XXVI. Governors-derzhavtsy as bodies of economic and financial management in the gospodar domains Governors and tiuns in the suburbs and volosts of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in ancient times. Replacement of tiuns by governors in the 15th century. Rapprochement of the governors with the Polish

After the unification of the main lands of North-Eastern Rus' around Moscow in the mid-50s of the XV century. the creation of the state apparatus began on foundations that differed from those on which the reign of the predecessors of Vasily the Dark was built. First of all, the territorial-administrative structure of the state was changed. Instead of the destroyed destinies, new ones were created, but not on a tribal basis (descendants of Kalita), but on a family basis - they all belonged to the children of Vasily II.

But the main territory of the Moscow principality remained subject to the Grand Duke. The main feature of this period was the transition of destinies to the system of counties. Initially, they appear in the Moscow lands, and in the middle of the century their number increases significantly due to the newly annexed lands.

Power in the counties is concentrated in the hands of the governors, who, as a rule, become the boyars of the Grand Duke. As appanages are annexed to Moscow, the power of the governors extends to specific lands (Galich, Uglich, Mozhaisk, etc.).

The rights and privileges of the governors in the previous period were determined by the charter governor's letters, the norms of which dated back to Russian Pravda. But from the time of the reign of Vasily II, such letters have not been preserved.

The creation of a local administration was ahead of changes in the central government apparatus. Basil II was the head of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. He was not distinguished by either determination or will, he did not possess military leadership talents either. After being blinded in 1446, Vasily II could hardly take an active part even in the most important events. The real power during the years of his reign belonged first to his guardians, and when he reached the age of majority - to the boyar advisers.

Significantly increased the role of the boyars. The boyars headed the Sovereign's Court as a military-administrative corporation. The leadership of the palace apparatus came from the environment of the old Moscow boyars devoted to the interests of the grand duke. Representatives of one boyar family were usually appointed to palace posts for life.

In the middle of the 40s of the XV century. The Sovereign's Court was divided into the Palace, which remained an economic and administrative organization that provided for the needs of the Grand Duke and his family, and the Court, a military-administrative corporation that became the core of the armed forces of the Moscow Principality.

Along with the boyars and boyar children (nobles), the descendants of the once independent Russian princes (Suzdal, Rostov, Yaroslavl and others), the so-called service princes, began to be involved in the execution of state orders.

The judicial system has undergone certain changes. Their essence was reduced to the reduction of judicial privileges of landowners and the transfer of cases of significant crimes to the jurisdiction of the governors' apparatus.

In the middle of the century, a new monetary reform was carried out and the issue of a national coin was resumed at the Grand Duke's court. Coins minted during the feudal war by the Galician princes were taken as a sample, and the weight of the coin increased slightly.

All these measures contributed to the further strengthening of the power of the Grand Duke of Moscow.
Reign of Ivan III

After the death of Vasily II the Dark, the Moscow throne was taken by his eldest son Ivan Vasilievich (1462 - 1505), who became co-ruler of his father during his lifetime. It was on the lot of Ivan III that the completion of the two-century process of unification of Russian lands and the overthrow of the Golden Horde yoke fell. Distinguished by his great mind and willpower, this great Moscow sovereign completed the collection of lands under the rule of Moscow.

If at the beginning of his reign, the Muscovite state was surrounded by sovereign possessions, the lands of the “Lord of Veliky Novgorod”, the inheritances of the independent princes of Tver, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Ryazan, then at the end of the 15th century, colossal political changes took place in Eastern Europe. The Moscow state began to directly border on Sweden, German possessions in the Baltic states, Lithuanians and the remnants of the Golden Horde in the south.

Ivan III laid the foundations of Russian autocracy, not only significantly expanding the territory of his state, but also strengthening its political system and state apparatus, sharply raising Moscow's international prestige. A reflection of the new status of the country was the establishment of magnificent court etiquette and new state symbols.

Ivan III was the actual creator of the Muscovite state.
Accession of the lands of Novgorod to Moscow

The most important task facing Ivan III in unifying the Russian lands was the annexation of the vast lands of Veliky Novgorod, which were also claimed by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Novgorod boyars, being under constant pressure from two powerful, competing powers - Moscow and Lithuania, understood that it was possible to preserve the independence of Novgorod only by entering into an alliance with one of them. At the same time, the Moscow party was mainly made up of ordinary Novgorodians, who saw in the Moscow prince, first of all, an Orthodox sovereign. And the Lithuanian party was supported by the vast majority of the boyars and the "best people" who sought to preserve their traditional privileges.

In 1471, the Novgorod authorities concluded an agreement with Lithuania, according to which the Polish-Lithuanian king Kazimir IV Yagailovich undertook to defend Novgorod from Moscow and send his governor to Novgorod. The initiator of this agreement was the widow of the Novgorod posadnik and the actual head of the boyars, Marfa Boretskaya.

Having learned about the transition of Novgorod to Lithuania, in May 1471 Ivan III decided to march on the free city.

At the same time, the war with Novgorod was given the appearance of a campaign for the Orthodox faith, against apostates. The Moscow army was led by Prince Daniel Kholmsky. Casimir IV did not dare to open war with Moscow, and the help he promised was never provided. The vanguard of the Moscow troops first burned the city of Rusa and defeated the advanced Novgorod detachments on the banks of the Ilmen. July 14, 1471 on the river. Shelon, a decisive battle took place, in which the Moscow rati utterly defeated the Novgorod militia.

The road to Novgorod was open. Realizing the hopelessness of their situation, the Novgorod authorities surrendered to the mercy of the winner. The Grand Duke of Moscow forgave the apostates, obliging them to pay a huge ransom - 15.5 thousand rubles (at the same time, the price of several peasant households at that time was 2 - 3 rubles). Novgorod from that time recognized itself as the fatherland of Ivan III, who was given the right to judge the Novgorodians.

The Novgorod authorities completely refused any relations with Lithuania. However, the troubles continued. Then, on November 23, 1475, Ivan III entered Novgorod, accompanied by a large retinue, playing the role of a fair judge protecting the offended. Arrests were made among the Novgorod boyars. And in 1477, the Novgorod ambassadors recognized Ivan III as their sovereign, which meant the unconditional submission of Novgorod to the power of Moscow.

After that, the Grand Duke demanded direct control of Novgorod and the elimination of its independence. At first, the Novgorodians refused to obey. But Ivan III besieged the city in January 1478, and soon its inhabitants had to capitulate. The veche bell was taken to Moscow, the posadnichestvo was liquidated, and Moscow governors began to manage the city. In 1484 - 1499. the lands of the Novgorod boyars were confiscated, and the landowners themselves were evicted to the central regions of the Muscovite state. The Novgorod Republic ceased to exist.

Pskov still retained its self-government, but was also under the strict hand of the Grand Duke of Moscow.
Strengthening the state system under Ivan III

The unification of Russian lands around Moscow represented a qualitatively new stage in the development of Russian statehood. The territory of the Muscovite state, which had grown significantly, demanded centralized system management. In an attempt to elevate the power of the grand duke over the feudal nobility, the government of Ivan III consistently formed a multi-stage system of service people. The boyars, swearing allegiance to the Grand Duke, assured their loyalty with special "swearing letters".

The Moscow sovereign received the right to impose disgrace on the boyars, removing them from public service, to confiscate their estates or, conversely, to grant them new ones. The functions of state administration gradually became more complicated, which predetermined the separation of the palace economy. Already from the middle of the XV century. allocated "treasury" (subsequently the state yard). And from 1467, the posts of a state clerk and clerks appeared, in charge of the office work of this institution, which dealt not only with finances, but also with embassy, ​​local, yam and other affairs.

From the end of the XV century. the state body of the centralized state is formalized - the Boyar Duma. In addition to the boyars of the Moscow prince, it also included former appanage princes. The Duma decided the most important matters and was a legislative body.

In order to centralize and unify the order of judicial and administrative activities, in 1497 a new set of laws was drawn up - the Code of Laws of Ivan III, which established uniform norms for tax liability and the procedure for conducting investigations and trials. It was aimed primarily at protecting the life and property of feudal landowners, as well as the state as a whole.

It is characteristic that one of the articles of the Sudebnik (57th) limited the right of the peasants to leave their feudal lord for other lands for a strictly defined period - a week before St. George's Day (autumn - November 26) and within a week after, with the obligatory payment of "elderly" - payments for the past years in the amount of about 1 ruble. Sudebnik also limited servility in the city. Thus, the number of taxpayers, or taxpayers, among the urban population increased.

The second marriage of Ivan III contributed to the growth of the authority of the Grand Duke of Moscow (to the niece of the latter Byzantine emperor Constantine Palaiologos Sofya). He was actively supported by the papal throne, since, according to the plan of the Pope, such a union would contribute to the unification of Catholicism and Orthodoxy. But this plan met with sharp resistance from the Russian clergy.

On November 1, 1472, Sophia Paleolog and Ivan III got married in Moscow according to the Orthodox rite. After that, new magnificent ceremonials were introduced at the Moscow court, and the Byzantine double-headed eagle was used as the state coat of arms. Barmas and Monomakh's cap became special signs of the sovereign's dignity.
Testament of Ivan III

Ivan III declared his first heir and co-ruler to be his son from his first wife, Ivan the Young, but in 1490 he died, leaving behind his 6-year-old son Dmitry. As a result, there were two contenders for the throne - Dmitry and the 10-year-old son of Ivan III and Sophia Paleolog Vasily.

A dynastic crisis arose: Ivan III declared his grandson or son as his heir, depending on the development of court intrigues, until, finally, in the spring of 1502, Dmitry Ivanovich, together with his mother, was sent to prison. Vasily Ivanovich was proclaimed the heir of the sovereign and the Grand Duke of Moscow.

In his spiritual charter, Ivan III summed up his more than 40-year reign. He handed over 60 cities to Vasily, while all his other sons received 30 cities. Vasily's younger brothers did not have the right to mint coins, to judge criminal cases in their destinies, escheated possessions also passed to Vasily. The brothers swore an oath to obey Vasily in everything, and in the event of his death, to obey his eldest son, their nephew.
Socio-economic development of Russia in the 15th century

In the XV century. the boyars completely lost the right to free passage. Now they were obliged to serve not the specific princes, but the Grand Duke of Moscow, and swore allegiance to him in this. The number of boyars in Muscovy grew as its borders expanded.

