The message on the topic: “The Renaissance”, summarized in this article, will tell you about this amazing era in the history of culture.
Report "Renaissance"
Renaissance culture swept Italy, and Florence was its center. The term "revival" was first used famous architect, art historian and painter Giorgio Vasari in his work "Biography of the most famous painters, sculptors and architects". But why is the era called the Renaissance? The fact is that it relied on Antiquity, and the Renaissance on initial stage was meant as a revival of Antiquity. Later, it meant the revival of man, humanism. This is unique and unique culture, which left behind many masterpieces. There are two types of Renaissance - Northern Renaissance and Italian Renaissance.
Features of the Renaissance are expressed in its features:
- Humanism
- anthropocentrism
- New attitude to the world
- rebirth ancient philosophy And ancient monuments art
- Modification of the Christian medieval tradition
The essence of the Renaissance
In the Renaissance, they adhered to medieval views - the hierarchy of the worlds, divine origin world, symbolic analogies of the divine and earthly worlds. But, nevertheless, there is a slight difference in the ideas about the world order: the essence of this era is in the doctrine of double truth. That is, in justifying the distinction between the power of the state and the power of the church.
The figures of the Renaissance or the Renaissance contributed to the scientific - rationalistic worldview, thanks to discoveries in astronomy. Their ideas of the heliocentric model and the infinity of the Universe, the multiplicity of worlds became the basis of a new worldview.
During the Renaissance, formed new type personal behavior: awareness of one's own originality and uniqueness, thanks to which a person is able to do a lot. The culture has a pattern cultured person- Homo universalis. She characterized a creative and hard-working personality.
During this period, the influence of the church on society began to weaken. And the development of printing contributed to the growth of literacy, education, the development of arts, sciences, fiction. Representatives of the bourgeoisie created a secular science, which was based on the study of the heritage of ancient writers and nature.
In addition to the bourgeoisie, artists and writers dared to speak out against the church. They carried to the masses the idea that God is not the great value, but a person. In his earthly life, he must realize personal interests in order to live it meaningfully, fully and happily. Such cultural figures were called humanists.
The Renaissance is characterized by a cycle of changes in literature. Appeared new genre Renaissance realism, which was looking for an answer to the question of the importance and complexity of establishing a person as a person, the formation of his effective and creative beginning.
Representatives of the Renaissance rejected the slavish obedience preached by the church. In their understanding, man was presented as the highest creation of nature, filled with the beauty of the physical appearance, the richness of the mind and soul.
The world of the Renaissance is most expressively and vividly expressed in Sistine Chapel Vatican City by Michelangelo. The vault of the chapel is decorated biblical stories. Their main motive is the creation of the world and the creation of man. Fresco " Last Judgment"is a work that completed the Renaissance in art.
A few words should also be said about the Northern Renaissance. It played more economic role, penetrating into commodity-money relations, market pan-European processes. They changed people's minds. The influence of Antiquity is little felt here, it is more like a reformation movement.
Famous representatives of the Renaissance: ,
The content of the article
RENAISSANCE, period in the history of Western and Central Europe 14-16 centuries, the main content of which was the formation of a new, "earthly", inherently secular picture of the world, radically different from the medieval one. New painting of the world found expression in humanism, the leading ideological current of the era, and natural philosophy, manifested itself in art and science, which underwent revolutionary changes. building material for the original building of the new culture, antiquity served, which was turned through the head of the Middle Ages and which, as it were, was “reborn” to a new life - hence the name of the era - “Renaissance”, or “Renaissance” (in the French manner), given to it later. Born in Italy new culture at the end of the 15th century. passes through the Alps, where, as a result of the synthesis of Italian and local national traditions culture is born Northern Renaissance. During the Renaissance, the new Renaissance culture coexisted with the culture late Middle Ages, which is especially characteristic of the countries lying north of Italy.
Art.
