establish common features of the ballad genre. The ballad is set to depict the world of private people, "the world of human passions interpreted tragically"20. "The world of the ballad is the world of individuals and families, scattered, disintegrating in a hostile or indifferent environment"21. The ballad focuses on the disclosure of the conflict. “For centuries, typical conflict situations have been selected and cast in ballad form”22. The ballads contain "sharp, irreconcilable conflicts, good and evil, truth and untruth, love and hate are opposed, positive characters and negative, and the main place is given to the negative character. Unlike fairy tales, it is not good that wins in ballads, but evil, although negative characters suffer a moral defeat: they are condemned and often repent of their actions, but not because they realized their inadmissibility, but because at the same time as those whom they wanted to destroy and the people they love are dying.”23 The conflict is revealed dramatically, and, it should be noted, the drama literally permeates the entire ballad genre. “The artistic specificity of the ballad is determined by its dramatic nature. The composition, the way of depicting a person, and the very principle of typification of life phenomena are subject to the needs of dramatic expressiveness. The most characteristic features of the composition of the ballad are: one-conflict and conciseness, discontinuity of presentation, an abundance of dialogues, repetitions with an increase in drama ... The action of the ballad is reduced to one conflict, to one central episode, and all the events preceding the conflict are either stated extremely briefly .. or completely missing...” The images of ballad characters are also revealed according to dramatic principle: through speech and action. It is the attitude to action, to the disclosure of a personal position in conflict relations that determines the type of the hero of the ballad. “The creators and listeners of ballads are not interested in personalities. They are primarily concerned with the relationships of the characters among themselves, transferred, epically copying the world of consanguinity and family relations. The actions of the heroes of the ballads have a universal meaning: they determine the entire plot basis of the ballad and have a dramatic tense character, setting the stage for a tragic denouement. "Events are conveyed in the ballad in their most intense, most effective moments, there is nothing in it that would not relate to action." “The action in a ballad, as a rule, develops rapidly, in leaps and bounds, from one peak scene to another, without connecting explanations, without introductory characteristics. The speeches of the characters alternate with narrative lines. The number of scenes and characters is reduced to a minimum ... The whole ballad often represents, as it were, a preparation for the denouement.

Scientists note the plot incompleteness of the ballad genre, almost any ballad can be continued or expanded into a whole novel. "Mysteriousness or innuendo, arising from the compositional properties of the ballad, is inherent in the ballads of all peoples". As a rule, the ballad has an unexpected and cruel denouement. The heroes do things that are impossible in ordinary, everyday life, and they are prompted to do such actions by an artistically constructed chain of accidents, usually leading to a tragic ending. "Motives of unexpected misfortune, irreparable accidents, terrible coincidences are common for a ballad". The presence of these features allows us to assert that "ballads have such a specific character that one can speak of them as a genre." Currently, there are four theories for defining the genre of the ballad. 1. Ballad is an epic or epic-dramatic genre. The supporters of this position include N. Andreev, D. Balashov, A. Kulagina, N. Kravtsov, V. Propp, Yu. Smirnov. "Ballad is an epic (narrative) song of a dramatic nature". The source of the emotionality of the narration is the dramatic beginning, the author's presence in the ballad is not expressed, which means that the lyrics as a generic feature of the genre are absent. The lyrical beginning is understood as a direct expression of the author's attitude to reality, the author's mood. 2. Ballad - lyrical view poetry. At the moment of the development of science, such a point of view should be considered abandoned. Its origin dates back to the 19th century. It was believed that the ballad in its literary form reflects the folk form and easily correlates with such lyrical genres as romance and elegy. Pavel Yakushkin, one of the famous collectors folk poetry, wrote: "The ballad so easily turns into an elegy and, conversely, an elegy into a ballad, that it is impossible to strictly distinguish between them"33. They differ only in the number of options presented more in the ballad34. Such a theory does not withstand serious criticism, much earlier V.G. Belinsky wrote about the belonging of the ballad, which arises in the Middle Ages, to epic works, although in general it should be considered, according to the critic, in the section of lyric poetry35. 3. Ballad - lyrical-epic genre. This point of view is shared by A. Veselovsky, M. Gasparov, O. Tumilevich, N. Elina, P. Lintur, L. Arinstein, V. Erofeev, G. Kalandadze, A. Kozin. Until recently, this theory was considered classical. There is every reason to believe that it arises from the assumption about the lyrical warehouse of the ballad, which was widespread in the 19th century. Scientists note the peculiar lyricization of the folk ballad: “If for epics the main path of transformation is the transition to prose, in the form of a wide range of prose forms ... then for the ballad, the main path of transformation is the transition to lyrics, in the form of, perhaps, a wider set of lyric -epic and lyrical forms"36 . Considering such lyrical-epic ballads of the 18th - 19th centuries, researchers come to the rightful conclusion that leading start in the structure of the genre is precisely the lyrical. Unfortunately, in the definition of a specific manifestation of the lyrical principle, the very term lyricism, general, mostly non-genre grounds are given. We are talking about a special emotional perception, lyrical empathy of listeners to the content of ballads, their sympathy for the suffering and death of heroes. Also, as a drawback of this concept, one should point out the lack of works devoted to the genre evolution of the ballad: perhaps the ancient form of ballad songs is not constant, changes over time and does not quite correspond to the modern form of ballads. 4. Ballad - epic-lyrical-dramatic genre. This approach to the definition of a ballad is now entering the leading positions. Supporters of this concept are M. Alekseev, V. Zhirmunsky, B. Putilov, A. Gugnin, R. Wright-Kovaleva, A. Mikeshin, V. Gusev, E. Tudorovskaya. "A folk ballad is an epic-lyrical song with pronounced dramatic elements"37. In principle, Russian folklore studies went to such a definition for a long time and independently, but it is possible to establish connections with analytical works. German poets and collectors of folk poetry of the 18th - 19th centuries, who created a type of romantic ballad. I.V. Goethe believed that "the singer uses all three main types of poetry, ... he can start lyrically, epicly, dramatically, and, changing forms at will, continue ...". In the definition of a ballad as a symbiosis of three poetic genera, I.G. Herder added another mythological element. The dramatic beginning is one of the leading elements that form the ballad genre. The dramatic presentation of the series of events, the dramatic conflict and the tragic denouement determine not the lyrical, but the dramatic type of emotionality of the ballad genre. If the lyrics in folklore mean the subjective attitude of the author to the events depicted, then the dramatic beginning is the attitude of the characters to the events taking place, and the ballad genre is formed in accordance with this approach39. The last group of scientists believes that the dramatic beginning is an indispensable feature of the genre and has an equal role with the epic and lyrical. In a particular song of the epico-lyric-dramatic type, they can be involved to varying degrees, depending on the needs of the historical time and the ideological and artistic setting of the work. Such a position, in our opinion, seems to be the most promising and fruitful in relation to the study of the folk ballad genre. Unfortunately, we have to admit that there are only a few works devoted to the origin and development of the Russian folk ballad genre. V.M. Zhirmunsky, in his article "The English Folk Ballad" in 1916, proposed dividing ballads into genre varieties (epic, lyrical-dramatic or lyrical)40, thereby removing the question of the problem of the evolution of the ballad genre as such. In 1966, the study “The History of the Development of the Russian Folk Ballad Genre” by D.M. Balashov, in which the author, using specific material, shows the thematic nature of the change in the ballad in the 16th-17th centuries, and in the 18th century notes signs of the destruction of the genre as a result of the development of an extra-ceremonial lyrical lingering song and "absorption of the epic fabric of the ballad by lyrical elements"41. N.I. Kravtsov summarized all the available experience and proposed to approve four groups or cycles of ballads in the educational literature: family, domestic, love, historical, social42. In 1976, in the scientific work "Slavic Folklore", the scientist noted the evolutionary nature of these groups43. In 1988 Yu.I. Smirnov, analyzing East Slavic ballads and forms close to them, presented the experience of an index of plots and versions, where he subjected reasonable criticism to the artificiality, conventionality of dividing ballads into fantastic, historical, social, etc. “Such an artificial division breaks the natural connections and typological relationships between the plots, as a result of which forms related or close to them are separated and are considered in isolation”44. The scientist clarifies the rules for constructing an evolutionary chain45 in relation to ballad material, highlighting five derivatives of the genre (from a drawn-out or “vocal” song intended for choral performance to literary ballad songs common among the people)46. In general, there is a general picture of the evolution of the folk ballad genre from epic to lyrical form. In this work, private and practical questions about the ways and reasons for modifying the genre elements of the ballad are solved, connections between disparate plots are established, and the genre specificity of specific texts is determined. In our work, we use the method of text reconstruction, the foundations of which were laid in the works of the historical-typological school of V.Ya. Propp and B.N. Putilov. With regard to the ballad genre, it has its own specifics and is realized in the following aspects. It is assumed that the ballad genre is organized in certain cycles that contribute to the maximum disclosure of all genre features of the ballad. The cyclization of the ballad genre is primarily a plot-variative realization of one conflict. In the ballad cyclization, the dramatic element will be fundamental, which in practice consists in creating a) variants of a dramatic situation (early cycles), then ending the conflict; b) versions of the dramatic situation, conflict. A variant of a ballad cycle is a song that repeats a given conflict model, but aims to reveal it as fully as possible in the plot. The version is a qualitative change in the text, the creation of a new conflict on the basis of a developed cycle or a separate ancient ballad (“Omelfa Timofeevna rescues her relatives” and “Avdotya the Ryazanochka”, “Tatar full” and a cycle about Polonian girls). Cycles are studied in their direct interaction, internal evolutionary connections, it is also traced how the very principles of folk cyclization change over time. The study of the composition of the cycle involves a genre analysis of the plot-variative series of songs. Particular attention is paid to the study of the main components of the genre specificity of the ballad. The type of cyclization and formulary, the type of hero and the level of conflict, the nature of the folk / author's assessment and the dialogic / monologue speech of the characters, the use of folklore and intra-genre traditions, the type of convention and the reflection of the aesthetics of the artistic / direct case are analyzed, the role of formal plot logic, the category of miraculous and symbolic is established. . Features are being explored poetic language and artistic techniques of ballad style. The impact on specific plots of the tradition of adjacent ballad forms and ritual, epic, lyrical, historical songs, as well as spiritual poems is especially noted. All the results of the analytical work are brought into line with the requirements of historical time, this is how the approximate time of demand for ballad cycles is determined. Ultimately, the typological features of the ballad genre are established on each historical stage. The nature and features of the genre changes of the ballad in its generic and artistic aspects, the general principles of its evolution are revealed. The ballad cycles are considered in their direct connection and are more or less accurately dated. As a result of the analysis of the ballad material in the Russian region, it is established that the ballad is a flexible, mobile unit of epico-lyrical-dramatic character, which has certain stable typological features at each historical stage of its development from the end of the 13th - beginning of the 14th centuries. to the 18th - 19th centuries Initially, the lyrics are involved in the form of tradition and do not have a significant role in the genre structure of the ballad. Gradually, the lyrical beginning changes the genre appearance of the ballad, which ultimately leads to the lyricization of the genre or its transformation into literary analogues. The ballad worldview, as it were, prepares the ground and contributes to the emergence of personal and historical artistic consciousness, which led to the development of forms of non-ceremonial lyrical and historical poetry. Subsequently, the ballad genre cannot fully reflect the conflicts of the new era. Competing with historical and lyrical songs in the 16th-17th centuries, strengthening the role of the lyrical element in its genre structure, the ballad gradually, as it were, dissolves into the lyrical element, which is more in line with the reflection of all the depth and inconsistency of the new era. At best, what remains of a genuine ballad is an external form, a kind of ballad style of presentation or ballad plot (a type of petty-bourgeois ballads). The original genre of the folk ballad was conserved in the 19th and 20th centuries. The most famous, topical ballad plots for a particular locality are preserved. They are given a lyrical form, they are lyrically processed, but certain stable typological features remain unchanged (cf. a similar process that began earlier in epic creativity). Such ballad songs are gradually disappearing as the literacy of the population grows, the distribution of books and the disappearance of the ballad narrators and performers themselves.

Ballad - lyrical-epic songs about tragic events in family and everyday life, the hero of the ballad is a nameless person who is experiencing, suffering, sometimes dying in difficult life circumstances.

Plots in ballads are based on crime, often murder. This is what gives the ballads tragic character. In epics and often in historical songs positive hero triumphs, but in ballads he dies, and the villain does not receive direct punishment. Heroes in ballads are not heroes, not historical figures, but usually ordinary people. The meaning of ballads is in expressing moral assessments of the behavior of characters, in protecting the free expression of feelings and aspirations of the individual.

Because the different genres they draw the means of creating an image from the general folklore system of means, a number of traditional formulas (anger, annoyance, sadness) that convey certain feelings are used both in ballads and in epics and historical songs, but the causes that cause these feelings, as well as their consequences different in every genre. Majority actors does not even have a name, not to mention the characters. They differ only in family relations(husband, brother, mother-in-law). The ballads reveal a more complex, contradictory inner world destroyer. A cruel mother-in-law, in one episode harassing her daughter-in-law, in another appears as loving mother, and in the third - he blames himself and suffers. All this makes the images of ballad characters more vital and convincing.
"Ballads - songs with epic plot basis, but imbued with a lyrical mood and distinguished by intense drama "
The ballad and related genres in the process of existence have mutual influence. B. N. Putilov spoke about the possible cases of the transition of a historical song into a ballad, as well as a ballad into a historical song.
It should be noted that fairy-tale motifs are also present in the ballads. For example, in the ballad "The Prince and the Elders" Prince Mitriy is revived with living water. Unlike fairy tales, in ballads it is not good that wins, but evil.

Ballads make it possible to deeply realize the joy of being and experience compassion for the perishing that purifies the soul. The death of the ballad hero is perceived as a denunciation of evil, an affirmation moral standards. “ballads have such a specific character that one can speak of them as a genre” [Propp].

Thematic cycles (Anikin):

1) family

2) love

3)historical

4) social (social)

The main place in the genre of ballads is occupied by works of a family and everyday nature. Such texts reveal acute family conflicts. Their characters are wife, husband, mother-in-law. The plot is based on the relationship of husband and wife or mother-in-law / daughter-in-law.