The 15th century was a time of active growth of landownership. From the second half of the XV century. the process of distribution and legalization of the local system begins. The expansion of the social stratum of the landowners contributed to the strengthening of the centralized Muscovite state.

The first elements of the legal enslavement of peasants began to appear in the second half of the 15th century. From the middle of the century, the earliest princely charters were preserved, prohibiting peasants from leaving their owners, but so far they were fragmentary.

The first nationwide legal act that limited the freedom of peasant transitions was the Sudebnik of 1497, according to which peasants could “refuse” a boyar or landowner only once a year. This was the first open step towards the establishment of serfdom in Rus'. Attempts to limit the freedoms of the peasants were also manifested in the policy of financial enslavement. Having received a loan from a landlord or feudal lord, the peasant could no longer leave him until the debt was paid, and this often dragged on for many years and decades. The most disenfranchised part of the debtors was called bonded people (the first mention of them comes at the end of the 15th century).

In the XV century. Rus''s economy is developing rapidly. The changes affected both handicraft production, and construction, and agriculture. The basis of progress in agriculture served as an almost ubiquitous transition to the three-field. Relog, i.e. “abandonment” of land for several years was used only when cultivating new land. The use of organic fertilizers has become a necessary component of agricultural work.

The increase in agricultural productivity led to an increase in the urban population, which in turn contributed to the growth of handicrafts and trade. Any new technologies in Rus' in the XV century. did not appear, with the exception of the production of firearms. But throughout the century, both quantitative and qualitative growth of handicraft production took place, specialization deepened, and the number of handicraft settlements and cities increased.

Bibliography

For the preparation of this work, materials from the site http://www.bestreferat.ru were used.

"History of public administration
in Russia"

1. From the options offered to you, select those forms of statehood that existed in ancient Rus' (IX-XIII centuries):
1). a constitutional monarchy;
2). early feudal monarchy;
3). autocratic monarchy;
4). estate-representative monarchy;
5). feudal republic.
Determine the numbers of the correct answers.

2. In the reign of which prince (princess), from those listed below, Old Russian law was created, as set out in the Russkaya Pravda (XI century):
1). Prince Vladimir I (Red Sun);
2). Prince Vladimir II (Monomakh);
3). Princess Olga (Saint);
4). Prince Yaroslav (the Wise)

3. Give the term that denoted the people's assembly in ancient and medieval Rus' to discuss and resolve important common issues.

4. Give the name of the detachment of warriors who united around the prince and constituted the privileged layer of Russian feudal society in the 9th-11th centuries.

5. Who carried out legislative functions in the Novgorod feudal republic in the XII - XIV centuries:
1). archbishop;
2). veche;
3). prince;
4). posadnik;
5). council of gentlemen;
6). thousand?
Choose the numbers of correct answers.

6.From the options offered to you, select the actual head of the Council of Masters of the Novgorod Feudal Republic:
1). Archbishop;
2). Prince;
3). Posadnik;
4). Tysyatsky.

7. Give the name of the position of the military leader of the city militia in Rus' until the middle of the 15th century.

8. The governors in the grand ducal administration performed the following functions:
1). heads of the entire princely administration;
2). a candidate for a position (for a "place");
3). representative of the princely administration in other cities;
4). manager of the princely court?

9. What changes have occurred in the management of specific principalities with the beginning of Mongol rule:
1). no change has taken place;
2). new institutions of governance appeared, established by the conquerors, limiting princely power;
3). the role of the Grand Duke increased sharply;
4). increased the role of specific princes?
Choose the number of the correct answer.

10. Give the name of the method of keeping officials during the entire period of their service at the expense of the local population of Rus'.

11. Establish a correspondence between the social functions of the prince and his title in Rus' from the 11th to the 15th centuries:

12. Give the name of the main form of large feudal land ownership in the Russian lands of the XIV century.

13. In the 15th century, a second form of feudal land ownership was formed in Rus', which had the character of conditional ownership.
What is the name of this form?

14. Name the spiritual order of the head of the Russian Orthodox Church in 988-1589.

15. An event that had far-reaching consequences was the coronation of the Grand Duke of All Rus'. In a special "wedding rite" compiled by Metropolitan Macarius, it was emphasized divine origin power of the Moscow tsar. Thus, the authority of the "Tsar and Grand Duke of All Rus'" was raised to an unprecedented height.
Name the first Russian Tsar.

16. What was the name of the unofficial council under Ivan IV Vasilyevich, in fact, the government of the Moscow state in 1547-1560?
Give this title.

17. From the reforms proposed to you, select those that were carried out during the reign of Ivan IV Vasilyevich:
1). Provincial;
2). Zemskaya;
3). Lip;
4). Church (autocephaly of the Russian Church).
Determine the numbers of the correct answers in your opinion.

18. What was the name of the service people in the Muscovite state, who made up the first permanent army in the 16th - early 18th centuries?
Give this term.

19. Name the sovereign (grand duke, king), in whose reign the feeding system was eliminated.

20. An important milestone in the history of Russia in the 16th century was the establishment in 1589 of the patriarchate. Metropolitan of All Rus' Job became patriarch, and the archbishops became metropolitans. Thus, the Russian Orthodox Church was finally placed on the same level as Constantinople, which, of course, strengthened the prestige of the Russian state.
Give the name of the king under whom these important changes in church life took place.

21. Name the year in which the Zemsky Sobor elected Boris Godunov to the throne.

22. Name the royal dynasty that replaced the Kalita dynasty (the house of Rurik).

23. What was the name of the boyar government after the overthrow of Tsar Vasily Ivanovich Shuisky?
Play it back.

24. What is the name of the first king of the Romanov dynasty.

25. Give the name of the feudal-hierarchical system in the Russian state (XI-XVII centuries), which officially regulated service relations between members of service families in the military and administrative service, as well as at the court of the Grand Duke (Tsar).

26. Give the name of the second Duma rank in the Muscovite state in the 15th - early 18th centuries.

27. Give the name of the code of laws of the Russian state, adopted by the Zemsky Sobor in the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, who completed the legal registration of serfdom.

28. In the 16th century, when the national Great Russian state finally took shape, the form of the state structure changed - from the early feudal monarchy, Russia moved to a political form of power corresponding to the era of mature feudalism.
Name this form of power.

29. Give the name of the supreme council under the Grand Duke (from 1547 - the Tsar) in the Russian state of the 10th - early 18th centuries, similar to the state council under the kings in the countries Western Europe, consisting of representatives of the feudal aristocracy.

30. Give the name of the council of figures closest to the sovereign that operated in the Russian state in the 15th - early 18th centuries, along with the Boyar Duma.

32. Give the name of the institutions in Russia XVI- the beginning of the 18th century, in charge of the branches of government or individual regions of the country.

33. What is the name of the sovereign in whose reign the institution of parochialism was abolished.

34. Establish a correspondence between the names of certain legislative acts of the XI - XVII centuries and their content:

Determine the alphabetic and numeric designations for each correct position

35. In the history of Russia there was a unique period of "triarchal rule" (the term belongs to the outstanding Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky), when two sovereigns sat on the throne at the same time, reigning, but not ruling.
Give them their names.

36. Give the name of the ruling class in Russian Empire who replaced the boyars.

37. Give the name of the main administrative-territorial unit in the Russian Empire since 1708.

38. Give the name of the central institutions in Russia that were in charge of certain branches of government, which replaced orders in the 18th century.

39. Name the body that was in charge of managing the Russian Orthodox Church in the XVIII - XIX centuries.

40. What is the basis of the armed forces of the Russian Empire at the end of the first quarter of the 18th century:
1). Noble militia;
2). Regiments of the "foreign system";
3). Regular army;
4). Streltsy army?
Determine the number of the correct answer.

41. In whose hands, in your opinion, was all the fullness of legislative, executive and judicial power concentrated in the 18th century:
1). Emperor;
2). State Council;
3). Governing Senate;
4). Holy Governing Synod?
Determine the number of the correct answer.

42. Give the name of the bodies of urban estate government in Russia that appeared under Peter I.

43. In January 1722, the government of Peter I issued a law that determined the procedure for the service of officials. The publication of this law contributed to the bureaucratization of the state apparatus and was an important moment in the formation of absolutism in Russia.
Give the name of this law.

44. The table of ranks was:
1). a hierarchical system of ranks, titles, ranks, which determined promotion through the ranks;
2). system of punishments for civil servants;
3). system of remuneration in the public service;
4). feudal-hierarchical system that replaced localism?

45. From the options offered to you, select the government body of the Russian Empire that oversaw the service of officials in the time of Peter the Great:
1). Middle thought;
2). State Council;
3). Senate;
4). Secret office.
Determine the number of the correct answer.

46. ​​Give the name of the document developed with the active participation of Peter I, which established the order of service in all institutions of the Russian state and, in fact, was the charter of public service in the 18th - early 19th centuries.

47. During the Northern War with Sweden at the mouth of the Neva, Peter I laid the foundation for the fortress of St. Petersburg.
What is the name of the first governor of St. Petersburg.

48. From the options offered to you, select a contender for the Russian imperial crown according to the Charter of succession to the throne of 1722:
1). Emperor's firstborn, whether son or daughter;
2). Emperor's eldest son;
3). Emperor's brother;
4). The one whom the emperor specifies in his will.
Determine the number of the correct answer.

49. Give the name of the highest government body in Russia in 1726-1730, to which the Senate and the College were subordinate.

50. Name the highest state institution created by the decree of Anna Ioannovna in 1731 as a council under the empress.

51. What was the name of the temporary collegiate bodies in Russia in the century, convened to codify laws? Give this title.