Under theocentrism and asceticism medieval painting world art in the Middle Ages served primarily religion, conveying the world and man in their relationship to God, in conditional forms, was concentrated in the space of the temple. Neither visible world nor man could be self-valuable objects of art. In the 13th century V medieval culture new trends are observed (the cheerful teaching of St. Francis, the work of Dante, the forerunners of humanism). In the second half of the 13th c. the beginning of a transitional era in the development of Italian art - the Proto-Renaissance (lasted until the beginning of the 15th century), which prepared the Renaissance. The work of some artists of this time (G. Fabriano, Cimabue, S. Martini, etc.), quite medieval in iconography, is imbued with a more cheerful and secular beginning, the figures acquire a relative volume. In sculpture, the Gothic incorporeality of figures is overcome, Gothic emotionality is reduced (N. Pisano). For the first time, a clear break with medieval traditions manifested itself at the end of the 13th - the first third of the 14th century. in the frescoes of Giotto di Bondone, who introduced a sense of three-dimensional space into painting, painted more voluminous figures, paid more attention to the setting and, most importantly, showed a special, alien to exalted Gothic, realism in depicting human experiences.
On the soil cultivated by the masters of the Proto-Renaissance, the Italian Renaissance arose, which passed through several phases in its evolution (Early, High, Late). Associated with a new, in fact, secular worldview, expressed by humanists, it loses inseparable bond with religion, painting and statue spread outside the temple. With the help of painting, the artist mastered the world and man, as they were seen by the eye, applying a new artistic method(transfer of three-dimensional space using perspective (linear, aerial, color), creating the illusion of plastic volume, maintaining the proportionality of figures). Interest in the individual individual traits combined with the idealization of man, the search for "perfect beauty". Plots sacred history did not leave art, but from now on their image was inextricably linked with the task of mastering the world and embodying the earthly ideal (hence Bacchus and John the Baptist Leonardo, Venus and Our Lady of Botticelli are so similar). Renaissance architecture loses its gothic aspiration to the sky, acquires a "classical" balance and proportionality, proportionality to the human body. The ancient order system is being revived, but the elements of the order were not parts of the structure, but decor that adorned both traditional (temple, palace of authorities) and new types of buildings (city palace, country villa).
Ancestor Early Renaissance considered the Florentine painter Masaccio, who picked up the tradition of Giotto, achieved an almost sculptural tangibility of figures, using the principles linear perspective, gone from the conventionality of the image of the situation. Further development painting in the 15th century. went in the schools of Florence, Umbria, Padua, Venice (F. Lippi, D. Veneziano, P. dela Francesco, A. Pallayolo, A. Mantegna, K. Criveli, S. Botticelli and many others). In the 15th century Renaissance sculpture is born and develops (L. Ghiberti, Donatello, J. della Quercia, L. della Robbia, Verrocchio, etc., Donatello was the first to create a self-standing round statue not connected with architecture, he was the first to depict a naked body with an expression of sensuality) and architecture (F. Brunelleschi, L. B. Alberti and others). Masters of the 15th century (primarily L. B. Alberti, P. della Francesco) created the theory of fine arts and architecture.
The Northern Renaissance was prepared by the emergence in the 1420s - 1430s on the basis of the late Gothic (not without the indirect influence of the Jott tradition) of a new style in painting, the so-called "ars nova" - "new art" (E. Panofsky's term). Its spiritual basis, according to researchers, was primarily the so-called "New Piety" of the northern mystics of the 15th century, which presupposed specific individualism and pantheistic acceptance of the world. The origins of the new style were the Dutch painters Jan van Eyck, who also improved oil paints, and the Master from Flemall, followed by G. van der Goes, R. van der Weyden, D. Boats, G. tot Sint Jans, I. Bosch and others (mid-second half of the 15th century). New Netherlandish painting received a wide response in Europe: already in the 1430s–1450s, the first samples appeared new painting in Germany (L. Moser, G. Mulcher, especially K. Witz), in France (Master of the Annunciation from Aix and, of course, J. Fouquet). The new style was characterized by a special realism: the transmission of three-dimensional space through perspective (although, as a rule, approximately), the desire for three-dimensionality. "New Art", deeply religious, was interested in individual experiences, the character of a person, appreciating in him, above all, humility, piety. His aesthetics is alien to the Italian pathos of the perfect in man, the passion for classical forms(the faces of the characters are not perfectly proportioned, gothic angular). With special love, nature, life were depicted in detail, carefully written out things, as a rule, had a religious and symbolic meaning.