1) medieval despotism - the dominance of the husband in the family, the husband kills his wife

2) In it, a young woman is killed by her mother-in-law, the drama lies in the fact that the mother-in-law kills not only her daughter-in-law, but also her grandson. The son, having learned about the crime of his mother, commits suicide.

3) the mother herself poisons her son and the girl he has chosen.

The works called love ballads are also based on plots that reveal the plight of a woman. ("Dmitry and Domna")

Plots historical ballads connected with historical events. They reflected the tragic situation of the Russian people during the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Among the historical works, two groups of works stand out:

About the Tatar Polon, revealing the freedom-loving and irreconcilable nature of the Polonyans, "Tatar Polon"

About the tragic meetings of relatives. the tragedy of Russian women driven into captivity is shown and it is narrated about the meetings of mother and daughter (for example, “Mother Polonyanka”).

Social ballads are characterized by two themes:

Social inequality in personal relationships, in love people of different social status live: a queen and a simple fellow, a princess and a housekeeper. This is the basis of their tragic fate"Well done and the Queen"

The destructive role of the church. They clearly express popular protest against the restriction of the individual in her aspirations and desires; the cruelty of public and church morality is opposed by the defense of the free, natural manifestation of human feeling, "Forcible tonsure"

Plots with the theme of incest (from Latin incestum - incest) were very popular. The content of the folk classical ballad is drawn to the theme of the family. Such a ballad is concerned about the moral side of the relationship between fathers and children, husband and wife, brother and sister. In the plot of the ballad, although evil triumphs, the theme of an awakened conscience is important.

As a manuscript

Kovylin Alexey Vladimirovich

"RUSSIAN FOLK BALLAD: ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE GENRE"

Specialty 10.00.09 - folklore

dissertations for the degree of candidate philological sciences

Moscow 2003

The work was carried out at the department of literature of the philological faculty of the Moscow State Open Pedagogical University named after M. A. Sholokhov.

Nuchiy leader:

Doctor of Philology, Professor Gugni "Alexander Alexandrovich

Official opponents:

Doctor of Philology, Leading Researcher Vinogradova Lyudmila Nikolaevna

Lead organization:

candidate of philological sciences, foreman researcher Govsko Tatiana Vladimirovna

Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov.

The defense will take place "..X." ...bt.fif.fJA. 2003 in l. "*, hours at the meeting of the dissertation council D 212.136.01 at the Moscow State Open Pedagogical University them. M.A. Sholokhov at the address: 109004. Moscow, st. Upper Radishchevskaya, 16-18.

The dissertation can be found in the library of the Moscow State Pedagogical University. M.A. Sholokhov

Scientific secretary of the dnssergaiposhyugo council, ^

Candidate of Philological Sciences, Associate Professor /ui^^ Chapaeva L.G.

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The history of the development of the Russian folk ballad genre is of great interest in the modern scientific world. Many research works are devoted to the ballad, and yet it remains the most controversial and mysterious form for modern science. There are still many unresolved questions about the specifics of the Russian folk ballad as a genre organization. What is a ballad in a generic sense, why does the lyric manifest itself in the genre extremely unevenly, and yet the ballad turns into lyrical forms? How does a folk ballad arise, what are the reasons for its lyricization. as well as transformation into the genre of a literary romantic ballad? Why is the ballad a flexible genre unit capable of reflecting the artistic demands of several historical formations, from the 14th to the 10th-19th centuries? How are the epic, lyrical and dramatic beginnings combined in its genre structure at specific historical stages, and does their presence determine the general laws of creating specific works in different periods of ballad creativity? What is the difference between the ballad of the 15th century in terms of genre? from a 16th century ballad? What is the specificity of the interaction of the genre with other forms of folk poetry: ritual, epic, lyrical, historical, spiritual songs?

In the dissertation research, an attempt was made to trace the evolution of the Russian folk ballad genre and answer the questions posed. This work :) is devoted to the study of the genre of Russian folk ballad, however, the fact of the correlation between Russian and European folk ballads does not go unnoticed. It seems appropriate and necessary at this stage to study the evolution of the genre, taking into account the national specifics of each ballad region. In this way, confusion can be avoided in determining the genre specificity of the general type of European ballad, when, for example, a Russian epic or a German lyric song is interpreted as particular national forms of a European ballad. Only by collecting data on all ballad regions, it is possible to compare evolutionary chains, take into account national characteristics - in a word, conduct a comparative analysis of the ballad heritage of various European countries and determine the general model, genre type of the European folk ballad. This work is a specific material on the Russian ballad region for such a generalizing study.

In the work on the dissertation, we were guided, first of all, by the concept of the historical-typological school (V.Ya. Propp. B.N. Putilov) of the historical study of genres of folklore and the establishment of certain typological features at certain historical stages in the development of a particular the process of formation of the European ballad genre. Genre structure analysis

specific ballad songs are conducted taking into account the requirements

B.I. Propp to study the genre composition of Russian folklore as an integral system. The connections of the genre of Russian folk ballad with Western European and Slavic samples are also taken into account (works of scientists of the comparative historical school of A.N. Veselovsky. P.G. Bogatyrev, V.M. Zhirmunsky. N.I. Kravtsov). On the other hand, we support the opinion of D.M. Balashov about the independent role of the Russian ballad genre, its national identity and the leading role in Russian oral folk art from the 14th to the 16th - 17th centuries.

The main object of the research is the Russian folk ballads presented in the collections of M.D. Chulkov, Kirsha Danilov. P.V. Kirievsky, P.A. Bessonova, P.N. Rybnikov. A.N. Sobolevsky. V.I. Chernysheva. D.M. Balashova, B.N. Putilov.

C.N. Azbelev. The internal connections of disparate songs, the model of their evolutionary development are established. Stable typological features are determined, allowing to give a clear definition of the genre. Finally, a general idea is given about the fate of the ballad and the place it occupies in the system of song folklore genres.

Thus, the relevance of the work is determined by understanding, on the basis of specific observations, the problems of the evolution of the genre system of the Russian folk ballad, its place in the system of genres of Russian oral poetry and the further prospects for the transition to literary analogues through the type of pre-romantic and romantic ballad.

The solution of these problems involves consideration of the Russian ballad heritage

a) as a mobile genre system that has its own logic) "and the specifics of development, interacting with similar forms of folk poetry:

b) in the context of historical changes in the artistic consciousness of the people, which influenced the aesthetics and fate of the entire genre;

c) taking into account the theory of the emergence and development of the European ballad genre.

Based on the foregoing, the specific objectives of the dissertation

The analysis technique is based on the principles of the historical-typological method, the basis of which is the comparison of possible variants of the ballad, its ideological and artistic analysis with the requirements of the relevance of the historical era in which it arises and develops, as well as the establishment of the typological similarity of ballad works;! racial peoples as a general pattern of a single process, as well as its various national variations.

The following provisions are put forward for defense:

1. Russian folk ballad is an epic-lyrical-dramatic genre in which, depending on historical expediency to necessity, in accordance with evolutionary theory, these beginnings can play a different role. "

2. The history of the development of the Russian folk ballad suggests the emergence of the genre from the end of the 13th century. like an epno-dramatic song. The ballad takes on a lyrical form in the 18th and 19th centuries.

4. Establishing the internal genre links of the Russian ballad heritage presupposes the organization of all ballad material into cycles.

The scientific novelty of the dissertation is determined by an integrated approach to the study of the Russian folk ballad genre. The cycles of the Russian ballad heritage are restored and analyzed. which line up in a clear evolutionary model that establishes specific dates for the emergence and existence of ballad songs.

Approbation of work. The main provisions of the dissertation are reflected in the reports at the interuniversity conferences "Russian and foreign literature: history, modernity, relationships" 1997. 1998, 1999. 2000. 2001, as well as in a monograph and 6 articles.

Structure and scope of work. The thesis consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion, notes and a bibliography of 288 titles.

In VVSDSIIN, the goals and objectives of the study are determined, the relevance of the dissertation is substantiated, its scientific

novelty. It also provides an overview of domestic and, in part, foreign studies devoted to the study of the genre structure of the European and Russian folk ballad, the emergence and further development of the Russian folk ballad.

Until the 20th century the theory of the origin of the ballad in the conditions of the primitive communal system was widespread (F.B. Gammer, A.S. McKinsey, R.G. Malton, A.N. Veselovsky and others). It was believed that the ballad originated from ritual poetry or arises as the earliest form of poetry performed to music in dance. In the 20th century, few scholars share this view. In Russia, the position of P.V. Lintura, G. A. Kalandadoe. Modern science believes that the European ballad is a product of social conditions, that is, the ballad, like any genre of oral folk art, is a poetic form of reflection of reality, namely medieval times. As a genre organization, it takes shape in the Middle Ages in all European countries, although it may be that some songs similar to the ballad existed before, but they did not survive in their original form (YP. Andreev, V.I. Chernyshev, early articles V. M. Zhirmunsky and others). The works of D.M. Balashova, B.K. Putilova, V.M. Zhirmunsky, KG United and others.

Apparently, the origin of the ballad genre is typological, in each country ballad songs arise as an independent genre and have pronounced national characteristics. In all likelihood, originally a dance song was called a ballad, or rather, it denoted a spring round dance song of love content. Such songs by the 13th century) are moving into solid literary forms and are widespread in Western Europe. The emergence of the folk ballad genre itself does not have a single direct source. In Scandinavia, the ballad, emerging as a new genre unit, borrows a certain form, form of performance from the developed genre of dance song. Thus, the ballad is included in the system of folklore genres connected by a common tradition. In this way, the folk ballad can artistically fully reflect new modern conflicts, which actually required the emergence of this genre in the Middle Ages. In the Slavic region (Southern and Eastern Slavs), on the contrary, the ballad has a tonic versification, since the songs had such a form heroic epic popular at the time and had a significant impact on new genre. It should also be noted that the popular name of ballad songs is not common. In each country, songs are called differently (in Russia, "old women", in Polish-Ukrainian

in the region "dumka", in Spain "romances", in England "songs". "iymes". in Denmark "viser", in Germany "Lieder"),

1. The ballad is an epic or epic-dramatic genre (N. Andreev. D. Balashov. A. Kulagina, N. Kravtsov. V. Propp. Yu. Kruglov. Yu. Smirnov).

2. Ballad - a lyrical form of poetry. At the present moment in the development of science, such a point of view, which arose among poets, literary observers and collectors of folk poetry of the 19th century, should be considered abandoned.

3. Ballad - lyrical-epic genre (A. Veselovsky, M. Gasparov. O. Tumilevich. N. Elina, P. Lintur. J1. Arinshtein, V. Erofeev, G. Kalandadze, A. Kozin).

4. Ballad - epic-lyrical-dramatic genre. This approach to the definition of a ballad is now entering the leading positions. Supporters of this concept are M. Alekseev, V. Zhirmunsky, B. Putilov, A. Gugnin, R. Raig-Kovaleva, A. Mikepshn, V. Gusev, E. Tudorovskaya. The last group of scientists believes that the dramatic beginning is an indispensable feature of the genre and has an equal role with the epic and lyrical. In a particular song of the epico-lyric-dramatic type, they can be involved to varying degrees, depending on the needs of the historical time and the ideological and artistic setting of the work.

Unfortunately, we have to admit that there are few works devoted to the origin and development of the Russian folk ballad genre. V.M. Zhirmunsky in his article "The English Folk Ballad" in 1916 proposed dividing the ballads into genre varieties (epic, lyrical-dramatic or lyrical), thereby removing the question of the problem of the evolution of the ballad genre as such. In 1966, the study “The History of the Development of the Russian Folk Ballad Genre” by DM was published. Balashov, in which the author, using specific material, shows the thematic nature of the change in the ballad in the 16th-17th centuries, and in the 18th century. notes the signs of the destruction of the genre as a result of the development of the extra-ceremonial lyrical drawl and "the absorption of the epic fabric of the ballad into lyrical elements". N.I. Kravtsov summarized all the available experience and proposed to approve four groups or cycles of ballads in the educational literature: family, domestic, love, historical, social. In 1976, in the book Slavic Folklore, the scientist noted the evolutionary nature of these groups. In 1988 Yu.I. Smirnov, analyzing the East Slavic ballads and close mi forms, presented the experience of the index of plots in versions, where he subjected reasonable criticism

artificiality, conditional division of ballads into fantastic, historical, social, etc. The scientist clarifies the rules for constructing an evolutionary chain in the book “Slavic Epic Traditions: Problems of Evolution” in relation to ballad material, highlighting five derivatives of the genre (from a drawn-out or “vocal” song intended for choral performance to literary ballad songs common among the people).

In general, there is a general picture of the evolution of the folk ballad genre from epic to lyrical form. In this work, private, practical questions about the ways and reasons for modifying the genre elements of the ballad are solved, links are established between disparate plots, and the genre specificity of specific texts is determined. The first chapter "The formation of the genre of Russian folk ballads of the XIV-XV centuries." is devoted to the early period of the development of the Russian folk ballad.

The chapter consists of four paragraphs. In the first paragraph "Historical prerequisites for the formation of the Russian folk ballad genre" points to the sources of the formation of the first examples of ballad creativity. The genre of the Russian folk ballad has as its inaccurate predecessor the song of the heroic epic, the bylina. The ballad borrows the principle of genre restructuring, change, modification of heroic songs. New epic poetry, which replaced poetry before the state system, chooses the main element in the poetics of the mythological era of AD. shifting accents, gradually changes the entire poetic system)". Also in the second type of works that arise in this era - in ballad songs - the functionality of the hero changes. Gradually (with the development of the cycle about Polonyanka girls), a new ballad worldview is established: to replace the epic ideal mighty hero comes private, typical person, physically weak, helpless before the forces of external evil. It is no coincidence that a woman becomes a favorite hero of ballads. To approve a new artistic idea the ballad genre is looking for correspondences in the system of folklore genres, where similar tasks found certain solutions. The ballad is included in the system of genres of oral folk art, using as a tradition elements from the genre systems of the epic, fairy tale and lyrical extra-ceremonial poetry. On the one hand, to replace the plot of the heroic epic, still associated with the legacy of the mythological era, the ballad opens up new horizons: the main place is occupied not by the hero, but by the plot: the event that reveals the hero’s inability to heroism. The dramatic plot, which revealed the impotence of a person in the world around him, is more consistent with the formation of the type of a separate, private, dissociated from the harmony of the world of a person. On the other hand, in the cycle about Polonyanka girls, the ballad attracts as

traditions lyrical forms of poetry. The study of this issue is devoted to the second paragraph of the "Cycle of ballads about the girl-polonyankas."