52. Give the name of the administrative-territorial units into which the provinces were divided, starting from 1775.

53. Establish a correspondence between the names of certain legislative acts of the century and their content:

Determine the alphabetic and numeric designations for each correct position

54. Give the name of the class associations of the merchants in the Russian Empire in the XVIII-XIX centuries.

55. Give the name of the estate in the Russian Empire of the 18th-19th centuries, the male part of which was obliged from the age of 18 to carry military service for 20 years

56. Give Give the name of the emperor under which the law on succession to the throne was adopted, restoring the pre-Petrine order of the transfer of power of the monarch in a straight line from father to eldest son.

57. Give the name of the central body of military administration in the XVIII - early XIX centuries.

58. Give the name of the supreme legislative body of the Russian Empire in the XIX century.

59. Under which Russian emperor was the “Charter on Civil Service” introduced:
1). under Peter I;
2). under Paul I;
3). under Alexander I;
4). under Nicholas I?
Choose the correct one from the options given to you.

60. What is the name of one of the highest dignitaries of the Russian Empire during the reign of Alexander I, who became the author of a plan for state reforms aimed at giving the autocratic system the form of a constitutional monarchy.

61. What principle was the basis of the activity central authorities executive power, according to the ministerial reform of Alexander I:
1). the principle of unity of command;
2). the principle of democratic centralism;
3). the principle of collegiality;
4). expediency principle?
Choose the only correct answer from the given options.

62. What is the name of the all-powerful temporary worker under Emperor Alexander I, who carried out the actual leadership of the state in 1815-1825.

63. Give the name of a special organization of the armed forces of the Russian Empire (from 1810 to 1857) in which military service was combined with the introduction of agriculture.

64. Which of the orders listed below was the highest in the system of awards for Russian officials in the 19th century:
1). St. Alexander Nevsky;
2). St. Andrew the First-Called;
3). St. Anna;
4). White Eagle;
5). St. Vladimir;
6). St. Stanislaus?
Choose the number of the correct answer.

65. From the options offered to you, select the name of the sovereign in which the aristocratic model of public service was replaced by a bureaucratic one:
1). Ivan IV;
2). Peter I;
3). Catherine II;
4). Nicholas I;
5).Alexander II
Determine the number of the correct answer

66. What was the name of the elected bodies of local self-government in Russia, introduced by the reform of 1864?
Give this title.

67. What is the name of an outstanding diplomat, chancellor of the Russian Empire, leader foreign policy during the reign of Alexander II.

68. What was the name of the representative elected administrative bodies introduced in Russia by the reform of 1870, and dealing with issues of urban improvement, the development of local trade and industry, health care, public education, etc.?
Give this title.

69. Give the name of the executive body of city self-government in the first half of the 19th century.

70. What transformations in the civil service took place in the era of "great bourgeois reforms":
1). A number of changes were made to the "Charter on the Civil Service";
2). Changes were made to the "Table of Ranks";
3). The "Table of Ranks" was abolished;
4). The "Charter on Civil Service" was canceled;
5). Has there been any change?
From the options given to you, choose the ones that true position of things.

71. What is the name of the actual dictator of the Russian Empire in the last year of the reign of Alexander II, who became the "right hand" of the emperor in carrying out reforms.

72. Which, in your opinion, of the following events occurred during the reign of Alexander III:
1). Completion of the codification of laws. Edition " Complete collection Laws of the Russian Empire” and “Code of Laws of the Russian Empire”;
2). Promulgation of the manifesto "On the inviolability of autocracy";
3). Approval of the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions”;
4). Legislative consolidation of the right of peasants to leave the community?
Determine the number of the correct answer.

73. What is the name of the Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod of the opponent of the Western European political culture and bourgeois forms of social life, which had an exceptional influence on Emperor Alexander III and his policy.

74. What was the name given to the domestic policy pursued during the reign of Alexander III and aimed at revising bourgeois legislation in the 60s and 70s of the 19th century?
Give the name of this policy, established in historical science.

75. Give the name of an official in the Russian Empire from 1889 to 1917, who controlled the activities of the peasant public administration and was the first judicial instance for peasants and other taxable estates.

76. Give the name of the official elected once every three years by the provincial and district noble assemblies of the Russian Empire and who are at the head of the nobility in the provinces and districts.

77. What is the name of the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Russian Empire in 1905-1906, who was the author of the Manifesto on October 17, 1905.

78. The most important task of the revolution of 1905-1907 in Russia was the democratization of the social and political life of the country. Various political parties put forward demands:
1). To provide citizens of the country with democratic rights and freedoms;
2). Conducting direct, secret, equal, general elections to the Constituent Assembly or the Duma;
3). The transformation of Russia into a democratic republic.
Which of these demands were given to the people in the Tsar's Manifesto of October 17, 1905? Determine the number of the correct answer.

79. Determine the date (month and year) of the signing by Nicholas II of the Supreme Manifesto "On the improvement of the state order", which served as the beginning of the transformation of Russia from an autocratic to a constitutional monarchy.

80. Arrange in chronological order the highest state institutions of the Russian Empire:
1). Supreme Privy Council;
2). The State Duma;
3). State Council;
4). Cabinet of Ministers;
5). Governing Senate;
6). Council of Ministers.

81. The contents of the tsar's Manifesto of October 17, 1905 amounted to a promise to "grant" the people "the unshakable foundations of civil freedom"; inviolability of the person, freedom of conscience, speech, assembly and association; to involve (“to the extent possible”) in the elections to the legislative body those segments of the population who were deprived of voting rights under the regulation on elections, developed in July 1905 by the Minister of the Interior A.G. Bulygin (mainly workers, urban intelligentsia); create a legislature without whose approval no law can enter into force.
What is the name of this legislature? Give its name.

82. The most acute political confrontation in 1905-1907 shook the usual way of life. The revolution, with all its costs and sacrifices, powerfully accelerated the modernization of all aspects of public life.
The most important manifestations of the modernization of the political system were the elimination of the complete political lack of rights of the people and the restriction of autocracy.
What is the form of government, which gradually transformed the autocracy in Russia.

83. During the reign of Nicholas II, the Council of Ministers was transformed into a permanent body - the government of the Russian Empire.
Name the year and month in which this reorganization took place.

84. In an effort to create a counterbalance to the State Duma, Nicholas II, by Decree to the Senate on February 20, 1906, transformed the supreme legislative body under the emperor into the second upper house with legislative rights equal to the rights of the Duma.
Give the name of this upper chamber that appeared in the Russian parliamentary system.

85. The events connected with the defeat of the Second State Duma and the issuance of a new law on elections to the Third State Duma, according to which the already small number of representatives of workers and peasants was reduced several times, is customary in historical literature, although this is an exaggeration, to be called a coup d'état.
Specify its date (month and year).

86. What is the name of an outstanding statesman of the Russian Empire, whose name was associated with a major agrarian reform in the early twentieth century.

87. Give the name of the taxable estate in pre-revolutionary Russia, which included various categories of urban residents (artisans, small traders, small homeowners, etc.), united at the place of residence in communities with some rights of self-government.

88. Name the central body of state power in Russia from March 2 to October 25, 1917.

89. From the names of politicians of pre-Soviet Russia offered to you, select the head of the Provisional Government in March 1917:
1). Guchkov Alexander Ivanovich;
2). Kerensky Alexander Fedorovich;
3). Lvov Georgy Evgenievich;
4). Milyukov Pavel Nikolaevich;
5). Rodzianko Mikhail Vladimirovich

90. A well-known political figure in pre-revolutionary Russia and during the First World War was Prince G.E. Lvov, who headed the all-Russian public organization, created in July 1914.
Give the name of this organization.

91. Give the name of the representative institution in Russia, created on the basis of universal suffrage and intended in accordance with bourgeois-democratic state-legal views to establish a form of government and develop a constitution.

92. Give the name of the first Soviet government formed on II All-Russian Congress Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies.

93. In 1917, estates and civil ranks were abolished in Russia. What month did this happen?
1). February;
2). March;
3). July;
4). September;
5). October;
6). november.
From the options offered to you, choose the only correct one.

94. What is the name of the first Chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee.

95. What is the name of the statesman of the young Soviet republic, who headed the All-Russian Central Executive Committee after November 8 (21), 1917.

96. What is the name of the Chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, elected to this post on March 30, 1919. after the death of Ya.M. Sverdlov.

97. Which of the leaders of the Bolshevik Party belongs to the "merit" of the formation of the highest cadres of Soviet employees according to the nomenklatura lists:
1). IN AND. Lenin;
2). Ya.M. Sverdlov;
3). I.V. Stalin;
4). L.D. Trotsky.
Choose the correct one from the given options.

98. On December 2, 1917, a body was formed under the Council of People's Commissars, which was entrusted with the management of the economic life of the Russian Republic. The immediate task of the new structure was the organization of workers' management at the nationalized enterprises and the establishment of socialist production there.
Give the name of this government body.

99. Name the emergency supreme body of the Soviet state in 1918-1920, the main military-economic and planning center of the RSFSR during the civil war.

100. Name the collegiate body of the highest military power of the RSFSR during the civil war.

101. Give the name of the representative bodies of state power in the USSR, whose activities were of a decorative nature, that is, they were reduced to the function of formalizing decisions taken by completely different bodies representing real power.

102. Name the year in which the Declaration on the Formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Treaty on the Formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, which constitute the Basic Law (the Constitution of the USSR), were adopted in the final version.

103. What is the name of the first chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR.

104. What is the name of the chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR, appointed to this post after the death of V.I. Lenin in 1924.

105. Name the highest legislative, administrative and controlling body of state power of the RSFSR in 1917-1937.

106. Give the name of the highest executive and administrative body of state power of the USSR from 1922 to 1946.

107. June 22, 1941 Nazi Germany treacherously attacked the USSR. What was the name of the emergency body of wartime, in the hands of which all power in our country was concentrated. Name it.

108. What is the name of the body of the highest military administration, which carried out the strategic leadership of the Soviet Armed Forces during the years of the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945.

109. What is the name of the Supreme Commander of the Soviet Armed Forces during the Great Patriotic War.

110. Name the year and month of the transformation of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR into the Council of Ministers of the USSR.

111. What is the name of the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, appointed to this position after the death of I.V. Stalin in 1953.

112. In 1957, an administrative and managerial reform began in the USSR, during which the sectoral ministries were abolished. Give the name of the industry management bodies that replaced the ministries.