Actually, the art of the Northern Renaissance was born at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries. as a result of the interaction of the national artistic and spiritual traditions of the trans-Alpine countries with the Renaissance art and humanism of Italy, with the development of northern humanism. The first artist of the Renaissance type can be considered the outstanding German master A. Dürer, who involuntarily, however, retained Gothic spirituality. A complete break with Gothic was made by G. Holbein the Younger with his "objectivity" of the painting style. M. Grunewald's painting, on the contrary, was imbued with religious exaltation. German Renaissance was the work of one generation of artists and dwindled in the 1540s. in the Netherlands in the first third of the 16th century. currents began to spread, oriented towards High Renaissance and the mannerism of Italy (J. Gossart, J. Scorel, B. van Orley and others). The most interesting thing in Dutch painting 16th century is the development of genres easel painting, domestic and landscape (K. Masseys, Patinir, Luke of Leiden). The most nationally original artist of the 1550s–1560s was P. Brueghel the Elder, who owned paintings of everyday life and landscape genres, as well as parable paintings, usually associated with folklore and a bitterly ironic look at the life of the artist himself. The Renaissance in the Netherlands ends in the 1560s. French Renaissance, which was entirely court in nature (in the Netherlands and Germany, art was more associated with the burghers) was perhaps the most classic in the Northern Renaissance. The new Renaissance art, gradually gaining strength under the influence of Italy, reaches maturity in the middle - second half of the century in the work of architects P. Lesko, the creator of the Louvre, F. Delorme, sculptors J. Goujon and J. Pilon, painters F. Clouet, J. Cousin Senior. The “Fontainebleau School”, founded in France, had a great influence on the above painters and sculptors. by Italian artists Rosso and Primaticcio, who worked in the Mannerist style, but french masters did not become mannerists, having accepted the classical ideal hidden under the mannerist guise. renaissance during french art ends in the 1580s. In the second half of the 16th century Renaissance art of Italy and others European countries gradually gives way to mannerism and early baroque.
The science.
The most important condition for the scale and revolutionary achievements of the science of the Renaissance was the humanistic worldview, in which the activity of mastering the world was understood as a component of the earthly destiny of man. To this must be added the revival ancient science. a significant role the development was played by the needs of navigation, the use of artillery, the creation of hydraulic structures, etc. Spreading scientific knowledge, their exchange between scientists would not have been possible without the invention of printing c. 1445.
The first advances in mathematics and astronomy date back to the middle of the 15th century. and are connected in many respects with the names of G. Peyerbach (Purbach) and I. Muller (Regiomontan). Müller created new, more advanced astronomical tables (to replace the Alfonsian tables of the 13th century) - "Ephemerides" (published in 1492), which were used in their travels by Columbus, Vasco da Gama and other navigators. A significant contribution to the development of algebra and geometry was made by the Italian mathematician of the turn of the century L. Pacioli. In the 16th century The Italians N. Tartaglia and J. Cardano discovered new ways to solve equations of the third and fourth degree.
The most important scientific event of the 16th century. was the Copernican revolution in astronomy. Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus in his treatise About the appeal celestial spheres (1543) rejected the dominant geocentric Ptolemaic-Aristotelian picture of the world and not only postulated rotation celestial bodies around the Sun, and the Earth still around its axis, but also for the first time showed in detail (geocentrism as a guess was born back in Ancient Greece) how, based on such a system, one can explain - much better than before - all the data of astronomical observations. In the 16th century new system the world, as a whole, has not received support in the scientific community. Convincing proof of the truth of the theory of Copernicus was brought only by Galileo.