The cycle of ballads about Polonyanka girls has a long development. It arises in the 13th-19th centuries, in the 16th it receives a new impetus for development in the south of Russia. This cycle presents new type hero is a heroic woman who has fallen into a hopeless tragic situation, but is actively fighting for her personal and, therefore, national independence. By design, this is an epic image, the formation of the cycle also has an epic setting: the songs are organized around one center - around a Polonyanka girl. The epic idea in the trance ballad genre is realized: the heroic image of a woman is fully revealed thanks to the dramatic situation in which the hero finds himself. It is the dramatic situation that shows the hero’s defenselessness before the forces of external evil and causes the manifestation of true heroism by the Polonian girl. Initially, the ballad cycle organizes songs on the basis of the presence of a common dramatic situation.

In ideological and artistic terms, the f°RmiR°bath of the Polonyanka image is opposed to the epic. The ballad is not interested in the hero-hero, who shows his qualities in the active and successful overcoming of epic obstacles, the ballad is interested in the priority of the dramatic situation over the hero. The ballad hero is defined first through being in a dramatic situation, then through active actions, a tragic choice, showing the defenselessness and weakness of an active and heroic person in his actions, before the forces of external evil. Thus, the goal of creating the cycle is epic, but the emphasis is shifted: the epic vision of the world is being modified. The dramatic principle of text organization is introduced in genre structure ballads and in its own way models the worldview of ballad songs. The dramatic vision of the world gradually comes to the fore.

The role of lyrics as a genre-forming element in a ballad song at an early stage of development, therefore, will be insignificant. Lyrics acts as a tradition that does not give way to a new genre. The means of its expression is the same new image the hero that the ballad is to form.

When analyzing specific ballads of the cycle, when comparing their variants and versions, we came to the conclusion about changes in the principle of genre structuring of ballads. The epic setting of the created cycle is replaced by a dramatic approach in text modeling. The figurative system of the ballad is modified, the main epic hero turns into a dramatic type of equivalent characters. Moreover, a popular assessment is introduced into the image of the hero, later turning into the author's. It brings together

genre structure of a ballad with lyrical songs as opposed to epic legacy. The principles of cyclization of the song become clearer: with the discovery of the type of equivalent characters, with the discovery of the dialogue as the leader artistic principle, which creates a model of the conflict of the song, the ballad cycle is understood as the creation of variants of the conflict. However, the songs do not lose touch with previous samples, they are closely related to each other.

The third paragraph “Adjacent forms. "Avdotya Ryazanochka" is devoted to the problem of identifying songs that combine elements of various genres in their structure. The song "Avdotya Ryazanochka" is considered to be the first example of the ballad genre, although many scholars believe that this work is a history song, not a ballad. Indeed. "Avdotya the Ryazanochka" cannot be unconditionally classified as a ballad genre. The narrator's attention is paid not to the conflict of the song, not different options its full disclosure, and the epic goal - the creation of a new type heroic character- a woman who does not have the status of a hero, but who defeats a formidable enemy. This is an epic hero type. Avdotya-Ryazanochka goes towards danger - and defeats an invincible enemy. This is an epic feat, the only one who accomplishes it unusual character- not a firewood. A ordinary woman. The image of Avdotn-ryazanochkn is based on the ballad tradition, the tradition of creating a heroic female image in a cycle of ballads about Polonyanka girls. Thus, the epic and ballad traditions are combined in the image of the hero.

In the adjacent form “Avdotya the Ryazanochka”, the main idea is emphasized: the epic and the ballad at a certain stage of development converge and create new samples in terms of genre. The time of creation of adjacent forms refers to the XNUMXth-XM centuries. It was during this period that the convergence of ballad creativity with the songs of the heroic epic takes place. You can take revenge that such songs as "Avdotya Ryazanochka". "Prince Roman and Marya Yurievna", " miraculous rescue”, create their own special tradition, and the paragraph deals with songs that are directly related to them. We have every reason to believe that related forms were precursors in the development in Russian folklore of the tradition of creating novelistic epics of the 16th-17th centuries.

The epic "Kozarin" of the 16th-10th / 2nd centuries had an undoubted influence on the ballad genre. The fourth paragraph of "Kozarin" is devoted to determining the role of which. Bylina represents a new type of hero-hero - this is a rootless hero. He performs a feat in the name of preserving the family, but he himself is an exile from his home. The father does not forgive him for his heroism.

because in the coming era, a private typified family is the norm, the standard of life, in which there is no place for heroes.

"Kozarin" is one of the first attempts to create the image of a tragic hero who did not find a place for himself either in the epic tradition or in new system peace. The image of a tragic hero, subject to ballad aesthetics, will then find its embodiment in such heroes as Sukhman and Danilo Lovchanin. This song, by design, is a product of epic creativity and does not have a ballad setting. However, the influence of the aesthetics of the ballad genre on the epic is undeniable. The epic itself corresponds to the ballad worldview so much that later "Kozarin" is reissued into ballad versions. First of all, "Kozarin" is moving closer to the cycle of Polonian girls. The image of the protagonist, a rootless hero, a hero of one feat, was also reflected in the ballad type of a rootless young man, rejected by the new ideal; of the new era - a typical private family.

The second chapter "Development of the genre of the Russian folk ballad of the 14th-15th centuries", consisting of six paragraphs, is devoted to the definition of genre features of the Russian folk ballad and their subsequent modifications of the 14th-15th centuries. In the first paragraph "Elder ballads of the XIV - early XVI centuries." the so-called "classical" type of Russian folk ballad is established. The older ballads include cycles about the mother-in-law harassing a daughter-in-law and the murder of a wife by her husband, and the cycle about Polonyanka girls also continues to develop. In the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. on the basis of songs about Prince Mikhail, a cycle of ballads about the murder of a wife by a husband is created. The analysis of these ballads shows that older ballads form stable genre features of the folk ballad of the 15th - early 16th centuries, the presence of which allows us to speak about the development of a new integral genre in Russian folklore. The figurative system of the Russian folk ballad is undergoing significant changes. The development of the cycle about Polonyanka girls forms a tragic female image, in the older ballads the heroine has the status of a tragic victim. The status of a victim for the image of a woman fully reflects the idea of ​​the ballad genre about the defenselessness of a private, isolated person in front of the forces of external evil. The status of a defenseless victim aggravates the conflict of relations between the characters to the maximum, and the new genre builds its poetics on the dynamics of such an aggravation, on the cyclization of the conflict situation.

The circle of songs about the harassment of the daughter-in-law by the mother-in-law forms a male image in ballad creativity. The development of older ballads show two directions of type development male hero. First, the male character repeats the pattern of development of the Polonyanka image. The prince is an unwitting victim of evil forces surrounding reality who have

a specific embodiment in the type of mother-in-law ("Prince Mikhailo", "Slandered Wife". "Ryabinka"). At the beginning of the XVI century. the ballad "Vasily and Sophia" is created, which can be considered as the final stage in the process of rapprochement of the male and female characters in the status of the victim.

The second way of development involves the formation of an active negative male character ("Prince Roman lost his wife." "Dmitry and Domna"). At the same time, the mother-in-law as a duplicating character is taken out of the scope of the ballad plot. A type of "classic" ballad characters is being formed, having different positions in an extremely aggravated conflict, but equal in relation to each other. The ballad genre opens in the 15th century. the type of characters of equal value (here it is necessary to note the influence of the developing cycle about Polonyanka girls and the adjacent form “Miraculous Salvation”, in which similar relationships of heroes develop).

In the older ballads of the Х1У-ХУ centuries. the type of people's assessment changes. In the cycle about Polonyanka girls, the assessment is laid in a dramatic situation that determines the type of hero. In older ballads, the hero is judged primarily by his specific actions. With the development of the dialogue system, its genre-forming role, people's assessment is revealed according to the dramatic principle - through the speech and actions of equal characters. In other words, storytellers are interested in the conflict of relations between equal characters, revealed according to the dramatic principle. This is how the type of formality of the ballad genre changes: the formality is transferred from a dramatic situation to the level of conflict in a work or cycle. The singer memorizes the conflict model of the song and, on the basis of it, restores the plot or creates its variant. Thus, the dramatic principle in the disclosure of the conflict of the work, the images of the main characters, the brevity and tension of the unfolding events, subordinated to the idea of ​​the most complete resolution of the conflict, a developed system of dialogue, clearly expressed type people's opinion, artistic convention, the formulas of the genre create the so-called "classical" type of Russian folk ballad. It is these samples that will serve as a source for modifying the genre system of the Russian ballad in the 16th-17th centuries. The second paragraph "Changes in the genre structure of the ballad in the 16th century" is devoted to the disclosure of this topic.

The "classical" type of Russian folk ballad is not stable, "frozen" genre form. It cannot be regarded as a certain model, a standard that should be imitated. The ballad has an initially mobile genre system, therefore, already in the 15th century. in the older ballads themselves, one can observe the changes taking place with the genre. It can be seen that the changes that occurred in the versions of the older ballads were largely due to the peculiarities

genre structure of the original samples. When analyzing the circle of older ballads, ballads of the 16th century .. subsequent versions and versions, we can note that in the 16th century. there is a beginning of the process of reducing the dramatic principle in the disclosure figurative system. Heroes are revealed not only according to the dramatic principle: through speech and actions - but they also receive a certain stable meaning. The meanings of the characters' images in some way determine the formality of the ballad genre. The hero, based on his value, can perform certain actions and have a certain given position. Formality is gradually translated into the figurative system of the genre, the plot of the ballad can be restored by remembering the meanings of the images of the characters and their position, which determines the conflict of the work.

In the XVI century. in the ballad genre, prerequisites are being created for reducing the value male image and strengthening the role of women. The male character receives negative meaning and is revealed in cycles about a timeless young man, about an unfortunate fate. It can also mean a hero-victim, to have in common with female character position (“Vasily and Sophia”, a cycle about incest). In the future, such a hero enters the cycles about an evil wife, about poisoning, where the heroine is an active negative character. The folk appraisal, embedded in the position of the heroes in the older ballads of the 15th century, is translated with the help of the category of the miraculous into a figurative system. Thanks to this modification, the images of the characters in the future receive clearer and more specific meanings.

Category of the miraculous in the Russian folk ballad in the 16th century. reaches the limit of its development. First of all, the miraculous manifests itself under the direct influence of the epic, the use of the ballad epic traditions. Likewise, the miraculous expresses itself as a form of appreciation. It is a genre aid in translating the people's assessment, which reveals itself according to the dramatic principle, into a system of images. Such a process was reflected in the ballad "Vasily and Sophia". Thus, the category of "great" in Russian ballads is of a subordinate nature, it primarily acts as a form of popular assessment. This is one of the differences from the poetics of the Western European ballad genre.

As a form of evaluation, the category of the miraculous comes into contact with the category of the symbolic. The symbolism in the ballad genre is rather closer to the concept of allegory, which is used in folk poetry when one image is completely replaced by another as a way to illustrate a certain idea. Such a symbolic expansion of the text, the use of allegorical characters takes place in the circle of Cossack allegorical ballads. It is also characteristic of the buffoon tradition of the comic image. domestic scenes(“Herbalist”, “Myzgir”), Another manifestation of symbolism in the ballad genre is characteristic in a special application from the 16th century. fixed epithets.

Epithets characterize a new meaning, a new type of images. It can overlap with the old value, but always fully modifies the entire hero type. We observe the influence of lyrical forms in the structuring of the figurative system, in other words, in the 16th century. the principles of the lyrical organization of the text are laid down in the genre structure of the ballad. Certainly, at general meaning the type of hero, the symbolic interpretation of him will be deeply individual in each text.

Thus, in the XVI century. there is a modification of the genre structure of the ballad. Specific changes in the ballad texts themselves can be shown by an analysis of the cycles of the 16th-10th/11th centuries. These are cycles of ballads about an evil wife and a timeless fellow. In the third paragraph of the “Cycle of the Evil Wife”, specific ballad texts are analyzed that reflect the development female images. The songs of the cycle about the superiority of a girl over a young man, which is an adjacent form, the cycle about an evil wife, including a circle of ballads about poisoning, a conditional cycle about a smart wife, the formation of which was influenced by songs about tragic hero. In these songs, there is a process of gradual departure from the predetermined meaning of the image of the hero. Formation author's assessment, monologue self-revealing of characters' images, the assertion in the ballad genre of the conflict of position (in ballads about a tragic hero) suggests a departure from the use of tradition in ballad creativity. Folk performers in the ХУ1-Х\Л1 centuries. more interested in the psychological disclosure of the images of the characters, the external plot plausibility. We observe the same changes in the genre structure of the Russian folk ballad in the cycle about the timeless young man, the study of which is devoted to the fourth paragraph of the Cycle about the timeless young man.

The cycle about the timeless fellow includes a circle of Cossack allegorical ballads and a cycle of ballads about fate, which includes songs about Gor. Analysis of these texts shows that the features of the construction of ballad songs in the 17th century. are determined not only by the artistic and ideological concept of the work, but also by the plot logic of the text. It can be noted that from the second half of the XVI century. there is a general desire for clarity, accuracy and concreteness of the depicted. In the ballad genre in the 17th century. the tendency towards concreteness and clarity of what is depicted will lead to the appearance of secondary plot motivations in the older ballads, to the clarification of the reasons for the actions of the characters in accordance with the formal plot logic of the text.

The new artistic deterministic consciousness, causal thinking destroys the old connections of the text and introduces new, logical, plot-motivated links in the narrative. Changes in the genre structure of the ballad in the 10th-17th centuries. prepare the ground for

completely new samples of ballad songs of the 18th century At the turn of the 17th-18th centuries. the given value of the images of ballad heroes is forgotten, the heroes become regular characters who reveal their position. usually in a monologue. In the XVIII century. the formality of the ballad is an exceptional event, a direct case, on the basis of which an entertaining plot line is built. Actually 6all;shy in the XVII-XIX centuries. present story stories, entertaining, mostly tragic cases from life.