113. What is the name of the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, who at the end of the 70s led the preparation of a draft reform aimed at overcoming the socio-economic crisis in the USSR.

114. What is the name of the head of the CPSU and the Soviet state, elected General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee and Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR after the death of L.I. Brezhnev.

115. Establish a correspondence between the highest government positions in the USSR and political figures who held these positions:

Determine the alphabetic and numeric designations for each correct position.

116. Extraordinary third congress people's deputies The USSR was seriously reformed the system of public administration by making appropriate changes to the Constitution. Name the state institution that appeared in the system of government in mid-March 1990.

117. What is the name of the first President of the USSR.

118. At a meeting in Minsk of B. Yeltsin, L. Kravchuk and V. Shushkevich, and then in Alma-Ata of all the leaders of the former Soviet republics, the union treaty of 1922 was terminated, and the meeting participants agreed on the creation of the Union of Interstate Education on the site.
Give the name that this interstate association has received.

119. From the options offered to you, select the date of the adoption of the Declaration of Sovereignty of Russia:
1). October 25, 1917;
2). May 10, 1918;
3). June 12, 1990;
4). December 12, 1993.

120. What type of republic is the Russian Federation under the 1993 Constitution:
1). Parliamentary;
2). Presidential;
3). mixed type;
4). Soviet?
Choose the number of the correct answer.

121. From the options offered to you, select the name of the representative elected legislative body of the Russian Federation:
1). The Supreme Council;
2). The State Duma;
3). Council of the Federation;
4). Federal Assembly.

Questions for the exam on the course "History of public administration in Russia".

1. The relevance of studying the history of public administration
2. Theoretical and methodological aspects
3. The subject and objectives of the course history of public administration in Russia
4. From potency to public administration in Kievan Rus and Russian lands in the 12th–13th centuries
5. The formation of state power and government in pagan Rus'
6. Christianization of Rus' and changes in public administration
7. State administration in the specific period (XII-XIII centuries)
8. State administration in the Golden Horde, Great Lithuania and during the formation of a unified Russian state (XIII - early XVI century)
9. Mongol Empire and Golden Horde
10. Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russian and Zhmud
11. Formation of a unified Russian (Moscow) state
12. Administration in Muscovy in the 16th century
13. The control system in the united Muscovite State in the first half of the 16th century.
14. Reforms of central and local authorities in the 50s. 16th century
15. Oprichniy management: causes, essence, consequences
16. State and regional management estate monarchy in the 17th century
17. Time of Troubles and the collapse of Russian statehood
18. Strengthening autocracy in Russia
19. The highest bodies of state power
20. Boyar Duma
21. Zemsky Sobors
22. central administration
23. local government
24. Administration of Innational Territories
25. Church and State
26. Formation of the public service and service bureaucracy in the 17th century.
27. Transformation of statehood during the reign of Peter I
28. Establishment of absolutism in Russia. Highest government institutions
29. Transformation of central government bodies. Reform of local government and self-government
30. The system of higher central and local governments in Russia in the 20s–60s of the 18th century
31. The creation and operation of councils, cabinets and other institutions at the level of top management in the course of the struggle of elite groups.
32. Strengthening the police regulation of state administration.
33. Instability of the central public institutions during the palace revolutions
34. Restructuring of local government, its centralization and bureaucratization
35. The role of the church in public administration
36. Public administration under the conditions of "enlightened" absolutism
37. Conditions, preconditions for changes in public administration in the second half of the 18th century.
38. Reorganization of higher and central administration in the second half of the 18th century.
39. Provincial reform of 1775
40. Formation of city state and public administration
41. Change of class noble, church, peasant, Cossack management
42. Pavlovskaya counter-perestroika of Catherine's administration
43. Russian public administration in the first half of the 19th century
44. Prerequisites, conditions, projects for the development of public administration
45. The growing role of the highest imperial administration
46. Transition to a ministerial system of central government
47. Change of local state and public estate management
48. The development of the bureaucratic system. Significance of the first set of laws for public administration
49. Reforms of state power and their adjustment in the 60-90s. 19th century
50. Prerequisites, conditions, projects for changing public administration in the second half of the 19th century.
51. Strengthening the role of higher government bodies
52. Improving the central management system
53. Strengthening local government
54. Class public administration of the nobility and former serfs
55. The formation of the Zemstvo administration
56. Reorganization of city public administration
57. The nature of management reforms in the 80-90s.
58. Crisis of State Power and Administration 1900–1917
59. Prerequisites for the transformation of the state system
60. Changes in public administration in 1905–1906
61. State Duma and autocracy - two centers of control
62. The crisis of state power and the beginning of the end of the noble administrative elite
63. Public Administration from February to October 1917: Achievements and Lost Opportunities
64. Features of the situation and the beginning of the formation of the mechanism of state power
65. Provisional government: reform of power and administration
66. Beginning of the Sovietization of Russia
67. The managerial activity of Prime Minister A.F. Kerensky (from democracy to dictatorship)
68. The Growing Crisis of Public Administration and Local Self-Government
69. Public Administration during the Civil War (1917-1920)
70. Formation of three systems of power and control
71. Formation Soviet system management
72. State-protective management line white movement
73. "Third way" in state building and management
74. Bolshevik State Administration
75. Soviet state administration in the interwar 20-30s
76. NEP restructuring of emergency management in the conditions of the post-war crisis
77. Formation of public administration on the basis of the Constitution of the USSR and the new Constitution of the RSFSR
78. Change in public administration on the basis of the new Constitution of the USSR on the eve of the Second World War
79. Features of public administration in the military and post-war 1940s
80. Changes in public administration under the influence of the Second World War that began in 1939
81. The phenomenon of the effectiveness of Soviet public administration in the Great Patriotic War
82. Trends, role and contradictions of post-war public administration
83. Development and reform of state power and management system in Soviet society (second half of the 50s - mid-60s-70s)
84. The crisis of the administrative-command system in the conditions of completion of restoration National economy after the end of World War II
85. The liquidation of the totalitarian-repressive political regime of Stalinism and the beginning of the democratization of Soviet society
86. Attempts to reform the management system, the adoption of the III program of the ruling CPSU and the preparation of a draft new Constitution
87. Removal from the political leadership of N.S. Khrushchev and criticism of subjectivism and voluntarism in the management of society
88. Exposure of the personality cult of Stalin and its consequences for the development of the administrative system
89. Reforming the system of party-political and national economic management of the USSR
90. Evolution and stagnation of the public administration system in the USSR (late 60s - early 80s)
91. Changes in the Foreign Policy Conditions for the Development of the USSR and Brezhnev's "Limited Sovereignty" Doctrine
92. Carrying out a cycle of political and economic managerial counter-reforms. The managerial "front" of A.N. Kosygin
93. Extensive stable development of the economy through intensive exploitation natural resources
94. Attempts to combine a centralized command-administrative management system with production elements of the independence of economic entities
95. Adoption of the new Constitution in 1977 and the fight against dissidence
96. Principles of activity of the state apparatus of the period of developed socialism
97. Tendency towards stagnation of the economy and the growth of crisis phenomena in society
98. The policy of Yu.A. Andropov to find reserves for managing the "socialist" economy
99. Course K.U. Chernenko - restoration of Brezhnev's policy in public administration

100. Political and economic counter-reforms of public administration

101. Centralized command system of "developed socialism"

102. "Perestroika" (1985-1991): modernization of the administrative apparatus

103. Change of leadership of the CPSU and the course to accelerate

104. Features of party-state administration in initial period reforms M.S. Gorbachev

105. Reasons for changing the strategic course and the beginning of perestroika

106. Glasnost and the Information Revolution

107. Democratization of party and state life

108. Formation of a multi-party system and anti-communist opposition, development of nationalist separatism

109. Constitutional reform of public administration, professionalization of the Soviets. Cancellation of the 6th article of the Constitution of the USSR, the destruction of the system of party and Soviet leadership

110. Economic crisis and general deficit

111. Nationalist movements and rebellions in the republics of the USSR

112. Systemic crisis and collapse of the CPSU and the union of republics

113. Improving management activities as part of the course to accelerate and start economic reform

114. Information revolution and restructuring of the system of political and public administration in the context of the economic crisis

115. Characteristics of the "Yeltsin era" and its impact on public administration in Russia

116. "Ministerial leapfrog" under President B.N. Yeltsin and the weakening of power

117. Reforms of public administration under President V.V. Putin

118. The course of the "team" V.V. Putin to hold administrative reform in Russia

119. Reforms of local government and local self-government 2002-2006

Publication date: 2015-04-10 ; Read: 1118 | Page copyright infringement | Order writing work

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Archivist- an official, the chief responsible for the grand duke, zemstvo or city archive.

Budovnichy- monitored all civil buildings in the cities and collected taxes for their construction.

Burmister- was elected for a period of one year from the top of the wealthy residents of the city, and after the expiration of the term he gave a report for his work to the council, which he headed for a year. He also presided over the local Burmister-Radetsky court, as well as the burmister presided over the courts that considered civil cases and other property disputes of the townspeople. Managed the city treasury.

Voight urban- head of administration in cities. Chairman of the Voitovsko-Lavnich Court. He had significant sources of income from: natural requisitions, ship dues, shares from market trade, shops, taverns, land donations. He was appointed by the Grand Duke of Lithuania from among the wealthy burghers or large gentry.

Voight rural- head of administration in the villages. The elder came to change his position after the judicial and administrative reform of 1565-1566. In submission there were several villages that constituted the administrative-territorial unit of voitovstvo. He collected taxes, kept order and ensured that the peasants did not run away, was responsible for the condition of roads and bridges, for fire safety. As a reward for service, he was released from duties and received a land allotment from 0.5 to 1 portage. He was appointed officer of the pan and every week reported to the pan's court.

Gaevnik- position from the 15th to the 16th centuries. Followed the guys with a board tree. He received part of the honey tribute he collected. He obeyed the sovereign.