Based on experience, some scientists of the 16th century (among them Leonardo, B. Varki) expressed doubts about the laws of Aristotelian mechanics, which had reigned supreme until that time, but did not offer their own solution to the problems (later Galileo would do this). The practice of using artillery contributed to the formulation and solution of new scientific problems: Tartaglia in a treatise new science considered ballistics. The theory of levers and weights was studied by Cardano. Leonardo da Vinci was the founder of hydraulics. His theoretical research was connected with the installation of hydraulic structures, land reclamation, the construction of canals, and the improvement of locks. The English physician W. Gilbert laid the foundation for the study of electromagnetic phenomena by publishing an essay About magnet(1600), where he described its properties.
A critical attitude towards authorities and reliance on experience were clearly manifested in medicine and anatomy. Fleming A. Vesalius in his famous work About the structure human body (1543) described the human body in detail, relying on his numerous observations during the anatomy of corpses, criticizing Galen and other authorities. At the beginning of the 16th century along with alchemy, iatrochemistry arises - medical chemistry, which developed new medicinal preparations. One of its founders was F. von Hohenheim (Paracelsus). Rejecting the achievements of his predecessors, he, in fact, did not go far from them in theory, but as a practitioner he introduced a number of new drugs.
In the 16th century mineralogy, botany, and zoology were developed (Georg Bauer Agricola, K. Gesner, Cesalpino, Rondela, Belona), which in the Renaissance were at the stage of collecting facts. Big role in the development of these sciences played the reports of explorers of new countries, containing descriptions of flora and fauna.
In the 15th century Cartography and geography were actively developed, Ptolemy's mistakes were corrected, based on medieval and modern data. In 1490 M. Behaim creates the first globe. At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. search for Europeans sea route India and China, advances in cartography and geography, astronomy and shipbuilding were crowned with the discovery of the coast of Central America by Columbus, who believed that he had reached India (the continent called America first appeared on Waldseemüller's map in 1507). In 1498 the Portuguese Vasco da Gama reached India by circumnavigating Africa. The idea to reach India and China by the western route was implemented by the Spanish expedition of Magellan - El Cano (1519-1522), which went around South America and made the first trip around the world(in practice, the sphericity of the Earth was proved!). In the 16th century Europeans were sure that "the world today is completely open and the whole human race is known." The great discoveries transformed geography and stimulated the development of cartography.
Renaissance science had little impact on the productive forces that developed along the path of gradual improvement of tradition. At the same time, the successes of astronomy, geography, cartography served as the most important prerequisite for the Great geographical discoveries, which led to fundamental changes in world trade, to colonial expansion and a price revolution in Europe. Achievements of science of the Renaissance steel necessary condition for the genesis of classical science of modern times.
Dmitry Samotovinsky
The Renaissance is the heyday of all the arts, including the theater, and literature, and music, undoubtedly, the main among them, which most fully expressed the spirit of its time, was art. It is no coincidence that there is a theory that the Renaissance began with the fact that artists were no longer satisfied with the framework of the dominant "Byzantine" style and, in search of models for their work, were the first to turn to antiquity. One of the first to abandon the "Byzantine manner" and began to use in the frescoes the chiaroscuro modeling of the figures of Pietro Cavallini. But instead of icons, paintings were first created by the largest master of the Proto-Renaissance, Giotto. He was the first to seek to convey Christian ethical ideas through the image of real human feelings and experiences, replaced the symbolism with an image real space And specific subjects. In the era of Ducento (XIII century) in Italy, instead of literary language Middle Ages - Latin - the national language - Italian - is gradually formed. He made a great contribution to its creation greatest writer of that time Dante Alighieri (1256-1321).
In the era of the early Renaissance in art, the development of ancient artistic heritage, new ethical ideals are being formed, artists are turning to the achievements of science (mathematics, geometry, optics, anatomy). Florence plays a leading role in shaping the ideological and stylistic principles of early Renaissance art.
The founder of the art of the High Renaissance is Leonardo da Vinci - great artist and scientist. He created a number of masterpieces: "Mona Lisa" ("La Gioconda"), " Madonna Benois” and “Madonna Litta”, “Lady with an Ermine”. In his work, Leonardo sought to express the spirit of the Renaissance man. He looked for the sources of perfect forms of art in nature.