The fifth paragraph "Historical Song and Ballad Poetry" considers the problems of interaction between the genres of historical poetry and ballads, analyzes texts that combine elements of different genres in their genre structure, but exclude the possibility of creating an adjacent form. The historical song is a kind of conglomeration of genres, depending on the purpose of the work, using any genre tradition as a dominant element. The process of interaction of historical song and ballad is interesting. The historical song uses the ballad genre in terms of the plot design of the work. The plot formality is laid, as a rule, in a single conflict. dramatic plot. The image of personal conflicts is used in order to form the figurative system of the genre as a characteristic of the hero's image. Ballad plots are rethought, and on their basis, new artistic intent works ("Terrible and Domna". "Ivan Lsvshinov." A historical song can borrow certain ballad images and use them for its own purposes. Ballad genre in the 17th century. experiences a direct impact on the genre structure associated with the rapid spread in<|юльклоре исторических песен. Баллада как гибкий и подвижный жанр перенимает достижения исторической поэзии и теряет устойчивые жанровые черты. Позже с использованием тематического подхода, балладная эстетика будет использоваться в создании различных групп таких произведений: удалых, солдатских и др. Сами баллады также могут создавать такие тематические циклы, например о неволе, и размывание устойчивой жанровой традиции в таких песнях будет особенно заметно и сблизит жанры баллады и исторической песни. Таким образом, психологическое раскрытие образной системы персонажей, использование сюжетных, причинно-следственных мотивировок, тематический подход в циклизации произведений - все это было подготовлено развитием самого балладного жанра, но таким быстрым к радикальным прорывом в трансформации структуры жанра баллада об л шил воздействию на нее исторического и личного художественного сознания, наиболее полно выразившегося в жанре исторических песен.

The interaction of the ballad genre with the heritage of epic creativity is devoted to the sixth paragraph of "Reworkings of the novelistic epic". Reworkings of the novelistic epic as ballads represent, firstly, a thematic expansion of related forms, a direct borrowing of the plot situation from epic creativity. Also in the XV-XVI centuries. the ballad genre can use a certain plot motif from an epic and, on its basis, create a complete ballad. In the 17th century not only the plot situation can be reworked, but the plot itself as such. It was at this time that the ballad gives preference to an interesting, entertaining plot, where the images of the characters are revealed psychologically and their actions have a clear motivation and validity. Thus, in the ballad genre itself in the 17th century. there is a tendency to create separate plot stories based on the previous genre tradition. Gradually, the role of the plot organization of the text increases, and, accordingly, the influence of the ballad tradition weakens, and the songs acquire an autonomous meaning. They are separate, entertaining stories isolated from each other, united by an interest in depicting an unusual case. Their appearance dates back to the end of the 17th-15th centuries, the time of a new revision of the ballad genre.

The third chapter "Genre Designs of the Russian Folk Ballad of the 17th - 19th Centuries", consisting of two paragraphs, is devoted to the study of the genre of the Russian folk ballad in the final period of its development. With a general tendency to assert position in the conflict genre, to a psychological interpretation of the image of the hero, his certain passivity, to the formation of the author's assessment of the character and the author's assessment of even the most ballad work, interpreted in a moralizing vein, to the plot organization of the text, in which special attention is paid to the denouement, there are types of cyclizations that keep ballad songs from being lyricized and give a certain stability to the genre system in the 17th-18th centuries, and partly in the 19th century. The definition of all types of ballad cyclizations that have existed since the formation of the genre, their stable genre features and development prospects is devoted to the first paragraph "Types of cyclization of the Russian folk ballad genre". It presents a general model for the development of the Russian folk ballad genre from its very inception, which explains the chaotic and fragmented existence of ballad songs in the 1511-19th centuries.

Strictly speaking, there are two types of cyclizations in the ballad genre. The first of them is genre cyclization. She is the leading, main, thanks to her development the ballad is always modern and relevant, it can be modified and reflect the conflicts of the new time. The second cyclization is more conditional and its main goal is

the maximum expansion of ballad material through the creation of versions. Such, let's call it versioned, cyclization is secondary, but it accompanies and complements genre cyclization since the emergence of the genre itself. Genre cyclization is based on the desire of folk performers to create a cycle based on the concept of the nature of the conflict, common to the ballad genre at a certain stage of its development. Genre cyclization consists of four stages: the creation of cycles on the dramatic situation, on the conflict of relations, on the conflict of the image and on the conflict of position. The cyclization of ballads according to the dramatic situation aims to establish the ballad vision of the world and the heroic female image, physically weak, but resisting the injustice and cruelty of the surrounding world in a hopeless struggle. This is a cycle about Polonyanka girls, which combines two dramatic situations: flight and full.

The cyclization of ballads on the conflict" of relations between the 15th and 19th centuries reveals the personal position of a private typified person in his opposition to the outside world, later to society. Conflicts of equal characters, father and children, husband and wife, brother and sister lay the foundation for changing the semantic load of the figurative system itself This includes such cycles as notification of the daughter-in-law by the mother-in-law, the cycle about the murder of the wife by the husband, “Tatar Full”, which develops the old ballads of the cycle about Polonyanka girls from new positions, and the cycle about incest.

From the second half of the XVI century. cycles are formed according to the given value of the image. The hero carries a certain meaning, his given type determines the conflict and must be revealed as fully as possible. These are cycles about the superiority of a girl over a young man, about a timeless young man, which includes such formations as cycles about Grief and fate, these are cycles about poisoning, about an evil wife, and a conditionally formed group of ballads about a smart woman. The cyclization according to the conflict inherent in the image of the hero is transitional, bringing together cyclization according to the conflict of relations and according to the conflict of position.

The cyclization according to the conflict of position or the cyclization of the denouement dates back to the second half of the 17th century. The ballad gradually moves to plot formalities, strives to create separate, entertaining stories isolated from tradition, and this transitional moment is perfectly reflected by the cyclization of the conflict of position. Old songs are processed, the text remains practically unchanged, but the ballad now acquires a plot ending. It is the denouement of the works that becomes the organizing principle in ballad creativity. The denouement always represents a special tragic hopeless situation in which the hero finds himself, and forms a situation of choice, as a rule, between life and death, humility and moral victory. The meaning of the image

changes, the hero loses his predetermined type, acquires more individual features and has the right to a psychological interpretation and author's assessment.

From the second half of the 17th century. a ballad cannot create new cycles (an exception is the development of a rather controversial, to a certain extent artificial cycle about a smart wife). However, the cycles continue to develop, the huge poetic heritage of the old times is being reworked, but already from new genre positions, positions of versioned cyclization. It consists of the following groups: cyclization by motive, plot and social.

Cyclization based on the motive is rather conditional, as. as a matter of fact, and all version cyclization. The motive does not form its own cycle, it is only included in such ballad organizations as a genre support, a tradition that gives the genre a new life. The purpose of cyclization according to the motive is not only to increase the ballad material, but above all in the artistic processing of the motive that carries or is capable of exacerbating a dramatic or conflict situation. On the other hand, whole ballad plots can be recreated and developed from such motifs, which will serve as a transitional step to creating versions of ballad plots, that is, to plot cyclization.

The plot cyclization in the ballad genre is realized in three directions. These are cyclizations according to the conflict, according to the image and according to the plot itself. They can mix and complement each other, clear boundaries can be determined by recognizing the goals that each of them pursues. The plot cyclization of the conflict is realized in the creation of versions of old ballad plots, in the full plot understanding of the conflict in relation to new conditions. Plot cyclization according to the image aims to adapt the type of hero and his meaning to new conditions, reduce the type of hero and create ballads based on the psychological meaning of the image. Such cyclization can develop in parallel and indivisibly with cyclization according to conflict or plot, it is largely determined by the genre cyclization according to the conflict of position.The actual plot cyclization or cyclization according to the plot involves the creation of original plots based on both ballad and non-ballad material, plot expands the cycles, creates various kinds of contamination and approaches the aesthetics of the novelistic epic, ultimately striving to create separate from tradition Such cyclization, arising much earlier, manifests itself especially clearly in the 18th-19th centuries, gradually becoming the leading, main cyclization of the ballad genre, interacting and absorbing the genre cyclization by position conflict.

Social cyclization involves the expansion of ballad material and its adaptation to the needs of new social groups. Actually, such works cannot be called ballads. They are designed to more fully reveal the conflicts of social groups along with songs from the genres of historical and lyrical poetry. Social cyclization forms a kind of symbiosis with these genres, it is the key to the thematic approach in historical poetry, and all the material related to it, of course, is of a multi-genre character. The main significance of the spread of social cyclization lies in the blurring of the genre features of the ballad. The mixing of all types of version cyclization, the absence of variant cycles leads to the absence of an organizing idea in the structuring of the genre and its special susceptibility to the aesthetics of historical and lyrical forms of poetry, as well as literary samples.

On the one hand, we are witnessing the process of direct lyricization of the folk ballad genre and its transition into the composition of lyrical and historical poetry. In such works one can speak only of ballad motifs or a special, ballad character of plot. This path leads to the death of the ballad genre, its dissolution in line with historical and lyrical poetry. The ballad loses its genre basis, autonomous and sovereign principles of organizing specific plots, it loses its independence and is considered as an integral part of historical or lyrical poetry.

Another way of developing the ballad genre is, perhaps, the only possible and saving one. The ballad opposes the absorption of its genre structure by close forms of folk poetry by an attempt to create disparate, isolated works with a vivid, memorable, pseudo-ballad plot. usually. on the topic of crime. Such songs are short-lived and exist due to the sharpness of perception of an extraordinary plot, its relevance. Such a path will lead to the formation of a new genre of pseudo-folk literary model - the petty-bourgeois ballad.

Both directions, showing the prospects for the development of the genre of the Russian folk ballad, are considered in the second paragraph "Learning of the folk ballad". The lyrnization of the folk ballad denotes a change in the genre in the 18th-19th centuries. and consists of two directions, genre and related lyrnzatsiya. Both directions develop simultaneously and develop certain provisions, based on which we can talk about the prospects for the development of the ballad genre. Adjacent lyrnization suggests the convergence of the ballad with the historical forms of folk poetry, genre - with literary ones. Adjacent lyrnization involves direct interaction with the forms of historical and lyrical poetry and leads to the blurring of genre

features of the ballad genre. A very special position in this regard is occupied by the circle of the so-called Cossack ballads. They are widespread in the south of Russia, in modern Ukraine. Here the process of lyrnization of the ballad heritage has its own genesis and is fundamentally different from Russian art proper. Such a process can rightly be called a special term - the lirpization of the south. The southern ballad is more intense, concise, embossed, passes through the stages of development of the Russian folk ballad in a shorter time and forms its own stable lyrical-epic type of works, not subject to decay, blurring of the genre structure, but. on the contrary, absorbing new achievements of the whole genre at different stages of its development. Without a doubt, the type of the southern ballad requires special study, science is still waiting for works devoted to the analysis of the genre structure of Ukrainian ballads, the degree and ways of influence of lyrical and Russian ballad songs on it.

The genre lyrical performance of the ballad requires special study. This is the way to create a special ballad form - the so-called philistine ballads. They are divided into two groups: folk petty-bourgeois ballads and actually folk petty-bourgeois ballads of a literary type. The first group belongs to the 10th-19th centuries. An analysis of these ballads shows that the conflict of chance." a certain lack of detail in the content, a decrease and typification of genuine conflict relations, plot formulary and a dominant denouement, the author's disclosure of the hero's image according to a dramatic principle in order to correspond to the dynamics of unfolding events, novelistic presentation of the material, a given plot model that determines both the functions of the character and the ideological and artistic significance of the entire text - all this reflects the structure of the folk petty-bourgeois ballad.The given model of the plot and ending does not imply the creation of variants and cycles, since the conflict of such works is typified and does not need to be disclosed. Analysis of further development folk petty-bourgeois ballad shows that the stability of its genre structure is illusory and is mainly based on the use of old ballad plots and a conditional, but quite obvious connection with tradition.

Since the literary petty-bourgeois ballad is also a form of folk poetry, we must touch on the last, final stage in the development of the Russian folk ballad genre. In principle, the connection between the literary petty-bourgeois ballad and its folk counterpart is indirect. The literary petty-bourgeois ballad goes back to the genre of the author's romantic ballad and, only by reworking its poetics in a certain way, approaches folk poetry. Initially, in the first half of the 19th century, the petty-bourgeois ballad borrowed without changes, memorized the author's poems by V. Zhukovsky. A. Pushkin, A. Koltsov, A. Ammosov and others.

Then the expected changes take place, the adaptation of the author's lyrics to the aesthetic needs of the people. And here we are witnessing processes that almost completely repeat the fate of the folk petty-bourgeois ballad genre. On the one hand, the folk petty-bourgeois ballad, like the literary petty-bourgeois ballad, develops in line with the author's literary lyrics and approaches the romance genre. Literary petty-bourgeois ballads, on the contrary, asserting the dominance of the plot over the depiction of the inner world of the characters, are easily forgotten, unless they are a direct transcription of the author's lyrics or do not display, more randomly, a long-standing folk poetic tradition. Thus, we can say with confidence that the folk ballad at the end of its development turns into literary analogues or disappears under the influence of the process of lyricization, drawing closer and dissolving in the mainstream of lyrical poetry (song-situation) or historical (short-lived entertaining plots).

In conclusion, the results of observations on the development of the genre of the Russian folk ballad are summed up, the characteristic features of the genre system of the Russian ballad, its significance in the system of folklore genres are determined, and further research paths are indicated. The Russian folk ballad as a genre organization emerges at the end of the 13th century. and developed until the 18th century. In the XIX-XX centuries. the ballad loses its stable genre features and transforms into the forms of lyrical or historical poetry or turns into literary analogues. The ballad is a flexible, fundamentally mobile genre unit capable of reflecting the needs of many historical eras. To a certain extent, this is a long-lived genre, echoes of the popularity of which can be found even today. When considering a large amount of material, a holistic picture of the principles of organization, modification and genre evolution of the ballad form is formed. Taking into account the development of forms of epic, historical and lyrical poetry, one can trace the development of the ballad genre on the basis of its components, explain the reasons for direct lyricization, convergence with the poetics of historical song, the appearance at the last stage of the development of the ballad of disparate, isolated, tradition-independent story songs or lyrical songs - situations.