A nobleman of his royal grace or a nobleman of the state- position at the court of the Grand Duke of Lithuania. He performed various assignments for the protection of castles and embassies, acted as a diplomatic representative, conducted audits of grand ducal and state estates.

holder- came to replace the tiuna in the middle of the 16th century. Performed the administrative and judicial functions of the state estate (power) subordinate to him: collecting taxes, monitoring the repair and condition of buildings, organizing security, ensuring labor force estates, carrying out an inventory, distribution of wastelands to the gentry for military service. Derzhavtsa also judged the master's peasants and philistines in cities without Magdeburg law. Foresters, beavermen, haeviki, clerks, underhorsemen and vizhi obeyed him.

ten's manager- managed a dozen, a small administrative territorial unit consisting of several villages. He maintained order and supervised the execution of duties by the peasants. In the middle of the 16th century, it was replaced by a voit.

clerk- clerk and head of the office in various institutions of the GDL.

Chancellor ON-, head of the office of the Grand Duke of Lithuania, Minister of Foreign Affairs, the highest official who led the state during the absence of the Grand Duke. He made decisions on behalf of the Grand Duke of Lithuania, kept a large state seal with the coat of arms of the GDL, was in charge of the GDL metrics (state archive), supervised the preparation of collections of laws. He presided over the assessor and court courts. His subordinates were: the clerk of the ON and the clerk of the ON.

key keeper- an official of the local administration subordinate to the voivode. He was in charge of collecting honey tribute to the state treasury.

equestrian- great, noble, zemstvo. Watched the Grand Duke's herds and stables. The position has existed since the 15th century.

Kraichy- He occupied a high place in the hierarchy of orders. He cut the served dishes to the Grand Duke of Lithuania. As a rule, young representatives of magnate families were appointed to this position.

cookmaster- supervised the court cooks and kitchen. He was subordinated to: the steward, the understaff, the chalice, the chalice, the krai, the brewery. The position has been known since the 15th century.

Lenvoit- an assistant to the voit in cities with Magdeburg rights. Appointed by a voit and obeyed him.

forester- observed the grand ducal forests and hunting grounds in a certain area. Obedient to the hunter.

Stalker- kept order in the forests and ordered hunting. It was divided according to the level into the great, zemstvo, deputy of the great hunter, yard. Since the 16th century, an honorary title without specific duties.

lustrator- Carried out periodic inventories of state property to indicate the profitability of state property. Opposition to him was considered a grave state crime.

Marshall ON- received foreign ambassadors, led the court of the Grand Duke of Lithuania, led the grand ducal guards and court guards, followed the etiquette and rules at the court of the Grand Duke. He appointed nobles and chaired the Rada of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and also considered cases of crimes committed at court.

Zemsky marshalok (district)- led the povet gentry and presided over povet soimiks and zemstvo courts.

Marshal yard- supervised the administration of the Grand Duke's court. Deputy Marshal ON.

Mernik (mernichiy)- Member of the sub-comorian court. He measured the boundaries of land plots and marked the boundaries.

metricant- Monitored the archives of the Grand Duke's office and the issuance of privileges.

swordsman- carried a naked sword in front of the Grand Duke of Lithuania as a symbol of power during the celebrations. The same position was in povets. She later became a courtier.

Bridge- monitored the serviceability of bridges, roads and crossings in the 16th - 18th centuries.

Mytnik- Collected for the import and export of goods duty, tax (washed) from merchants.

Viceroy- assistant to the governor and headman, who performed some administrative and judicial functions in the provinces and counties in the 16th - 17th centuries.

Pivnichy- was in charge of the Grand Duke's pubs, was responsible for the storage, quality and delivery of beer to the table.

Clerk- a position that existed in government institutions and courts in the 15th - 18th centuries. He had to be able to read, write, count and think logically. There were: a clerk of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, a courtier, a treasurer, a city, a zemstvo, etc.

Poborets- collected taxes and received remuneration for his service from the sums he collected.

Subvoevoda- Deputy governor for administrative and judicial affairs in the 15th -18th centuries. controlled taxes, trade, the availability and serviceability of standards of measures and weights in the territory of his voivodeship.

Underchancellor- Deputy Chancellor in the 15th - 18th centuries. He was a member of the Rada of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and kept the small state seal. Like the chancellor, he dealt with internal and foreign affairs, managed the work of secretaries and clerks in the office of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Connecter- assistant keykeeper.

Podkomory yard- was an adviser and kept order and decoration in the premises of the Grand Duke of Lithuania. Appointed from a large gentry. He was a member of the Rada ON.

Podkonyushy- Deputy equerry who had subordinate grooms. Followed the Grand Duke's herds and stables.

Great Podskarby- dealt with state financial affairs, taxes, managed the grand ducal income and kept the regalia.

Podskarby yard- Deputy treasurer of the great, managed the estates determined for the maintenance of the grand prince's table.

Substarosta (surrogator)- deputy headman, actual head of the city court. During the war, he remained in place with the army in the city. Often, along with his main position, he could hold the position of steward and mayor.

Underframe- deputy steward, helped to serve the grand duke's table.

Subcup- deputy chaperon. Before serving the drink to the Grand Duke of Lithuania, he tried it himself. The position was considered very honorable, and only representatives of the Mangat clans were appointed to it.

Radets- was chosen or appointed from wealthy townspeople. Member of the administrative body of city self-government, magistrate and council.

Regent- a leading position in the offices, head of the archive, was responsible for office work in the office, was one of the secretaries, entered documents into the books of the Metrics of the ON and issued their official copies-extracts, acted as a notary, submitted grand ducal, chancellor, sub-chancellor documents for signature. He was appointed chancellor or sub-chancellor and approved by the Grand Duke of Lithuania.

Great Seal Secretary ON- assistant to the chancellor in the office of the ON. He applied a large seal to documents coming out of the grand duke's office, and was engaged in office work.

Secretary of the Gospodarsky- directly engaged in office work and acted as an auditor, measurer, commissar, fighter.

Small Press Secretary ON- assistant to the sub-chancellor, applied a small seal to documents coming out of the grand duke's office, conducted office work under the sub-chancellor.

Skarbnik- keeper of the county treasury and taxes collected from the population of the county, made inventories of possessions liable to pay tax. Subordinated to the subsistence of ON. It was the same in voivodeships and counties.

centurion- Through the foremen appointed by him, he monitored the execution of duties by the townspeople, the payment of taxes. He performed castle work for the defense of the castle, participated in meetings of the city council. Without his approval, Voight could not make important decisions.

Stolnik- was responsible for laying the grand duke's table. He was subordinated to the underframe.

Tiun- 1) in the 15th century ruled the grand ducal courts with volosts that were not part of the judicial-administrative units. He collected tribute, managed the household, judged the peasants. Appointed by the Grand Duke of Lithuania. From the 16th century, a derzhavtsa came to replace him. 2) was in charge of the gentry economy. He was appointed from among the peasants, servants of the yard, and sometimes from the gentry. He was responsible for the consumption and safety of grain, followed the work of the peasants on the estate, judged ordinary people. For service, he received an earthly allotment freed from duties, or simply freed from various duties.

Chashnik- poured drinks into the dishes brought by the cup holder of the Grand Duke of Lithuania. The position has been known since 1409. Later it became very honorary and only representatives of magnate families were appointed to it.

Shafar- Responsible for the collection of state taxes in the county. The taxes collected by him from the fighters were taken to the state treasury in Vilna. He was elected by the nobility of the county. In private estates, he performed the functions of an accountant and housekeeper.

Introduction

Chapter 1. The highest bodies of state power in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

3 Valny (general) Sejm

Chapter 2. Local authorities and administrations in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

Chapter 3. Judicial system and governing bodies of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

Conclusion

List of used literature

INTRODUCTION

The Grand Duchy of Lithuania is an Eastern European state that existed from the middle of the 13th century to 1795 on the territory of modern Belarus and Lithuania, as well as partly Ukraine, Russia, Latvia, Poland and Estonia.

Throughout its existence, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a feudal state. In the XIII - XIV centuries, all Belarusian, part of modern Belarusian and Polish lands gradually became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The boyars of the specific principalities and residents of large cities concluded agreements with the Grand Duke of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania on his supreme power and the preservation of local self-government of the lands with their ancient law.

In the 15th century, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania turned into a huge power. Zhymoyt (modern central and western Lithuania), which had autonomy, was included later. The central part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with the powerful power of the Grand Duke was the Vilna, Trotsk, Novogorodsk, Slonim, Volkovysk, Braslav, Oshmyansk, Gorodensk, Vilkomir, Berestey, Lida, Minsk, Pinsk, Slutsk and Turov lands. This part of the state was called Lithuania. Other territories of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania that had autonomy with their own political life were Polotsk, Vitebsk, Smolensk, Kiev, Chernihiv principalities, Volyn, Podolia, Podlachie, Zhymoits.

Thus, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a federation of lands, in which autonomies united near the original core (Lithuania). Accordingly, the most significant lands were listed in the title of the Grand Duke. Official name states - first the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia, and in the middle of the 15th century Zhimoteysky was also added.

The successful political and economic development of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, according to many Belarusian and Polish scientists, is largely due to a competent system of public administration. The origins of this system, according to T.I. Dovnar have been stretching since ancient times. The princes led the ancient states, along with several dozen of the most influential, large feudal lords, who formed such an influential body under the prince as the Rada. Accordingly, the study of the system of government in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania is still relevant today for understanding the historical role of the government system of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for the modern Belarusian state. Based on this, the purpose of our work was formed.

The purpose of our work is to study the main system and public administration in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

To achieve the goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

Consider the system of higher organs of state power: the Grand Duke, Rada, Valny Sejm;

To study the features of the local self-government system and governments in cities with Magdeburg Law;

To reveal the features of the judicial system of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

The object of the study is the governing bodies of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. principality of lithuania power judiciary

The subject of the study is the system of state administration of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

The theoretical basis of the work was the works of Belarusian, Polish, Russian scientists, dedicated to the issue studying the system of public administration in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

The Polish historian A. Rakhuba, studying the development of the parliamentary system in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, explores the structure and functioning of the institutions of parliamentarism of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, shows their specificity and isolation from crown models.