Painting reaches classical harmony in the work of Raphael. Majestic image " Sistine Madonna”, symbolically connecting the heavenly and earthly worlds. Most of all, Raphael is known as the creator of gentle images of Madonnas. But in painting he embodied both the ideal of the Renaissance universal man and the drama historical events.
Artists who continue the traditions of the High Renaissance are increasingly drawn to decorativeness and pomp.
Simultaneously with the crisis of Renaissance art in Italy, it flourished in the Netherlands and Germany.
The development of the art of the Northern Renaissance is associated with the name of Albrecht Dürer, who laid the foundations of secular genres in Germany - portrait, landscape, household genres. Another striking feature of the Northern Renaissance is manifested in his work: the desire to portray a person as imperfect and ideal, but reliable. Speaking of the art of the Northern Renaissance, of course, one should pay attention to Holbein's portraits and Brueghel's work.
Summing up, it should be noted that the Renaissance in Italy and the Reformation in Northern Europe can be considered as stages transition period, which marked the end on a historical scale of one type of civilization (cosmogenic, traditional) and the beginning of a new, technogenic civilization. Italian Renaissance was the source for the Northern Renaissance and the Reformation. The Reformation supplemented and developed the Renaissance ideas in a peculiar way. If the Italian Renaissance was the beginning of a new urban bourgeois culture, then the Reformation, by creating Protestantism, ensured the dynamic development of capitalism in Europe.
The epochal period in the history of world culture, which preceded the New Age and changed, was given the name Renaissance, or Renaissance. The history of the era originates at dawn in Italy. Several centuries can be characterized as the time of the formation of a new, human and earthly picture world that is essentially secular. Progressive ideas found their embodiment in humanism.
The years of the Renaissance and the concept
It is quite difficult to set a specific time frame for this phenomenon in the history of world culture. This is explained by the fact that in the Renaissance, all European countries entered at different times. Some earlier, others later, due to the lag in socio-economic development. Approximate dates can be called the beginning of the 14th and the end of the 16th century. The years of the Renaissance are characterized by the manifestation of the secular nature of culture, its humanization, and the flourishing of interest in antiquity. By the way, the name of this period is connected with the latter. There is a revival of its introduction into the European world.
General characteristics of the Renaissance
This turn in the development of human culture occurred as a result of a change European society and relationships in it. Important role plays the fall of Byzantium, when its citizens fled en masse to Europe, bringing with them libraries, various ancient sources, previously unknown. An increase in the number of cities led to an increase in the influence of simple classes of artisans, merchants, and bankers. Various centers of art and science began to appear actively, the activities of which the church no longer controlled.
It is customary to count the first years of the Renaissance with its onset in Italy, it was in this country that this movement began. Its initial signs became noticeable in the 13-14th centuries, but it took a firm position in the 15th century (20s), reaching its maximum flowering by its end. There are four periods in the Renaissance (or Renaissance). Let's dwell on them in more detail.
Proto-Renaissance
This period dates from approximately the second half of the 13th-14th century. It is worth noting that all dates relate to Italy. Essentially, this period is preparatory stage Renaissance. It is conditionally customary to divide it into two stages: before and after the death (1137) of Giotto di Bondone (sculpture in the photo), a key figure in the history of Western art, architect and artist.
The last years of the Renaissance of this period are associated with an epidemic of plague that struck Italy and all of Europe as a whole. Proto-Renaissance is closely connected with the Middle Ages, Gothic, Romanesque, Byzantine traditions. central figure It is generally accepted that Giotto outlined the main trends in painting, indicated the path along which its development went in the future.
Early Renaissance period
By the time it took eighty years. early years which are characterized in two ways, fell on the years 1420-1500. Art has not yet completely renounced medieval traditions, but actively adds elements borrowed from classical antiquity. As if on the rise, year after year under the influence of changing conditions of the social environment, there is a complete rejection by artists of the old and the transition to ancient art as the main concept.