This work reflects the principle of studying the folk ballad genre in a single ballad region, namely in Russia. The next step in this direction should be a deep study of the features of the development of the German, English, Scandinavian, Spanish, Balkan, Ukrainian, Polish ballad regions and the reduction of the system of general provisions of the folk ballad genre into an odau.

The main provisions of the dissertation are presented in the following publications:

1. Russian folk ballad: origin and development of the genre. M., 2002 (Monographs of the Scientific Center for Slavic-German Studies. 5.). -180 s.

2. "Folk and literary ballad: the relationship of genres" // Problems of the history of literature. Sat. articles. Issue three. M.. 1997. S. 5465.

3. “Ballad as a poetic genre. (On the issue of generic features in a ballad)" // Problems of the history of literature. Sat. articles. Issue seven. M., 1999. S. 23-29.

4. “The formation of the Russian folk ballad. Article One” // Problems of the History of Literature. Sat. articles. The tenth one came out. M.. 2000. S. 1318.

5. “The formation of the Russian folk ballad. Article two: "Avaotya-Ryazan". (On the question of the genesis of the folk ballad genre)" // Problems of the history of literature. Sat. articles. Issue eleven. M., 2000. S. 17-35.

6. “The formation of the Russian folk ballad. Article three: A cycle of ballads about Polonyanka girls // Problems of the history of literature. Sat. articles. Issue thirteenth. M., 2001. S. 14-37.

7. “The formation of the Russian folk ballad. Fourth article: Once again to the question of one plot riddle (Bylina about Kozarin) ”/ / Problems of the history of literature. Sat. articles. Issue fourteen. M., 2001. S. 107-114.

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Formation of the genre of Russian folk ballad of the XIV centuries.

1. Historical prerequisites for the formation of the Russian folk ballad genre

2. A cycle of ballads about Polonyanka girls.

3. Adjacent forms. "Avdotya the Ryazan".

4. "Kozarin".

The development of the Russian folk ballad genre in the 14th - 17th centuries.

1. Elder ballads of the 14th - early 16th centuries.

2. Changes in the genre structure of the ballad in the 16th century.

3. The cycle of the evil wife.

4. Cycle about the timeless fellow.

5. Historical song and ballad poetry.

6. Reworkings of the novelistic epic.

Genre changes in the Russian folk ballad of the 17th - 19th centuries.

1. Types of cyclizations of the Russian folk ballad genre.

2. Lyricization of a folk ballad.

Dissertation Introduction 2003, abstract on philology, Kovylin, Alexey Vladimirovich

The ballad genre is one of the most complex and unexplored in Russian folk poetry. A lot of research works are devoted to the ballad, and yet it remains the most controversial and mysterious form for modern science. In educational literature, only in 1971 V.P. Anikin was the first to introduce the theme of the ballad genre. Until that time, the term ballad did not have sufficient theoretical justification in educational publications. In the scientific world, one can note an increase in interest in studying the specifics of the genre only from the end of the 50s of the twentieth century, since the publication of the collection of Russian epics by V.Ya. Propp and B.N. Putilov. From the 60s. specific features of the genre form of the ballad are established, attempts are made to trace the origins and fate of the genre, old collections are studied, new ones are released, and active work is underway to collect ballad songs in the regions. However, the main, global issues of the genre remain unresolved. What is a ballad in a generic sense, why does the lyric manifest itself in the genre extremely unevenly, and yet the ballad turns into lyrical forms? How does a folk ballad arise, what are the reasons for its lyricization, as well as its transformation into the genre of a literary romantic ballad? Why is the ballad a flexible genre unit capable of reflecting the artistic demands of several historical formations, from the 14th to the 18th-19th centuries? How do epic, lyrical and dramatic beginnings combine in its genre structure at specific historical stages, and does their presence determine the general laws of creating specific works in different periods of ballad creativity? How does the ballad of the 15th century differ from the ballad of the 16th century in terms of genre? What is the specificity of the interaction of the genre with other forms of folk poetry: ritual, epic, lyrical, historical, spiritual songs?

We will try in our work to trace the evolution of the Russian folk ballad genre and answer the questions posed. We should not disregard the fact of correlation between Russian and European folk ballads. The folk European ballad is traditionally understood as plot narrative lyrical songs of epic origin.

They have a common content and indefinite genre specifics. In the works of Western European scientists, the epic is the same ballad, because it has a plot, evokes certain emotions, feelings and reflects the private life of the hero. "Russian ballads, 'epics' or 'olden times' differ from all other European ballads in form, style and subject matter"3. Therefore, it seems appropriate to study the evolution of the genre, taking into account the national specifics of each ballad region. Only by collecting data on all ballad regions, one can compare evolutionary chains, take into account national characteristics - in a word, conduct a comparative analysis of the ballad heritage of various European countries and determine the general model, the genre form of the European folk ballad. This work is devoted to Russian folk ballads and is the material for such a generalizing study.

Before proceeding to the study of Russian folk ballads, it is necessary to dwell on the general model of the emergence of the genre in Europe. Until the 20th century, the theory of the origin of the ballad in the conditions of the primitive communal era was widespread. The term ballad comes from the Italian word ballata (the verb ballare means to dance). The ballad refers to songs performed to music in dance (F.B. Gummer, A.S. McKinsey, R.G. Malton, etc.) Dance is understood as an early form of primitive art, respectively, the ballad is one of the earliest forms of poetry . "Inasmuch as dancing is the most spontaneous of all the arts, it may be regarded as the earliest". "The ballad is a song made in the dance, and so by the dance"4. In Russia, the connection between the ballad genre and ritual creativity was pointed out by A.N. Veselovsky. “At the beginning of all development, the most ancient layer of choral, ritual poetry, songs in faces and dance will appear, from which lyrical and epic genres have consistently emerged.” The ballads "brought their epic canvas out of the choral action, they were performed mimicry and dialogically, before their coherent text was formed, to which they continued to dance"5. The ballad songs themselves “stand apart from the spring cycle”6.

In the 20th century, the theory of the origin of the ballad in the primitive communal

-» *-» "GT 7 era was defended by the famous scientist P.V. Lintur. One can note the opinion of G.A. Kalandadze, who supported the tradition of the 19th century: "The emergence of the ballad is more directly related to the emergence and development of round dances, which originate from ancient times "8. The works of other researchers are more cautious. Professor N.P. Andreev, in an introductory article to the first collection of folk ballads prepared by V.I. Chernyshev, notes: "One can think that some songs similar to a ballad existed before, but they have not survived to us in their original form". In the modern sense, the scientist refers the ballad to the early feudal and serf period. 9 This point of view dominated during the first half of the twentieth century. Earlier, in 1916, V. M. Zhirmunsky, Obviously, being under the influence of the comparative historical method of A. N. Veselovsky, he wrote about the English folk ballad: “... in the ballad form, features have been preserved that make us attribute the emergence of this form to the era of poetic syncretism, to the choral song-dance. But this theory does not apply to real ballads that have come down to us; in their concrete form, our ballads do not claim to be such an antiquity”10. Later, almost half a century later, in his epoch-making work "Folk Heroic Epic", the scientist will speak out with all certainty and clarity that the folk ballad is replacing the heroic epic simultaneously with the chivalric romance in the 13th - 14th centuries.11

This point of view should be recognized as promising; it can be traced in the vast majority of European and Russian works on the ballad of the twentieth century. "The European ballad is the product of the social conditions by which it is defined, subject to the precise limitations of each individual nation"12. Modern science believes that the ballad, like any genre of oral folk art, is a poetic form of reflection of reality, in this case, the needs of medieval times. “Speaking about the birth and flourishing of the ballad as a genre of folk poetry, one has to establish. the correspondence of one or another type of ballad to a certain stage of social development with its inherent attitude and way of thinking”13. An ideological and artistic analysis of specific ballad plots leads to the conclusion that the ballad reflects conflicts and historical conditions of the medieval era.

Apparently, the folk ballad arises as a genre in the general era of the Middle Ages in all European countries and has pronounced national characteristics. The origin of the genre is typological, in each country ballad songs appear as a completely independent genre. At an early stage of development, it closely interacts with developed similar genre forms, which can subsequently have a noticeable impact on the entire genre image of the national ballad (specialists distinguish the type of English and Scottish ballads, Scandinavian, German, French, Slavic ballads, Spanish romances, etc.). It should be noted the difference noted by researchers of the ballad genre, such as Slavic ballads, from Western European ones (the Spanish region occupies a special position, in which the features of both types are historically justified combined). In all likelihood, originally a dance song was called a ballad, or rather, it denoted a spring round dance song of love content. By the 13th century, such songs were becoming solid literary forms and were widely used in Western Europe. “It is impossible not to notice that the Romanesque form of the ballad, as soon as it became popular, immediately turned into a literary one”14. “From a dance song, a ballad already in the 13th century in Italy, and then in France, turned into a literary genre that has a certain metrical form and a purely lyrical content”15.

The emergence of a new, proper ballad genre, the assertion of its aesthetic platform presupposes interaction with developed genre forms. The ballad borrows a certain form, form of performance of dance songs, thereby being included in the system of folklore genres and artistically fully reflects new modern conflicts. So the Scandinavian ballad borrows the custom of dance and the Romanesque verse form. A well-known researcher of Scandinavian ballad poetry M.I. Steblin-Kamensky notes: “The ballad verse form, as well as the custom of dance accompanied by singing, were presented in the era when the ballad arose, outside Scandinavia, and above all in France. . As is usually assumed, from France, apparently, as early as the first half of the 12th century, it penetrated Scandinavia, and above all, Denmark and the custom of dancing accompanied by singing. In other countries, the ballad was most often not associated with dance, and in the Slavic region (especially among the southern and eastern Slavs) it has a tonic versification, since the heroic epic songs that were popular at that time and had a significant impact on the new genre had this form.

Of fundamental importance is the question of the genre structure of the ballad.

V.Ya. Propp proposed to define a folklore genre as a set of "its

17 poetics, everyday use, form of performance and attitude to music".

V.V. Mitrofanova pointed out the need to analyze the ideological and thematic

18 unity, commonality of plots and situations. Scientists note the difficulty of classifying the folk ballad genre, since it does not have a clear form of performance, does not have a stable everyday use (ballads are performed mainly from time to time, sometimes on famous holidays), and "the rhythmic structure of the ballad opens up scope for the most peculiar musical possibilities" 19. Apparently, the ballad is determined by its own genre specificity, and the researchers establish common features of the ballad genre. The ballad is set to depict the world of private people, "the world of human passions interpreted tragically"20. "The world of the ballad is the world of individuals and families, scattered,

21 disintegrating in a hostile or indifferent environment. The ballad focuses on the disclosure of the conflict. “For centuries, typical conflict situations have been selected and cast in ballad form”22. The ballads contain “sharp, irreconcilable conflicts, good and evil, truth and untruth, love and hate, positive and negative characters are opposed, with the main place given to the negative character. Unlike fairy tales, it is not good that wins in ballads, but evil, although negative characters suffer a moral defeat: they are condemned and often repent of their actions, but not because they realized their inadmissibility, but because at the same time as those whom they

23 wanted to destroy, the people they love are also dying. The conflict is revealed dramatically, and, it should be noted, the drama literally permeates the entire ballad genre. “The artistic specificity of the ballad is determined by its dramatic nature. The composition, the way of depicting a person, and the very principle of typification of life phenomena are subject to the needs of dramatic expressiveness. The most characteristic features of the composition of the ballad are: one-conflict and brevity, discontinuity of presentation, an abundance of dialogues, repetitions with an increase in drama. The action of the ballad is reduced to one conflict, to one central episode, and all the events leading up to the conflict are presented as briefly as possible. or not at all."24

The images of ballad characters are also revealed according to the dramatic principle: through speech and actions. It is the attitude to action, to the disclosure of a personal position in conflict relations that determines the type of the hero of the ballad. “The creators and listeners of ballads are not interested in personalities. They are primarily concerned with the relationships of the characters among themselves, transferred, epically copying the world of consanguinity and family relations. The actions of the heroes of the ballads have a universal meaning: they determine the entire plot basis of the ballad and have a dramatic tense character, setting the stage for a tragic denouement. “Events are conveyed in the ballad in their most intense, most active moments, there is nothing in it that would not relate to action”26. “The action in a ballad, as a rule, develops rapidly, in leaps and bounds, from one peak scene to another, without connecting explanations, without introductory characteristics. The speeches of the characters alternate with narrative lines. The number of scenes and characters is kept to a minimum. .The whole ballad is often a kind of preparation for the denouement”27. Scientists note the plot incompleteness of the ballad genre, almost any ballad can be continued or expanded into a whole novel. "Mysteriousness or understatement, arising from the compositional properties of the ballad, is inherent in the ballads of all peoples"28. As a rule, the ballad has an unexpected and cruel denouement. The heroes do things that are impossible in ordinary, everyday life, and they are prompted to do such actions by an artistically constructed chain of accidents, usually leading to a tragic ending. "Motives of unexpected misfortune, irreparable accidents, terrible coincidences are common for a ballad"29.

The presence of these features allows us to assert that “ballads have such a specific character that one can speak of them as

30 about the genre".

Currently, there are four theories for defining the genre of the ballad.

1. Ballad is an epic or epic-dramatic genre. The supporters of this position include N. Andreev, D. Balashov, A. Kulagina, N. Kravtsov, V. Propp,

Y. Smirnov. “Ballad is an epic (narrative) song of a dramatic

31 characters". The source of the emotionality of the narration is the dramatic beginning, the author's presence in the ballad is not expressed, which means that the lyrics as a generic feature of the genre are absent. The lyrical beginning is understood as a direct expression of the author's attitude to reality, the author's

32 moods.

2. Ballad - a lyrical form of poetry. At the moment of the development of science, such a point of view should be considered abandoned. Its origin dates back to the 19th century. It was believed that the ballad in its literary form reflects the folk form and easily correlates with such lyrical genres as romance and elegy. Pavel Yakushkin, one of the famous collectors of folk poetry, wrote: “The ballad so easily turns into an elegy and, conversely,

33 elegy into a ballad that it is impossible to strictly distinguish between them. They differ only in the number of options presented more in the ballad34. Such a theory does not withstand serious criticism, much earlier V.G. Belinsky wrote about the belonging of the ballad, which arises in the Middle Ages, to epic works, although in general it should be considered, according to the critic, in

branch of lyric poetry.