A.I. Grusha examines and analyzes the functions, structure, characteristics of the staff, work and competence of the office of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

T.I.Dovnar considers the basics and features historical development bodies of state administration during the period of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Commonwealth, analyzes the current research on the issue of parliamentary governance structures in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Commonwealth.

A.E. Rybakov studies the features of the office of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The author examines the features of the division of the Grand Duke's chancery into the main and vice chancellery.

S.P. Strenkovsky explores the problems of the history of urban self-government in the Belarusian cities of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania at the end of the XIV - late XVIII centuries. Analyzes the main features legal framework self-government based on German law. Conducts detailed analysis and systematization of charters for self-government.

The methodological base of the work was the following methods:

Search and analysis of historical, legal and political literature on the issue of studying the system of public administration in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania;

institutional method;

Methods of analogy, comparison, comparison.

The work consists of an introduction, the main part of three chapters, a conclusion, a list of references.

CHAPTER 1

1 Grand Duke of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

The central authority in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russia and Zhymoteia after its formation in the 1240s and especially since the transfer of the capital from Novogrudok to Vilna (in 1323) belonged to the Grand Duke, or hospodar (gaspadar), who performed the most important state functions of the former appanage princes. Most of the executive power that they previously exercised was given to the capital cities of the former appanage principalities and grand princely governors, who, in turn, took the places of appanage princes.

According to S. Pushkarev, the state structure of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was determined by the direct dependence of the governors of these lands on the princes, without any relationship of subordination between the regional leaders themselves.

The supreme power, in the embodiment of the Grand Duke, tried in the first place not to violate the established tradition in the state system. This is evidenced by M.K. Lyubavsky. The author writes: “The princes of the nasts are glyboka pranikaў va all the zhytsevy adnosins of Litovsk-Ruska dzharzhava ў the first hours of my life, I know the prymyanenny i ў dzyarzhaўny i ў hramadsky yae bytse” .

Referring to the acts related to the history of Western Russia, V.N. Mataras points out that “the rulers of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania wrote in the documents of that era: “we do not ruin the old, we do not take away the new” .

This was a decisive moment for the functioning of the executive branch, as the Grand Dukes tried to adapt the established order to their own purposes. Over time, this has become in many cases the norm of state law.

This was facilitated by the fact that in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the administrative isolation of "grammers" - large landowners who were directly subordinate to the grand ducal court and the grand duke - had long been maintained.

In particular, the Kyiv charter noted that the “basic or initial” letters of Vitovt and Kazimir Yagailovich guarantee the territorial integrity and the monopoly right of the local boyars to keep the region in it and occupy administrative posts. Further expansion and development of the patrimonial system took place mainly on the basis of economic subordination.

A similar isolation of the land in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania later acquired a Polish form exclusively on the estate privileges of the local landed gentry, while in Muscovite Rus' the administrative isolation of the old "grammers" later began to represent the foundations of the Mongolian "Tarkhanism". Lithuanian-Russian law was familiar only with the system of mutual orders and instructions of the Grand Duke in separate administrative and judicial cases.

Thus, we can say that the administration in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 14th century was characterized by wide decentralization.

The development of state centralization was hampered by several factors, in particular, the provincial “old times” that the rulers of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, due to historical circumstances, were forced to preserve and confirm, as well as the rights that the Grand Duke granted by letters to military personnel to land owners. This also paralyzed the development of the relevant bodies in the center of the state, while giving the Grand Duke the opportunity to get by with only one institution - the Rada of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

The supreme body of power and control was the Grand Duke himself, who in most cases was chosen from a certain family. He could also be invited or join the principality by inheritance. However, already from 1413, the post of Grand Duke becomes elective, not hereditary.

The power functions of the prince were carried out through his special qualities, authority among the population, as well as the support of the upper class of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. At first, his power extended to all three branches of government: legislative, executive and judicial.

The statute of 1566 limits the competence of the Grand Duke in favor of the Sejm and reorganizes the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into a semi-gentry republic, in which the monarch is, in essence, an already elected "president" with limited competence.

2 Rada - the highest collegial governing body of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

The highest collegiate governing body in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was the meetings of the Rada (pany-rada), which took place from time to time. The Grand Duke and his Rada were in charge of a relatively limited sphere of internal affairs. There were relatively few of them, since the court and the council were carried out mainly by local governments on the basis of gift letters and local zemstvo customs, different for Volyn, Zhymoit, Polotsk and other lands.

The Rada carried out executive and control functions either in its entirety, listening to reports from individual officials, or instructing the members of the Rada (Panaman Rada) to carry out certain events, checks and audits. The main ongoing management work state affairs on behalf of the Rada, the “oldest Pan-Rada” were performed, which included: the bishop, governor and castellan of Vilna, the governor and castellan of Trok, the elder of Samogit and some officials of the highest administration.

In the XIV century, the Rada did not have a defined composition and competence, and also did not limit the power of the Grand Duke. However, the government functions of the Rada of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania have been expanding since the first half of the 15th century. The composition of the council, as a rule, was formed in accordance with the appointments of the prince of persons suitable for the case in one case or another. Over time, a circle of people has formed with more or less defined responsibilities and levels of competence.

Sometimes the Grand Duke, in the interests of business, invited persons to the council, regardless of their civil status - a large or small owner of land, a tradesman, or just a servant. In accordance with the definition of M. Dovnar-Zapolsky, the council during this period "was a private grand ducal council, although with political functions."

However, the Rada gradually evolved more and more from an institution under the prince to the highest authority. Prior to Grand Duke Casimir, the Rada functioned as a subordinate body and guardian of law, a guardian of "old times" in all spheres of public life.

In the absence of the Grand Duke, the highest administrative and executive power was usually retained in the hands of the lords themselves. They took measures for the defense of the state, sent ambassadors abroad and drew up instructions for them, disposed of important internal affairs, distributed taxes and fees on the spot, pledged state coins to replenish the treasury.

As a single body of central government, the Rada was not divided into areas of state policy, as was the case with orders in the Russian state. Usually, the grand duke's council included those persons who at that time occupied important state or church posts or were with the prince.

Over time, the relationship of competence between the Grand Duke and the Rada changed. The status of the glad was rising. Already under Casimir, it became not only a personal princely, but also a full-fledged state council of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. This council took care not only of the interests of the state and their defense against possible violations by the prince, who at the same time was both the Grand Duke of Lithuania and the King of Poland. It was already a full body of representative power, and the king, who is also the Grand Duke, became the nominal head of the state.

The participation of the Rada in legislative activity was first sanctioned by the privilege of 1492, according to which the Grand Duke could not cancel or change the decisions adopted by him by agreement of the Rada, and the privilege of 1506 again stated that the Grand Duke could not decide anything without the agreement of the Rada. The same rules are sanctioned by the Statute of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania of 1529, only with the addition that permission is necessary only in cases where a special charter on zemstvo defense is adopted.

According to the Statute of 1566, the Rada participates in the legislative power already as part of the Sejm as its separate structural unit. The Rada, as an independent institution functioning separately from the Sejm, is assigned to participate in administrative and judicial matters.

The act of the Union of Lublin in 1569 provided that the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Crown of Poland constitute one "Rzeczpospolita with a common, jointly elected king (aka the Grand Duke), the Senate and the Sejm".

As a legal act, it provided for the incorporation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into Poland. However, the actual unification did not happen, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania retained a significant degree of independence even after the Union of Lublin: there was a Senate (Rada) and a separate Sejm, as well as government posts of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the concluded union of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland, two main and real conditions were: 1. Internal ordering and leadership remained the same, regardless of the union state; 2. Diplomatic relations were conducted jointly.

However, according to most researchers, according to Mataras, Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania did not have a single minister, a single common command, or a common court during the entire period of the Union of Lublin.

After the Union of Lublin, the Rada of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania entered the Crown Rada - an independent body that functioned on the basis of Polish law, strictly protecting gentry self-government. F. Leontovich claims that “the glad pans of Poland and Lithuania in the warehouse of the Seimas established their own senatorial camp, acres of tago, functioned as an administrative body of the Seimas as important as the administrative body of the kiravannya dzyarzhavai” . However, in fact, the Rada acted as an independent representative body of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Thus, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania mainly retained in its state structure the features of the socio-political system that existed in the principalities of Ancient Rus'. ? Polotsk, Minsk, Turov and others.

All power and state administration in the principality belonged to the Grand Duke of Lithuania (ruler), sometimes the former king of Poland. Princes and large feudal lords, pans, who ruled individual principalities and lands, were subordinate to him. The Grand Duke had broad powers: the right to conduct international affairs, enter into alliances, declare war and peace, and lead military forces. He had the right of legislative initiative, and all important legislative acts were issued under his signature.

An important role in public administration in the 15th - the first half of the 16th century was played by the Rada, which included the richest pans who held the highest state administrative positions (marshals, chancellors, hetmans, underscarbs, governors, governors, elders, castellans) and Catholic bishops. The Rada, created as an advisory body under the Grand Duke, from the end of the 15th century began to limit the power of the Grand Duke.

The Rada carried out executive and control functions either in its entirety, listening to reports from individual officials, or instructing the members of the Rada (Panaman Rada) to carry out certain events, checks and audits. The main current work on managing state affairs on behalf of the Rada was performed by the “oldest pans-rada”, which included: the bishop, governor and castellan of Vilna, the governor and castellan of Trok, the headman of Zhymoteya and some officials of the higher administration.

3 Valny (general) Sejm

In connection with the strengthening of the influence of the nobility in the 15th century, a general (universal) diet arose. During the first half of the 16th century, the diets were transformed from random congresses of the magnatery and gentry, Catholic clerics into an organized state body. Its importance is growing, the Sejm begins to take a direct and immediate part in legislative activity.

In the 16th century, the Sejm acquired the significance of the highest legislative and control body. All the pans who are members of the Rada, officials of the central and partially local government, the tops of the Catholic and Orthodox clergy, as well as two deputies from the gentry of each county were invited to its meetings.