High Renaissance period
This is the peak, the peak of the Renaissance. At this stage, the Renaissance (years 1500-1527) reached its zenith, and the center of influence of all Italian art moved to Rome from Florence. This happened in connection with the accession to the papal throne of Julius II, who had very progressive, bold views, was an enterprising and ambitious person. He attracted to the eternal city the most best artists and sculptors from all over Italy. It was at this time that the real titans of the Renaissance create their masterpieces, which the whole world admires to this day.
Late Renaissance
Covers the time period from 1530 to 1590-1620. The development of culture and art in this period is so heterogeneous and diverse that even historians do not reduce it to one denominator. According to British scientists, the Renaissance finally died out at the moment when the fall of Rome took place, namely in 1527. plunged into the Counter-Reformation, which put an end to any free-thinking, including the resurrection of ancient traditions.
The crisis of ideas and contradictions in the worldview eventually resulted in mannerism in Florence. A style that is characterized by disharmony and far-fetchedness, a loss of balance between the spiritual and physical components, characteristic of the Renaissance. For example, Venice had its own road of development, and such masters as Titian and Palladio worked there until the end of the 1570s. Their work remained aloof from the crisis phenomena characteristic of the art of Rome and Florence. Pictured is Titian's Isabella of Portugal.
Great Masters of the Renaissance
Three great Italians are the titans of the Renaissance, its worthy crown:
All their works are the best, selected pearls of world art, which were collected by the Renaissance. Years go by, centuries change, but the creations of the great masters are timeless.
Italian culture during the 1200s-1300s. Sometimes - the stage of common European culture of the 1100s - 1200s. During this period, the main features of the Renaissance are laid.
Early Renaissance
The early Renaissance, which is characterized by the emergence of Renaissance literature and related humanities, covers the XIV and most XV century., That is, chronologically, it refers to the Middle Ages.
High Renaissance
The High Renaissance is a period in the history of Italian art at the end of the 15th - the first third of the 16th centuries, marked by an unprecedented rise in painting, architecture, and literature. Most prominent representatives- Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, Rafael Santi.
The High Renaissance became the brightest and most fruitful period, when Renaissance thought and fine arts reached their highest peak. At this point, the Renaissance went beyond Italy, becoming a pan-European phenomenon. It was then that the contemporaries of this cultural upheaval clearly felt the onset of new times, and the very concept of “Renaissance” entered the everyday life of educated people.
Late Renaissance
Late Renaissance ( recent decades XVI century) coincided in time with the beginning and the first successes of the religious Reformation in Europe. The culture of the Late Renaissance is therefore to the same extent the culture of the Reformation, the result of a complex interaction of these two historical processes. During this period, Europe finally entered the Modern Age.
In the Renaissance, the worldview underlying everything cultural development, became humanism. It is characterized by admiration for a real person, faith in his creative possibilities, recognition of the importance of earthly existence. Humanists considered themselves followers of ancient thinkers, Antiquity for them was an ideal and standard. However, in the culture of the Renaissance, the elements formed in the Middle Ages turned out to be no less important than the elements of ancient culture. The culture of the Renaissance became a synthesis of medieval and ancient culture and was prepared by the whole centuries-old process of European cultural development.
Humanistic ideas have made a real revolution in art. Works of art are becoming more realistic, admiration can be traced in them not only for the beauty of human souls but also the perfection of the human body. Artists and sculptors strive to convey the whole gamut of human feelings and experiences, including those associated with earthly joys and concerns.
The great turning point of the Renaissance, which determined the paths for the further development of world culture, was most clearly manifested in the visual arts.material from the site
Renaissance literature
founder Italian Renaissance counts Francesco Petrarca(1804-1374), in whose work the motives of the earthly human love. Humanist traditions in Italian literature was developed by a younger contemporary of Petrarch Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), who gained worldwide fame thanks to a collection of short stories called the Decameron.
Renaissance painting
True masters of the Early Renaissance in Italian painting can be called Giotto And Sandro Botticelli, and in Italian sculpture - Bernardo, Antonio Rosselino, Donatello creator of the first nude sculpture.