3. Ballad - lyrical-epic genre. This point of view is shared by A. Veselovsky, M. Gasparov, O. Tumilevich, N. Elina, P. Lintur, L. Arinstein, V. Erofeev, G. Kalandadze, A. Kozin. Until recently, this theory was considered classical. There is every reason to believe that it arises from the assumption about the lyrical warehouse of the ballad, which was widespread in the 19th century. Scientists note the peculiar lyricization of the folk ballad: “If for epics the main path of transformation is the transition to prose, in the form of a wide range of prose forms,. then for the ballad the main way of transformation is the transition to the lyrics, in the form of, perhaps, a wider set of lyrical-epic and lyrical forms”36. Considering such lyrical-epic ballads of the 18th - 19th centuries, researchers come to the rightful conclusion that the leading principle in the structure of the genre is precisely the lyric. Unfortunately, in the definition of a specific manifestation of the lyrical principle, the very term lyricism, general, mostly non-genre grounds are given. We are talking about a special emotional perception, lyrical empathy of listeners to the content of ballads, their sympathy for the suffering and death of heroes. Also, as a drawback of this concept, one should point out the lack of works devoted to the genre evolution of the ballad: perhaps the ancient form of ballad songs is not constant, changes over time and does not quite correspond to the modern form of ballads.

4. Ballad - epic-lyrical-dramatic genre. This approach to the definition of a ballad is now entering the leading positions. Supporters of this concept are M. Alekseev, V. Zhirmunsky, B. Putilov, A. Gugnin, R. Wright-Kovaleva, A. Mikeshin, V. Gusev, E. Tudorovskaya. "Folk ballad - epic

37 is a lyrical song with pronounced dramatic elements. In principle, Russian folklore studies have been moving towards such a definition for a long time and independently, but it is possible to establish connections with the analytical works of German poets and collectors of folk poetry of the 18th-19th centuries, who created the type of romantic ballad. I.V. Goethe believed that "the singer uses all three main types of poetry,. he can begin lyrically, epicly, dramatically, and, changing forms at will, continue. In the definition of a ballad as a symbiosis of three poetic genera, I.G. Herder added another mythological element. The dramatic beginning is one of the leading elements that form the ballad genre. The dramatic presentation of the series of events, the dramatic conflict and the tragic denouement determine not the lyrical, but the dramatic type of emotionality of the ballad genre. If the lyrics in folklore mean the subjective attitude of the author to the events depicted, then the dramatic beginning is the attitude of the characters to the events taking place, and the ballad genre is formed in

39 in line with this approach.

The last group of scientists believes that the dramatic beginning is an indispensable feature of the genre and has an equal role with the epic and lyrical. In a particular song of the epico-lyric-dramatic type, they can be involved to varying degrees, depending on the needs of the historical time and the ideological and artistic setting of the work. Such a position, in our opinion, seems to be the most promising and fruitful in relation to the study of the folk ballad genre.

Unfortunately, we have to admit that there are only a few works devoted to the origin and development of the Russian folk ballad genre. V.M. Zhirmunsky, in his article "The English Folk Ballad" in 1916, proposed dividing ballads into genre varieties (epic, lyrical-dramatic or lyrical)40, thereby removing the question of the problem of the evolution of the ballad genre as such.

In 1966, the study “The History of the Development of the Russian Folk Ballad Genre” by D.M. Balashov, in which the author, using specific material, shows the thematic nature of the change in the ballad in the 16th - 17th centuries, and in the 18th century notes signs of the destruction of the genre as a result of the development of an extra-ceremonial lyrical lingering song and "absorption of the epic fabric of the ballad by lyrical elements"41.

N.I. Kravtsov summarized all the available experience and proposed to approve four groups or cycles of ballads in the educational literature: family, domestic, love, historical, social42. In 1976 in scientific work

Slavic folklore, the scientist noted the evolutionary nature of the data

In 1988 Yu.I. Smirnov, analyzing East Slavic ballads and forms close to them, presented the experience of an index of plots and versions, where he subjected reasonable criticism to the artificiality, conventionality of dividing ballads into fantastic, historical, social, etc. “Such an artificial division breaks the natural connections and typological relationships between the plots, as a result of which forms related or close to them are separated and considered in isolation”44. The scientist clarifies the rules for constructing an evolutionary chain45 in relation to ballad material, highlighting five derivatives of the genre (from a drawling or “vocal” song intended for choral performance to literary ballad songs that are common among the people)46.

In general, there is a general picture of the evolution of the folk ballad genre from epic to lyrical form. In this work, private, practical questions about the ways and reasons for modifying the genre elements of the ballad are solved, links are established between disparate plots, and the genre specificity of specific texts is determined. In our work, we use the method of text reconstruction, the foundations of which were laid in the works of the historical-typological school of V.Ya. Propp and B.N. Putilov. With regard to the ballad genre, it has its own specifics and is realized in the following aspects.

It is assumed that the ballad genre is organized in certain cycles that contribute to the maximum disclosure of all genre features of the ballad. The cyclization of the ballad genre is primarily a plot-variative realization of one conflict. In the ballad cyclization, the dramatic element will be fundamental, which in practice consists in creating a) variants of a dramatic situation (early cycles), then ending the conflict; b) versions of the dramatic situation, conflict.

A variant of a ballad cycle is a song that repeats a given conflict model, but aims to reveal it as fully as possible in the plot. The version is a qualitative change in the text, the creation of a new conflict on the basis of a developed cycle or a separate ancient ballad (“Omelfa Timofeevna rescues her relatives” and “Avdotya the Ryazanochka”, “Tatar full” and a cycle about Polonian girls). Cycles are studied in their direct interaction, internal evolutionary connections, it is also traced how the very principles of folk cyclization change over time.

The study of the composition of the cycle involves a genre analysis of the plot-variative series of songs. Particular attention is paid to the study of the main components of the genre specificity of the ballad. The type of cyclization and formulary, the type of hero and the level of conflict, the nature of the folk / author's assessment and the dialogic / monologue speech of the characters, the use of folklore and intra-genre traditions, the type of convention and the reflection of the aesthetics of the artistic / direct case are analyzed, the role of formal plot logic, the category of miraculous and symbolic is established. . The features of the poetic language and artistic techniques of the style of ballads are studied. The impact on specific plots of the tradition of adjacent ballad forms and ritual, epic, lyrical, historical songs, as well as spiritual poems is especially noted. All the results of the analytical work are brought into line with the requirements of historical time, this is how the approximate time of demand for ballad cycles is determined.

Ultimately, the typological features of the ballad genre are established at each historical stage. The nature and features of the genre changes of the ballad in its generic and artistic aspects, the general principles of its evolution are revealed. The ballad cycles are considered in their direct connection and are more or less accurately dated.

As a result of the analysis of the ballad material in the Russian region, it is established that the ballad is a flexible, mobile unit of epico-lyrical-dramatic character, which has certain stable typological features at each historical stage of its development from the end of the 13th - beginning of the 14th centuries. to the 18th - 19th centuries Initially, the lyrics are involved in the form of tradition and do not have a significant role in the genre structure of the ballad. Gradually, the lyrical beginning changes the genre appearance of the ballad, which ultimately leads to the lyricization of the genre or its transformation into literary analogues. The ballad worldview, as it were, prepares the ground and contributes to the emergence of personal and historical artistic consciousness, which led to the development of forms of non-ceremonial lyrical and historical poetry. Subsequently, the ballad genre cannot fully reflect the conflicts of the new era. Competing with historical and lyrical songs in the 16th-17th centuries, strengthening the role of the lyrical element in its genre structure, the ballad gradually, as it were, dissolves into the lyrical element, which is more in line with the reflection of all the depth and inconsistency of the new era. At best, what remains of a genuine ballad is an external form, a kind of ballad style of presentation or ballad plot (a type of petty-bourgeois ballads). The original genre of the folk ballad was conserved in the 19th and 20th centuries. The most famous, topical ballad plots for a particular locality are preserved. They are given a lyrical form, they are lyrically processed, but certain stable typological features remain unchanged (cf. a similar process that began earlier in epic creativity). Such ballad songs are gradually disappearing as the literacy of the population grows, the distribution of books and the disappearance of the ballad narrators and performers themselves.

In the work on the dissertation, we were guided, first of all, by the concept of the historical-typological school (V.Ya. Propp, B.N. Putilov) about the historical study of the genres of folklore and the establishment of certain typological features at certain historical stages in the development of a particular genre in accordance with a single process of formation of the European ballad genre. The analysis of the genre structure of specific ballad songs is carried out taking into account the requirements imposed by V.Ya. Propp to study the genre composition of Russian folklore as an integral system. The connections of the Russian folk ballad genre with Western European and Slavic samples are also taken into account (the works of scientists of the comparative historical school A.N. Veselovsky, P.G. Bogatyrev, V.M. Zhirmunsky, N.I. Kravtsov). On the other hand, we support the opinion of D.M. Balashov about the independent role of the Russian ballad genre, its national identity and the leading role in Russian oral folk art from the 13th to the 16th - 17th centuries.

The main object of the research is the Russian folk ballads presented in the collections of M.D. Chulkova, Kirsha Danilova, P.V. Kireevsky, P.A. Bessonova, P.N. Rybnikova, A.N. Sobolevsky, V.I. Chernysheva, D.M. Balashova, B.N. Putilova, S.N. Azbelev. The internal connections of disparate songs, the model of their evolutionary development are established. Stable typological features are determined, allowing to give a clear definition of the genre. Finally, a general idea is given about the fate of the ballad and the place it occupies in the system of song folklore genres.

Thus, the relevance of the work is determined by understanding, on the basis of specific observations, the problems of the evolution of the genre system of the Russian folk ballad, its place in the system of genres of Russian oral poetry and the further prospects for the transition to literary analogues through the type of German romantic ballad.

The solution of these problems involves considering the Russian ballad heritage a) as a dynamic system that has its own logic and specifics of development, interacting with similar forms of folk poetry; b) in the context of historical changes in the artistic consciousness of the people, which influenced the aesthetics and fate of the entire genre; c) taking into account the theory of the emergence and development of the European ballad genre.

Based on the foregoing, the specific objectives of the dissertation were:

1. Systematization and analysis of ballad plots presented in the Russian region.

2. Establishing the genre specifics of the Russian folk ballad, typological features at specific historical stages, the totality of which can give a clear definition of the genre.

3. Determination of specific genre changes in the Russian folk ballad from the time of its inception to the transition to lyrical forms and literary analogues.

4. Understanding the place and significance of the folk ballad genre in the system of genres of Russian song folklore.

5. Establishing the time of occurrence and existence of both individual ballad plots and cycles as a whole.

The analysis technique is based on the principles of the historical-typological method, the basis of which is the comparison of possible variants of the ballad, its ideological and artistic analysis with the requirements of the relevance of the historical era in which it arises and develops, as well as the establishment of the typological similarity of the ballad creativity of different peoples as a general pattern of a single process and, at the same time, as its various national variations.

The following provisions are made for defense:

1. Russian folk ballad is an epic-lyrical-dramatic genre in which, depending on historical expediency and necessity, in strict accordance with evolutionary theory, these beginnings can play a different role.

2. The history of the development of the Russian folk ballad suggests the emergence of the genre from the end of the 13th century as an epic-dramatic song. The ballad takes on a lyrical form in the 18th and 19th centuries.

3. The ballad is originally a mobile and flexible genre system that allows you to reflect the conflicts of various historical formations.

4. The establishment of internal genre links of the Russian ballad heritage involves the organization of all ballad material in cycles.

The scientific novelty of the dissertation is determined by an integrated approach to the study of the Russian folk ballad genre. The cycles of the Russian ballad heritage are restored and analyzed, which are built into a clear evolutionary model that establishes specific dates for the emergence and existence of ballad songs.

Structure and scope of work. The dissertation consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion, notes and a bibliography of 290 titles.

Conclusion of scientific work thesis on "Russian folk ballad"

Conclusion

Russian folk ballad as a genre organization arises at the end of the 13th century and develops until the 18th century. In the XIX - XX centuries. the ballad loses its stable genre features and transforms into the forms of lyrical or historical poetry or turns into literary analogues.

In our work, we proceeded from the concept of the inseparable connection between folk song and historical time. The genres of folk poetry arise to reflect the real needs of the era, they are connected with real life and are determined by it. Russian epic poetry (epics of the era of the Tatar-Mongol invasion) tells about state conflicts at the time of the transformation of mythological thinking into a conditionally historical one. At the same time, a new genre of ballads was formed, reflecting personal conflicts. Epoch XIII - XIV centuries. embodies a new type of artistic consciousness of the people: conventionally historical (epic creativity) and conventionally personal (ballad creativity). Therefore, from the second half of the 16th century, during the formation of personal and historical consciousness, almost immediately, without specific genre searches, new forms of historical and lyric poetry become on the same level with the developed ballad genre. It can be said that it is the folk art consciousness in the critical stages of its evolution that creates new genres and is not only reflected in the forms of oral creativity, but also consolidated, goes through the stages of formation and development.

Genre is such a stable and flexible unit that it can reflect the change of eras, the change of types of consciousness. The genre system receives a new impetus for development, and such works will be fundamentally different from the previous ones. Russian epic poetry creates epics of a new type under the influence of a new type of artistic consciousness that took shape in the era of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, and at the same time develops a new genre of ballad. Only from the end of the XV - XVI centuries. Russian epic poetry draws closer to Western European and creates new entertaining short stories. However, the poetics of epic poetry is directly opposite to the ideals of the era of personal consciousness, therefore, epics cannot develop further. Genres that cannot meet the needs of historical times are conserved, creating a so-called frozen tradition. Epic short stories served as the basis, a tradition for the genre modification of the forms of ballad and historical poetry. Thus, we can note the special connectedness of folklore genres. Each genre should be studied in the system of development of similar genre forms and not to lose sight of the possibility of indirect influence of completely different types of folk art in terms of aesthetic platform. Folklore genres create a tradition, certain ways of resolving conflicts, which can later be claimed by a completely different historical era.

It was this holistic approach that was applied in the study of the folk ballad genre. In this work, we have made an attempt to point out the features and complexity of the interaction between the ballad genre and epic, ritual, historical and non-ritual lyric poetry. Many issues require a thorough and detailed study. However, certain conclusions can be drawn.