Mataras points out that the head of state was elected at the diets, issues of war and peace, international affairs were decided, new legislative acts were adopted. On all issues related to state activity, the consent of the representatives of the estates was necessary. Since the government did not have special funds, an agreement was also necessary when introducing new taxes and fees. Ordinances that were adopted without the participation of the Sejm were usually petitioned for their annulment. Article 15 of the statute of 1588 is called so - “Ab capturing the old laws, but new ones cannot be established without the Sejm Agulnaga”.

When the government in the 20s of the 16th century prepared a draft statute of 1529, it was read by article and discussed at the Vilna Sejm, and until that time it did not enter into force until it was adopted by the estates.

Radaman argues that the competence of the general diet has not been precisely defined. Any questions that were proposed by the Grand Duke or the Rada could be resolved here. But still there were issues that were resolved exclusively at the rampart diets: the election of the Grand Duke, the establishment of new duties and taxes (including the conduct of war), questions about the outbreak of war and the conclusion of peace agreements with neighboring states and union with Poland.

Representatives of the povets submitted requests and complaints, the answers to which were given by the Grand Duke, after consulting with the panami-rada.

Legislative acts, the so-called Sejm resolutions - constitutions, were also adopted at the Seimas.

In the 15th - first half of the 16th centuries, the Sejm met in Vilna, Berestye, Novogrodka, Gorodnya and Minsk.

Separate functions of the central administration were carried out by the marshal zemstvo, the zemstvo podskarby, the chancellor, the great hetman and other officials. Zemsky marshal presided over meetings of the Sejm and the Rada, announced the decisions of the Grand Duke, oversaw order at the court, supervised the reception of ambassadors, and admitted petitioners to the prince. The hetman commanded the armed forces of the state, during the hostilities he had the widest powers. The chancellor supervised the work of the grand duke's office, under his supervision the preparation of bills, privileges, letters and other documents was carried out. He was the curator of the state archive ? Lithuanian metric. The Chancellor kept a large state seal without which no law could come into force. Podskarbiy zemsky was the guardian of the state treasury and the head of financial and economic activities in the state, supervised all state revenues and expenditures.

Thus, in connection with the strengthening of the influence of the nobility in the 15th century, a general (universal) diet arose, which in the 16th century acquired the significance of the highest legislative and control body. All the pans who are members of the Rada, officials of the central and partially local government, the tops of the Catholic and Orthodox clergy, as well as two deputies from the gentry of each county were invited to its meetings.

National issues were discussed at the Seims: legislation, the election of the Grand Duke, the privileges of the gentry, state taxes, relations with other states. All the work of the Sejm was planned ahead of time by the panami-rada. Representatives of the povets submitted requests and complaints, the answers to which were given by the Grand Duke, after consulting with the panami-rada. The election of the Grand Duke, the declaration of war, the establishment of taxes for the conduct of war were necessarily discussed at the Sejm. Legislative acts were also adopted at the Seimas.

CHAPTER 2. LOCAL AUTHORITIES AND ADMINISTRATION IN THE GRAND DUchy OF LITHUANIA

1 District governments

The main management activities, as we noted earlier, were not transferred to the center of the state, but were carried out directly by local governments.

The main officials who led the localities until the 15th century were governors and tiuns. It was they who dealt with the issues of leadership in the former principalities under the Grand Dukes of Lithuania. However, as we got closer to Poland, the titles of positions in all local government bodies changed, such as, for example, “headman”, “voivode”. According to Lyubavsky, the introduction of new names of service posts into Lithuanian service terminology in the 14th-16th centuries was caused by the need for management, differentiation in terms of competence and size of administrative-territorial units of grand ducal leaders, in whose hands was all executive power.

The voivodeship was divided into several povets, of which one was central. In it was main city voivodeships, where there was the head of the administration - the voivode, the second place in the service hierarchy was occupied by the kashtalyan. Each povet had its own administrative power - a headman or voivode, while the powers of the headman were the same as the voivodes, only on the territory of this povet. Each povet had cornets, only the central povets had a kashtalyan, and marshals - all except the central ones, since they were persons who gave the povet the significance of a zemstvo-military unit.

The main executive power of local bodies was concentrated in the hands of the governors and elders. According to M. Lyubovsky, “the governors and elders received a certain share of government power and importance from the specific princes in relation to the 12 regions in their entirety, since the Grand Duke transferred all the functions of the specific princes directly to himself”, but did not limit, according to V .N.Mataras, regional governments.

The governors and elders were akanoms of the palace economy, tax and tax collectors, commandants of fortresses, ordered their construction, were responsible for the protection of the pavet, and were also the heads of local military forces. From their activities, voivodes and elders received income (ordinary and extraordinary), as well as civil servants who led state and grand ducal courts and castles. All of them received the post of governor and elders for life. In their administrative-territorial units, governors and elders ran a household on the master's yards, and the surpluses constituted the grand ducal income, due to which, as well as other profits, the garrison located in their residence was kept.

In some areas, governors and elders on certain issues, for example, on housekeeping, tax collection, court and justice among the peasants and in other matters, most often had governors. The acts mention the viceroy of the governor of Vilna, the governor of the governor of Trok. When the prince distributed gifts to the military and the clergy, the governors and elders gave information about the donated lands and estates and had to make sure that the grand ducal economy did not suffer damage from this distribution.

Sometimes governors and elders, as well as governors-statists, with the power given to them, canceled the princely talent, which was unprofitable for the court, and replaced it with another. Of course, this happened with the final consent of the prince. And the prince himself, informing the governor and the headman about the donation of lands, often ordered, before introducing a new person into possession, to find out whether it would be beneficial for him, the prince, and if not, then it was necessary to look for new lands.

However, the power of local governors and elders was not unlimited. The Grand Duke issued legal acts (privileges or letters) and thereby protected the population from arbitrariness, took into account their wishes when appointing governors and elders, as well as other persons of local government.

The headman was the head of the povet. He was appointed by the Grand Duke and the Rada. The legal status of the headman depended on the district he headed, and on who held this position, on his family ties and origin. The headman, like the governor, was obliged to keep order, oversee the economy of state estates and the receipt of income, take care of the combat readiness of castles, assemble the militia in case of danger, consider criminal cases, and monitor the correction of legal proceedings.

The povet also had the positions of a key keeper, a staid, a mayor, a forester, a tyun, a cornet (a povet standard-bearer who gathered all the people liable for military service in the povet in the event of a military threat). The assistant to the headman for military affairs was the district marshal, who commanded the district militia of the gentry. Administrative and judicial functions in the povet could be performed by an assistant to the headman ? old age.

? dozhavtsy (previously called tiuns). In the 16th century, quite often, state possessions were leased (holding) to large feudal lords, who appointed their governors. The rulers, as governors and elders, were responsible for their actions directly to the authorities. The elders and derzhavtsy appointed sots, rural voits, sorochniks, tenths, who kept order in the villages and towns. In places where state peasants lived and there were no castles or state possessions, there were peasant gatherings and elders chosen by them. At the gatherings, local problems were solved, the amount of duties was determined. The elders watched over public works, collected and transported taxes, organized defense against robber attacks.

2 Sejmiks - class-representative bodies in the povet

The estate-representative bodies in the povet were sejmiks, legislatively introduced by the Statute of 1566.

The sejmik in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania is an assembly of the nobility of the povet (land, voivodship) whose activities were regulated by the rule of law; a form of self-realization of the gentry community and a state-legal institution, thanks to which the gentry could make decisions.

All the gentry of the county could attend if they wished. Both local and national affairs were discussed here. District sejmiks met annually and even several times a year. Presiding or the most senior pan or district marshal. At sejmiks, deputies to the general diet were elected, instructions and requests to the authorities were developed for them, candidates for zemstvo and sub-comorian courts were selected, the amounts of taxes for the needs of the district were indicated, and information about the diets was heard. A sejm common to several voivodships was called a general sejm.

Before the general diets, at the district sejmiks, the proposals of the government were discussed, which were brought both in writing and orally through the royal envoys. District sejmiks were convened by the grand duke four weeks before the opening of the grand sejm.

The convocation of district sejmiks was carried out by the central government through the organs of the district administration. The administration of the povet was obliged, first of all, to convey to the povet gentry the orders of the central government and to monitor their execution. The county sejmiks included, firstly, local officials - biskups, governors, elders, marshals, horuzhy, derzhavtsy, tsivuns, and secondly, representatives of estates - princes, pans, gentry, nobles who were landowners of this povet.

The peculiarity of the competence of povet sejmiks as local bodies of representative power was that they discussed all those nationwide issues, because of which the general diet was convened.

Decisions made by povet sejmiks were brought to the attention of the participants of the povet sejm by deputies from povets.

A. Radoman notes that the sejmik as an element of state authorities (legislative, executive and judicial) had a dual character, at the same time it was a parliamentary institution of the state and a body of local government and self-government.

3 City government. Magdeburg Law

The legal status of city governments was determined by the privileges given to Brest in 1390 and 1511, Gorodnya in 1391, Polotsk in 1498, Minsk in 1499, Novogrodok in 1511, Slonim in 1531, Mogilev in 1577, Pinsk in 1581 . Other cities had similar certificates.

Starting from the end of the 14th, and especially in the 16th century, Magdeburg Law was introduced in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania - a system of urban self-government.

In accordance with this, at the head of the city administration were voit, burmisters and the city council (council).

Voight was appointed Grand Duke for life. Voight exercised the main administrative power in the city community, and also presided over the Voight court. The city voit dealt with general issues, kept order in the city, collected taxes, and administered justice for the most serious crimes.

The city self-government body was glad, which partially limited the power of the voit. The Rada not only managed city affairs, but also had the functions of a court.

The procedure for appointing burmisters and members of the city council (6-20 people) was determined by letters. For example, according to the Polotsk charter of 1498, the voit appointed 20 radtsev from the Polotsk philistines, who then, together with the voit, chose 2 stewards for each year. The council included the richest merchants, heads of craft workshops.

Burmisters solved current affairs, issues of trade, urban improvement, etc.

The collection of taxes, control over merchants and artisans lay with the sots, tenths and "servants of the locals", who were subordinate to the voit and burmisters.

? diets, veche and cops. At the gatherings, the report of the burmisters on the expenditure of the city treasury was listened to, complaints and petitions were prepared, decisions were made to raise funds for city needs, etc. Mine gatherings of the townspeople were engaged in the investigation and analysis of criminal cases. With the growth of cities and the development of class differentiation, the general gatherings of the philistines gradually lost their significance.