The ballad is a flexible, fundamentally mobile genre unit capable of reflecting the needs of many historical eras. To a certain extent, this is a long-lived genre, echoes of the popularity of which can be found even today.

The ballad is formed from the opposition and development of the poetics of the heroic epic. When creating a cycle about Polonyanka girls, the genre structure also comes into contact with the tradition of lyric poetry. At the same time, the leading, dominant feature of the genre is the dramatic beginning. In other words, the genre of the ballad arises and is formed as a synthesis of generic features, as an epico-lyrical-dramatic phenomenon. With the formation of the genre, lyrics are involved as a tradition, with stagnation, the lyrical beginning can be the leading feature of the ballad. Thanks to the combination of different generic concepts in one genre, the ballad manifests itself as a mobile and flexible system that allows it to fully reflect the conflicts of successive eras.

Unlike historical poetry, which will adopt this principle of genre structure, the ballad is a full-fledged and stable genre. It will retain its fundamental originality, namely, the leading genre-forming feature that forms a separate genre. We are talking about the dramatic beginning of the ballad, which literally creates a genre structure. We see dramatic coverage of conflict in ballad songs. The conflict becomes formulaic, it is the basis for memorization and cyclization of ballad songs. The images of the heroes are also revealed according to the dramatic principle: through speech and action, and the flourishing of the ballad genre affirms the dialogic form of the presentation of the hero's position. The exclusivity of the events, the intense drama of the narration, the absence of the narrative moments of the action themselves - everything in the ballad is dedicated to the speedy achievement and resolution of the conflict. The ballad feeling produced by the performer on the listeners is certainly dramatic. In principle, it can be argued that the ballad genre is primarily a dramatic genre.

In our work, we have noted all stages of the evolution of the ballad genre, dwelling in sufficient detail on the features of the modification of the genre structure at each historical stage. Ballad songs were studied in accordance with the genre theory and the method of text reconstruction. In each ballad, a deep conflict is revealed, the purpose for which the work was created, and the ways of its artistic embodiment. The type of conflict, the nature of the assessment and the role of the author and the narrator, the figurative system and the type of the ballad hero, the type of dialogue, the nature of the convention, the role of the artistic or direct case, the categories of the miraculous and the symbol, the type of formula, the type of cyclization and the features of variability are analyzed. This paper traces the features of their modification at certain historical stages.

When considering a large amount of material, a holistic picture of the principles of organization, modification and genre evolution of the ballad form is formed. Taking into account the development of forms of epic, historical and lyrical poetry, one can trace the development of the ballad genre on the basis of its components, explain the reasons for direct lyricization, convergence with the poetics of historical song, the appearance at the last stage of the development of the ballad of disparate, isolated, tradition-independent story songs or lyrical songs - situations. Based on specific material, establishing the correspondence of the ballad to the real conflicts of a particular historical era, its connection with previous and subsequent versions, versions and plots, it is possible to determine the original intention of the song. Thus, it is possible to separate from the alleged primary source further layers, genre changes associated with evolution, and at the last stage - with the nature of the existence of the ballad genre. This will allow us to date the ballad text with a sufficient degree of certainty up to half a century and clarify its place in the ballad cycle.

With all the mobility and variability of the genre system, both in generic and specific terms, the ballad develops certain stable genre features, the presence of which allows us to give a clear definition of the genre.

The main, leading feature of the genre is, as we have already noted above, the dramatic beginning, which manifests itself at all levels of the genre system. The dramatic beginning forms the composition, the nature of the action of the ballad, the features of the actions and statements of the characters, the special role of the narrator, the drama of the presentation of the material and the impact on the listeners. The epic and lyrical beginnings of the folk ballad are also exposed to the dramatic component and acquire a dramatic sound. Even when the genre stagnates, story songs with a dramatic denouement will be taken for ballads. Genuine drama in a conflict, in the relationship of heroes can be replaced by a story one, but it always remains.

If the dramatic beginning is noticeably reduced, leveled off, one must either talk about the transformation of the ballad into lyrical samples, or about the impact of related genres: short stories, historical songs, spiritual poems.

The next stable feature of the genre is the one-conflict nature of the folk ballad. Songs always have one conflict and strive to reveal it as fully as possible in accordance with the dramatic principle: through the speech and actions of the characters. The actions of the ballad characters are reduced to the speedy achievement of the conflict, in this regard, we can talk about the unity of the action of the folk ballad, aimed at achieving a conflict situation. Changing the conflict system does not imply its disappearance, it becomes formal, goes into the category of a case. An extraordinary event in the later folk philistine ballads, the spectacular denouement reflects the essence of the plot conflict and typifies the true conflict of the ballad. In the absence of conflict, the song cannot be recognized as a ballad, the same can be said when a ballad plot unfolds under the influence of a novelistic epic and turns it into a multi-conflict work, a kind of ballad poem.

The type of ballad characters is one of the distinguishing features of the genre. This is one of the most difficult moments of analysis, since it is in the figurative system that all genre modifications of the ballad throughout the history of its development are catalyzed. The emergence of the ballad genre itself, first of all, implies a change in the meaning of the epic figurative system. The change in the type of heroes in the ballad goes on continuously, more deeply and visibly illuminating the conflicts of historical eras. At a certain stage, the image of a ballad hero can become formulaic and create certain cycles of ballads (cycles about poisoning, a timeless young man, partly about an evil wife). Such continuous, constant development not only strengthens the fundamental mobility and flexibility of the genre system, but also reflects the evolution of the lyrical component of the ballad. It is through the figurative system that when the ballad genre arises (the cycle about Polonyanka girls), the lyrics as a generic feature of the ballad enter its structure and subsequently subject it to a certain processing, compositional correspondence with the appearance of the lyrical song. Strictly speaking, one can observe the instability and mobility of all the generic components of the genre, even the dramatic beginning changes its role under the influence of the transformation of the lyrical and epic elements.

The ballad hero is typified, this is a private person who resolves private conflicts, passing specific historical events through his private fate. The classical ballad character is revealed according to the dramatic principle: through dialogical speech and actions. He does not have an author's plan of expression, he himself determines the plot and cannot be considered outside of it. His actions are exceptional in order to maximize the dramatic aggravation of the conflict, speech determines the life position of the hero, his essence. In a ballad, we will not find narrative moments of action that slow down the movement of a dramatically unfolding plot. This is possible due to the functioning of the type of ballad heroes.

The gradual lyricization of the figurative system of the ballad does not negate the dramatic role of the characters. Heroes can have a certain set value, then master the term character and more individually, psychologically motivate their actions. The dialogic speech is replaced by a monologue, the narrator - the author's beginning, the people's assessment - the author's, but the ballad hero is a dramatic character, as he is focused on the realization of the conflict of the work. The romantic literary ballad borrows this type of hero and uses it as a type of literary hero. When the author's beginning is strengthened, the ballad character should be defined as a lyrical character, then it is not possible to consider a work with this type of hero as a ballad character.

Also, its variability should be recognized as a distinctive feature of the genre. The ballad seeks to reveal the current conflict situation as fully as possible and creates plots-variants that represent all possible ways of resolving the conflict. As a result, the ballad genre gets the opportunity to create cycles of songs related to the reflection of a certain conflict. With a change in the type of conflict, the ballad develops the corresponding types of cyclizations, connected with each other through intra-genre tradition. Even versioned cyclization is based on the use of ballad heritage.

Renunciation of connection with tradition means the rejection of variability in the ballad genre. Certain story songs are created that describe certain cases, events and do not imply the existence of variants of such stories. This process is typical for the ballad of the 18th - 19th centuries. and is called the stagnation of the genre. The ballad loses its creative productivity and is conserved, or passes into related forms of folk poetry or into literary analogues. The folk ballad loses the prospect of further development, it switches to the path of author's poetry. It is the author who describes the events that struck him and conveys it on behalf of the ballad hero or narrator. Such songs are short-lived and soon forgotten, because they do not reflect the true conflicts of historical time and try to deny the connection with the intra-genre tradition. The ancient ballads, connected by the general achievements of the genre, remove the very question of the author's art. Any ballad work goes through an age-old tradition, is tested for authenticity, changes, varies and becomes a truly folk work, reflecting precisely the people's perception of the era.

The very mobility of the genre system can be considered a feature of the ballad genre. The ballad is not only rebuilt in the course of its development, it is able to attract any poetic genre to more deeply reflect the conflicts of changing eras. A ballad can recycle any type of thinking for its own purposes: mythological, epic, historical, personal - and organically use certain motives and genre features from such works in a ballad form. It can be concluded that the genre is fundamentally long-lived; the folk ballad loses its significance with the extinction of folklore poetry (with the exception of lyrical and historical forms and similar new genre formations) and the replacement of its authorial or literary one. Here it should be noted the role of the spread of book literacy in the XIX - XX centuries. and written fixation of folk songs.

This paper presents an attempt to find the internal connections of disparate ballad plots. For the convenience of presenting the history of the development of the ballad genre, the path from older to later songs was chosen, although in other cases the development of certain genre elements required the immediate disclosure of their subsequent fate in ballads of various times.

Thus, we can conclude that the folk ballad arises as an epic-lyrical-dramatic genre, where the dramatic beginning is the main and leading one. During the formation of the genre, the lyrical element acts as a tradition, recedes into a secondary plan, since the personal artistic consciousness at that time had not yet been formed. Since the second half of the 16th century, lyrics have been included in the ballad as a genre-forming element and gradually become one of the main criteria for the principles of creating a new type of ballad. There is a kind of so-called lyric-dramatic ballads, and gradually this kind in the XIX - XX centuries. turns into a lyrical, that is, non-ballad.

The genre follows the path of creating separate, narrative songs of an epic-lyrical-dramatic character, but in the absence of an intra-genre tradition and a leading genre-forming principle (the dramatic beginning is expressed here equally with the lyrical and epic). Such songs lose their capacity for longevity and quickly disappear from memory, being replaced by others that are also incapable of reflecting the true conflicts of the new era (cf. the development of historical or lyric poetry before the 16th century). Such ballads do not have a clear genre structure and development prospects. They serve as material for the formation of a new genre aesthetics of the romantic literary ballad and repeat the last stage of their development in the genre of folk literary petty-bourgeois ballad. In the 20th century, the ballad is understood as a tense, dramatic plot leading to aggravated and often tragic events. Perhaps, only in the tragic time of wars (World War II, wars in Afghanistan, Chechnya) will the folk ballad genre be in demand again. However, upon closer examination, we will find the absence of stable genre features of the ballad, the pseudo-nationality of existence associated with the popularity of author's poetry and acting literary heroes.

The question of the transition of the folk ballad genre into a literary analogue requires special study. In previous studies, we noted the artificial nature of such a transformation, caused not by the possibility of developing a genre structure, but by the requirement for an ideal correspondence between the author's theory of imagination and the aesthetics of German romanticism. The Russian literary romantic ballad does not have such a direct connection with folk samples, it appears as a translation and forms the genre of the literary petty-bourgeois ballad, which finds a correspondence with the Russian folklore counterpart.

The topic of the relationship between ballad and historical, ballad and lyric poetry also requires special study. This paper presents only general provisions that require detailed consideration and clarification. Of particular interest is the still unexplored type of southern ballads, which has roots in Russian ballad art, but also has an autonomous, stable genre formation.

This work reflects the principle of studying the folk ballad genre in a single ballad region, namely in Russia. Most likely, it is precisely this principle from the particular to the general that seems to be the most fruitful in establishing the genre image of the European folk ballad and taking into account national features of development. The next step in this direction should be a deep study of the features of the development of the German, English, Scandinavian, Spanish, Balkan, Ukrainian, Polish ballad regions and bringing together the general provisions of the folk ballad genre into one system. Only after such a generalizing work is it possible to trace the legitimacy and validity of the transition of the German and English folk ballad genres to the literary romantic type. Then it will be possible to finally clarify the question of the principles and ways of transition of the folk ballad genre into its literary counterpart.

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131. Moiseeva G.N. A new list of historical songs about Mikhail Skopin-Shuisky // Russian folklore. T.18. L., 1978.

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164. Putilov B.N. Song about Ivan the Terrible's anger at his son // Russian folklore. T.4. M.-L., 1959.

165. Putilov B.N. Song about Clicks // Russian folklore. T.3. M.-L., 1958.

166. Putilov B.N. Song about Avdotya Ryazanochka (on the history of the Ryazan song cycle) // Proceedings of the Department of Old Russian Literature. T.14. M.-L., 1958.

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174. Putilov B.N. Slavic historical ballad. M.-L., 1965.

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177. Wright-Kovaleva R. Robert Burns and Scottish Folk Poetry // Robert Burns. Poems. Poems. Scottish ballads. B.V. L. T. 47. M., 1976

178. Reizov B.G. Zhukovsky, translator V. Scott (“Ivanov Evening”) // Russian-European Literary Relations. M.-L., 1966.

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190. Smirnov Yu.I. Slavic epic traditions: The problem of evolution. M., 1974.

191. Smirnov Yu.I. Epic songs of the Karelian coast of the White Sea according to A.V. Markova // Russian folklore. T.16. L., 1976.

192. Soymonov A.D. Questions of textual criticism and publication of folklore materials from the collection of songs by P.V. Kireevsky // Principles of textological study of folklore. M.-L., 1966.

193. Sokolov B.M. Russian folklore. M., 1931.

194. Sokolov Yu.M. Russian folklore. M., 1941.

195. Sokolova V.K. Ballads and historical songs (about the nature of the historicism of ballads) // Soviet ethnography. No. 1. M., 1972.

196. Sokolova V.K. On some regularities in the development of historical song folklore among the Slavic peoples // History, folklore, art of the Slavic peoples. M., 1963.

197. Sokolova V.K. Pushkin and folk art // Essays on the history of Russian ethnography, folklore and anthropology. Issue 1. M., 1956.

198. Sokolova V.K. Russian historical songs of the XVI-XVIII centuries. M., 1960.

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201. Strashnov S.L. The mood of ballads is also getting younger. M., 1991.

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203. Timokhin V.V. Comparative study of the poetics of the medieval heroic epic. M., 1999.

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207. Tumilevich O.F. Folk ballad and fairy tale. Saratov, 1972.

208. Tierso J. History of folk song in France. M., 1975.

209. Ukhov P.D. Typical places (loci communes) as a means of certification of epics // Russian folklore. T.2. M.-L., 1957.