CHAPTER 3. JUDICIAL SYSTEM AND GOVERNING BODIES OF THE GRAND DUchy OF LITHUANIA

The judicial system of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania is a system of specialized state authorities (courts) that administer justice in the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Until the 16th century, the sources of law were ancient Russian law (Russian Truth), local customs and feudal judicial practice. At the end of the 13th century, written law arose in the form of letters (“sheets”), charters, and grand princely privileges. In 1468, a judicial code was created. At the beginning of the 16th century, one of the first systematized codes of laws in Europe was introduced - the Statute of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which went through three editions - 1529, 1566 and 1588 (the last edition was valid in the territories of Belarus, Lithuania and Ukraine until 1840).

The judicial bodies of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (the castle court, the patrimonial court, the Podkomorsky court, the grand ducal court, and others) were class-based. In some localities, according to tradition, there were mop courts, which, according to Matvey Lyubavsky, represented the development and modification of the practice of the existence of the "route" of Russian Pravda and arose on the basis of the circular responsibility of local societies for their members and the resulting power over them. The boundaries of the mound outskirts did not coincide with the boundaries of the volosts, but had an independent origin, natural or artificial. Mine courts acted when the victim convened roundabout residents to determine which of them was the criminal, in addition, they decided some civil offenses between neighbors (damage), and their decisions, as special kind amicable proceedings were obligatory. However, the kopny courts, although democratic in nature, were under the control of the local administration.

Judicial power in state estates, given to the "holding" of private individuals, belonged to these persons (governors), who were called derzhavtsy or earlier tiuns. The rulers, when exercising their posts, received different incomes, and the estates given to the holdings were considered as “feeding”. When they were appointed to a position, they, like other officials, paid the Grand Duke a "petition", so that in the 15th century, the appointment to a position acquired the character of a kind of sale. The governorships were distributed “for a year”, “until the will of the sovereign”, but most often “to the stomach” (that is, for life), and often passed with the consent of the Grand Duke and by inheritance.

Some povets were not distributed to the rulers, but were directly subordinate to the governors and elders, who were in the main cities and owned volosts on the same basis as the rulers. They received their voivodeships and elderships for life or until they were appointed to another position.

The patrimonial court was introduced by the privilege of 1447, then by the Statutes. He considered cases mainly on the basis of local customs or the owner of the patrimony, who arbitrarily determined the punishment. Judicial proceedings were usually carried out by Sotskys.

In 1468, the Grand Duke Casimir published the Sudebnik, which is mainly a set of punishments for tatba in its various forms. The private law view of crime as the damage caused by individual, but signs of an emerging state view are already visible (a thief under no circumstances can be released from the punishment to which he is sentenced). The punishments established in the Sudebnik are very severe - the death penalty in the form of hanging was used quite often. The first systematic set of written laws, drawn up in 1529, is called the First Statute.

Before the publication of the Statute of 1529 in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania there was no instance procedure for considering cases, each gentry could apply directly to the Grand Duke's court. Cases in it were considered by the Grand Duke and the Pan-Rada. By the statutes and resolutions of the diets of 1542 and 1551, the grand ducal court was determined to be the highest authority. At first instance, he considered cases on charges of conspiracy and treason, on crimes and abuses of officials, on unauthorized seizure of state estates, lands and profits, cases on belonging to the gentry class. As an appellate instance, it considered complaints against decisions of the castle, zemstvo, Podkomorsky and Voitovo courts.

Until 1581, the highest court in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was the Gospodar (grand princely) court. But the Grand Duke, as head of state, was very busy with various issues, and therefore the consideration of court cases sometimes dragged on for decades. The periods without a king that followed the death of Gigimont II Augustus and the departure of Henry of Valois to France in 1574 contributed to the maturation of public consciousness the idea that the highest court should not be decided by the head of state, but by an appropriate judicial body independent of him. So, a new main court was created - the Tribunal of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

The tribunal consisted of elected judges, who were elected annually by the gentry at povet and voivodship sejmiks (2 people each). These sejmiks took place on a certain day - on the feast of the thunder according to the Catholic calendar. Only the most worthy gentry were elected to the Tribunal. A judge of the Tribunal could not be elected for a second term, except in cases where all those present at the sejmik agreed to this. The elected judges of the Tribunal at the first meeting, in the presence of the gentry, took an oath according to the text of the Zemstvo judge, and also had to swear that they were elected honestly and did nothing specifically for this.

The Chief Tribunal considered appeals against decisions of Zemsky, Podkomorsky, city courts, as well as pansky courts in cases of serving gentry sentenced to death, imprisonment or a large monetary fine.

In 1566, Zemstvo and Podkomorsky courts were created in povets and voivodeships, whose members were elected by the gentry.

One of the most ancient courts in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was the city (castle) court.

The castle (city) court was located in the castle (grod, city). Considered cases of the most serious crimes, also testified to transactions, provided decisions of other courts.

Grodsk district court functioned in two compositions - higher and lower. The highest city court is the governor, or headman, and representatives of the gentry. The lowest is the sub-starosta (deputy) of the headman, the judge and the clerk.

The main place in the judicial system of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was occupied by the Zemsky District Court. It was a typical elected class court separated from the administration.

The zemsky court considered mainly civil cases, and also performed the functions of a notary - executed notarial acts, recorded complaints about the illegal actions of povet officials. He was elected by the district gentry from local gentry who knew the law and had estates. Sessions of the zemstvo court met three times a year. Judicial proceedings were conducted in accordance with the 1564 Belsk Privilege and the Statutes of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

According to R.A. Kutas, important place in the judicial system of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Podkomorsky court occupied.

The Podkomorsky Court decided contentious issues about the boundaries between land holdings. Land was the main source of income, depending on the size of land ownership, state taxes and duties were established. Exact knowledge the borders of the estate were necessary for any civil transaction. The 50s of the 16th century brought new masses of cases about land borders in connection with the drag reform. Thus, questions about the boundaries between land holdings were very important for all the estates of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and, first of all, for the gentry.

The Podkomorsky court consisted of one judge - the subcomoria. According to the Statute of 1566, he was appointed by the Grand Duke by personal choice, and according to the Statute of 1588, the podkomory, like members of the Zemstvo court, is elected by the gentry of the povet from “kind, pious, sensible, fit, rightly able, relatives of that panship of the Grand Duchy and in that poveta ... settled ”.

Podkomory, komornik and clerk conducted an inspection of the disputed land, heard the testimony of neighbors, made a decision and determined the boundaries. Complaints against court decisions were considered by the Tribunal of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Cities that used the Magdeburg law, which began to penetrate into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania at the end of the 14th century from Poland, had a special position in the judiciary. The essence of the Magdeburg law was the exemption of citizens from certain state taxes and duties and from the jurisdiction of state officials, with the exception of the most important criminal offenses. In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Magdeburg law was greatly truncated, and self-government of cities was severely limited. According to the Magdeburg Law, there were two colleges in the city - the Radtsy and the Lavniki. The former, among other things, led the court in civil cases, the latter, consisting of 12 members, presided over by the voit, made decisions in criminal cases (the vojtovsko-lavnice court). The established order was often violated: the number of radians and lavniki changed, the voit led the radians as well; sometimes the colleges merged into one institution - the magistrate. So the cities of Polotsk, Mogilev and Orsha achieved the unification of the lavniki court and the Burmese-Radetsky court.

Thus, the judicial system of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania consisted of the Main Court - first the Grand Duke, then - the Main Tribunal of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, as well as district courts - Podkomorny, Zemsky, Grodsky (or castle).

CONCLUSION

Thus, having studied and analyzed the literature on the issue of consideration of the authorities in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, we can draw the following conclusions:

The system of state administration in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania is represented by the highest authorities, local self-government bodies, as well as the judicial system of administration.

The following governing bodies belong to the supreme governing bodies.

Grand Duke. All power and state administration in the principality belonged to the Grand Duke of Lithuania (ruler), sometimes the former king of Poland. Princes and large feudal lords, pans, who ruled individual principalities and lands, were subordinate to him. The Grand Duke had broad powers: the right to conduct international affairs, enter into alliances, declare war and peace, and lead military forces. He had the right of legislative initiative, and all important legislative acts were issued under his signature.

Rada, pany-rada - the highest body of state power in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 15th - first half of the 16th century. Initially originating as an advisory body under the Grand Duke, from the end of the 15th century, the Rada significantly limited the power of the Grand Duke. The main functions of the Rada were control and executive functions.

Valny Sejm is the highest legislative and control body of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. National issues were discussed at the Seims: legislation, the election of the Grand Duke, the privileges of the gentry, state taxes, relations with other states.

Local self-government in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania is represented by povet bodies and a system of administration: sejmiks, voivodeships and starostvos, city administration.

The headman was the head of the povet. He was appointed by the Grand Duke and the Rada.

The estate-representative bodies in the povet were sejmiks, legislatively introduced by the Statute of 1566. At sejmiks, deputies to the general diet were elected, instructions and requests to the authorities were developed for them, candidates for zemstvo and sub-comorian courts were selected, the amounts of taxes for the needs of the district were indicated, and information about the diets was heard.

The lower link in the system of local government were the heads of state and grand ducal estates, courtyards and castles. ? sovereigns (or tiuns).

The system of city government included: at the head of city government - voit, burmistry, and city council (council).

In solving citywide problems, the gatherings of the townspeople played a certain role. ? diets, veche and cops.

The judicial system of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania is represented by: the Main Tribunal, which considers appeals against decisions of zemstvo, city and sub-communal courts; district courts- zemstvo (considered civil cases and performed the functions of a notary), podkomorny (resolved disputes about the boundaries between land holdings), city (tried cases of the most serious crimes).

LIST OF USED LITERATURE

1 Golenchenko, G.V. "Democracy of the gentry" in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 16th-18th centuries. / G.V. Golenchenko // Belarus and Russia: society and state. - [Electronic resource]. - Access code: . - Date of access: 09.02.2012.

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