210. Fedorov V.I. The genre of the story and the ballad in the transitional period from sentimentalism to romanticism // Problems of genres in Russian literature. M., 1980.

211. Freidenberg O.M. Poetics of plot and genre. M., 1997.

212. Tsvetaeva M.I. Two "Forest Kings" // Just a heart. Poems of foreign poets translated by Marina Tsvetaeva. M., 1967.

213. Chicherov V.I. Russian folk art. M., 1959.

214. Chicherov V.I. Russian historical songs // Historical songs. L., 1956.

215. Chernets L.V. literary genres. M., 1982.

216. Shatalov S.E. Characterology of Zhukovsky's elegies and ballads (on the question of the unity of the poet's artistic world) // Zhukovsky and literature of the late 17th and early 19th centuries. M., 1988.

217. Sheptaev L.S. Notes on songs recorded for Richard James // Proceedings of the Department of Old Russian Literature. T.14. M.-L., 1958.

218. Sheptunov I.M. Bulgarian Haidut songs // Slavic folklore. Materials and research on the history of folk poetry of the Slavs. M., 1951.

219. Shishmarev V. Lyrics and lyrics of the late Middle Ages. Essays on the history of the poetry of France and Provence. Paris, 1911.

220. Shomina V.G. Russian romantic ballad of the early 19th century. and folklore // From the history of Russian and foreign literature of the 19th and 20th centuries. Kemerovo, 1973.

221. Yudin Yu.I. Traditions of Folklore Thinking in the Historical Evidence of Folk Poetry and Old Russian Literature // Proceedings of the Department of Old Russian Literature. T.37. L., 1983.1. Folk songs and ballads: collections and anthologies

222. English and Scottish ballads translated by S. Marshak. M., 1973.

223. Arkhangelsk epics and historical songs collected by A.D. Grigoriev in 1899 1901. T.1. M., 1904., v.2. Prague, 1939., v.3. M., 1910.

224. Ballads of Robin Hood. Ed. N. Gumilyov. Petersburg, 1919.

225. Ballads of Robin Hood. L., 1990.

226. White Sea epics recorded by A.V. Markov. M., 1901.

227. Belarusian folk songs. Comp. P.V. Shane. SPb., 1874.

228. Bulgarian folk poetry. M., 1953.

229. Epics. TT.1,2. Comp. AND I. Propp, B.N. Putilov. M., 1958.

230. Epics and songs of Southern Siberia. Collection of S.I. Gulyaev. Novosibirsk, 1952.

231. Epics of the North. Comp. A.M. Astakhov. T.1. M.-L., 1938., v.2. M.-L., 1951.

232. Epics of the Pudozh region. Petrozavodsk, 1941.

233. Great Russian folk songs. TT. 1-7. Published by prof. A.I. Sobolevsky. SPb., 1895 1902.

234. Airship. Comp. V.V. Erofeev. M., 1986.

235. Airship. Russian literary ballad. Comp. Korovin V.I. M., 1984.

236. Everything has its time. German folk poetry translated by Lev Ginzburg. M., 1984.

237. Heroic tales of France and Spain. B.V. L. T.10. M., 1970.

238. Greek folk songs. M., 1957.

239. Ancient Russian poems collected by Kirshe Danilov. M., 1977.

240. Spiritual verses. Kants. M., 1999.

241. Englische und amerikanische balladen. Stuttgart, 1982.

242. Spanish poetry in Russian translations. 1789 1980. Comp., prev. and comment. S.F. Goncharenko. M., 1984.

243. Historical songs. Comp. V. Antonovich, P. Drahomanov. T.1. Kyiv, 1874.

244. Historical songs. Comp. IN AND. Chicherov. L., 1956.

245. Historical songs of the XIII XVI centuries. Comp. B.N. Putilov. M.-L., 1960.

246. Historical songs and ballads. Comp. Azbelev S.N. M., 1986.

247. Literature of the Middle Ages. Chrsstomatiya on foreign literature. Comp. B.I. Purishev and R.O. Shore. M., 1953.

248. Folk historical songs. Comp. B.N. Putilov. M.-L., 1962.

249. Folk lyrical songs. Comp. V.Ya. Propp. L., 1961.

250. German ballads. Comp. THEM. Fradkin. M., 1958.

251. German folk ballads. Comp. A.A. Gugnin. M., 1983.

252. Onega epics recorded by A.F. Hilferding. TT.1-3. M.-L., 1949.

253. Songs of the Don Cossacks. Comp. A. Listopadov. T.1. M., 1949; v.2. M., 1950; v.3. M., 1951.

254. Songs and romances of Russian poets. Comp. V.E. Gusev. M.-L., 1965.

255. Songs and fairy tales of Pushkin's places. L., 1979.

256. Songs of the Magyars. Hungarian folk songs and ballads. Comp. and before. D. Ortutai. Budapest, 1977.

257. Songs collected by P.V. Kireevsky. Issue 1-10. M., 1860 1874.

258. Songs collected by P.N. Rybnikov. TT. 1 3. M., 1909 - 1910.

259. Songs of the southern Slavs. B.V.L. T.2. M., 1976.

260. Pechora epics. Recorded by N. Onchukov. St. Petersburg, 1904.260. Polish songs. M., 1954.

261. Robert Burns. Poems. Poems. Scottish ballads. B.V. L. T. 47. M., 1976.

262. Romancero. Comp. N. Tomashevsky. M., 1970.

263. Romanian folk poetry. Ballads. Heroic epic. M., 1987.

264. Russian ballad. Preface, ed. and notes by V.I. Chernyshev. L., 1936.

265. Russian folk ballad. Comp. D.M. Balashov. M.-L., 1963.

266. Russian folk poetry. epic poetry. Comp. B.N. Putilov. L., 1984.

267. Russian folk ballads. Comp. D.M. Balashov. M., 1983.

268. Russian folk songs. Comp. A.M. Novikov. M., 1957.

269. Russian songs collected by Pavel Yakushkin. SPb., 1860.

270. Russian romance. Comp. V. Rabinovich. M., 1987.

271. Russian folklore. Peasant lyrics. M., 1935.

272. Russian folklore. Reader. Comp. N.P. Andreev. M., 1938.

273. Russian folklore: epic poetry. L., 1935.

274. Russian folk poetry. Reader. Comp. E.V. Pomerantseva, E.N. Mints. M., 1959.

275. Collection of Don folk songs. Compiled by A. Saveliev. SPb., 1866.

276. Collection of songs of the Samara region, compiled by V. Varentsov. SPb., 1862.

277. Serbian epic. Comp. N.I. Kravtsov. M.-L., 1933.

278. Scandinavian ballad. Ed. M.I. Steblin-Kamensky. L., 1978.

279. Slovak folk poetry. M., 1989.

280. Collection of folk songs by P.V. Kireevsky. T.1. L., 1977., v.2. L., 1983.

281. Collection of folk songs by P.V. Kireevsky. Notes of P.N. Yakushkin. T.1. L., 1983. V.2. L., 1986.

282. Collection of different songs, 1770 1773. Comp. M.D. Chulkov. SPb., 1913.

283. Stig-bearer. Swedish and Danish folk ballads. L., 1982.

284. The dance floats easily across the clearing. Danish folk ballads. M., 1984.

285. Ukrainian People's Dumas. Comp. B.P. Kirdan. M., 1972.

286. Folklore of the Russian Ustye. Monuments of Russian folklore. L., 1986.

287. Child F.I. The English and Scottish Popular Ballads. Boston and New York 1882 1898. V.1-3.

288. Wonderful horn. Folk ballads. M., 1985.

289. Aeolian Harp: An Anthology of the Ballad. Comp. A.A. Gugnin. M., 1989.

290. Yugoslav folk songs. M., 1956.

The word "ballad" originally meant a lyrical dance song. In this capacity, she lived for a long time in France and Italy. In medieval England, small plot poems of fantastic, love, historical or heroic content were called ballads. They were performed by wandering storytellers mi-minstrels to the accompaniment of a musical instrument. improvisations, a complex rhythmic pattern, sonorous rhymes, refrains, not to mention the plots themselves, sometimes dramatic, sometimes carelessly cheerful - all this contributed to the success and development of the ballad genre.

About 40 ballads, forming an independent cycle, are tied to the legendary exploits of Robin Hood. People's avenger, he hides in Sherwood Forest with a gang of free shooters, robs the rich, protects the offended and gives money to the poor. The nobles, led by "Good Robin", are fighting against the oppressors of the peasants - the "proud sheriff", the arrogant bishop, the "fat monks":

Every ballad about the glorious Robin- adventure episode. Among his forest comrades, a comic character stands out - “big man from big man” blacksmith Little John. Robin Hood is a historical figure. He lived in the XII century, during the reign of King Richard I, participated in battles against the Norman conquerors. In the future, folklore tradition turned him into an ideal folk hero. Ballads about Robin Hood were created in the 14th-15th centuries, and in the 16th century, a poem in 8 parts (“Acts of Robin Hood”)1 was formed from individual songs. Many Scottish ballads, reflecting the patriotic national feelings of the Scots in long wars with the British, are also permeated with freedom-loving moods. Both in England and in Scotland the plots are very diverse. Along with the poetic presentation of legends about family and dynastic strife (“George Campbell”, “The Douglas Tragedy”), there are ballads with a knightly color (“Queen Eleanor”), with a mystical touch (about ghosts, ghosts, demons) and later - everyday , sustained in playful tones ("Ballad about the miller and his wife", "Old woman, close the door!", etc.).

In Germany folk ballads created in the late Middle Ages. They were put together in the 15th-17th centuries and performed to the bagpipes by wandering people - singers and buffoons, itinerant artisans, runaway monks, schoolchildren, peasants, who learned from bitter experience all the hardships of an unsettled life. In a country devastated by internecine wars, knightly robberies, engulfed in the glow of peasant uprisings, the unknown ballad makers unambiguously expressed their understanding of good and evil, their hostile attitude towards the greedy rich, crafty priests, robber feudal lords. In many ballads, echoes of the events of the great Peasants' War (1525) are heard, but, unlike English ones, German ballads are not confined to certain historical facts and are not combined into cycles around one or more heroes.

interest in folk song and ballad creativity awakened in Europe in the second half of the 18th and early 19th centuries, when the first collections of folklore were published. The poetry of sentimentalism and romanticism developed under the sign of the folk ballad. In England, one of its best connoisseurs and connoisseurs was Walter (see p. 79). He produced the remarkable "Songs of the Minstrels of the Borders of Scotland" (1802), which had a direct influence on his own poetry, and later on historical novels ("Ivanhoe", "Rob Roy"). Folk ballads and Romantic poets of the "Lake School" were perceived in their own way - William Wordsworth (1770-1850), Samuel Coleridge (1772-1832), Robert Southey (1774-1843). Each of them, skillfully imitating the style and plot positions of a folk ballad, created quite original things (for example, S. Coleridge's "The Poem of an Old Sailor", known to us in N. Gumilyov's translation). Romantic ballads, in turn, influenced the further development of English poetry, which retained a predilection for this genre for many years to come.

The same thing happened in Germany. The beginning of the passion for folk art was laid by the scientist and critic, the inspirer of the pre-romantic movement Storm and Drang ”Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803). In his extensive anthology "Voices of the Nations in Songs" (1778-1779), along with works of folklore from different countries and peoples, German ballads and songs were also presented. Following Herder, young enthusiastic poets began to collect and process the national, among them the future creator of Faust, Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749-1832). In the spirit of an old ballad, his "Forest King" was written; became his folk song "Wild Rose". Friedrich (1759-1805), an associate of the great Goethe, created a number of original ballads, also based on folklore plots (The Cup, The Glove, Ivikov Cranes, Polycrates' Ring, etc.). Ballads glorified Schiller no less than dramas. We should also mention the famous collection The Boy's Magic Horn (1806-1808), which contains about a thousand songs and ballads recorded by compilers in different provinces. Joachim Arnim (1781-1831) and Clemens Brentano (1778-1842) discovered this treasure trove of plots and images for German poetry.

Enough recall the legend of the Rhine mermaid Lorelei, the country of lazy "Schlaraffia", the legends of the Pied Piper from Hammeln, the cunning Weinsberg wives who managed to save their husbands from imminent death, the faithful bride who followed her fiancé to the grave, etc. By the way, the legend of long before the appearance of the collection of Arnim and Brentano, the ghost bridegroom was skillfully recreated by Gottfried August Burger (see p. 55) in his best ballad Lenore (1773), twice translated by Zhukovsky and highly appreciated by Pushkin. At that time, almost all German poets transferred their passion for folklore to their ballad work. In addition to those mentioned - Ludwig Uhland (1787-1862), Joseph von Eichendorff (1788-1857), Heinrich Heine (1797-1856), Adelbert Chamisso (see p. 65) and others.

Zhukovsky's romantic ballads are inspired arrangements from Schiller, Burger, Uhland, Scott, Southey and other poets who drew stories from folklore sources. It was in the textbook translations of Zhukovsky, idealizing and "ennobling" the original texts and at the same time masterfully skillful, that young readers got acquainted with the literary samples of English and German ballads. But starting with Pushkin, Russian poets also translated folk ballads. In Scenes from Knightly Times, Pushkin included an excerpt from an everyday Scottish ballad (“The miller returned at night ...”). A. K. Tolstoy conveyed the gloomy power of the Scottish ballad "Edward". Later, when interest in romanticism declined, translators began to give preference to directly folk ballads.

If ballads(with good selection) are interesting and accessible to teenagers, then preschoolers are captured by children's songs, riddles, teasers, counting rhymes - A special branch of folklore, not only, of course, English. Mischievous, witty, funny absurdities, paradoxical "shifters" with their deliberate deviation from reality cause delight in kids. Thanks to the translations of S. Ya. Marshak and K. I. Chukovsky, our children know by heart "Humpty Dumpty", "Robin-Bobbin", "The boat floats and floats", "The house that Jack built", "Kotyusi and Mausi", "Braves". In the same row - “Little Willy Winky” by I. Tokmakova, “Stupid Horse” by V. Levin and others.

Translations by S. Marshak withstood a lot of editions since 1916, when they were first published with an accompanying article by the future academician V. M. Zhirmunsky in the journal Severnye Zapiski, and then constantly supplemented.

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