Ideas of humanism in English and Russian literature. The problem of humanism in literature

Humanism in the works of Thomas More “Utopia” and Evgeny Zamyatin “We”

Introduction

Today the whole world is going through difficult times. The new political and economic situation could not but affect culture. Her relationship with the authorities has changed dramatically. The common core of cultural life has disappeared - centralized system management and unified cultural policy. Determining the way forward cultural development became a matter for society itself and a point of contention. The absence of a unifying sociocultural idea and the retreat of society from the ideas of humanism led to a deep crisis in which the culture of all mankind found itself beginning of XXI century.

Humanism (from Lat. humanitas - humanity, Lat. humanus - humane, Lat. homo - man) is a worldview centered on the idea of ​​man as the highest value; arose as a philosophical movement during the Renaissance.

Humanism is traditionally defined as a system of views that recognizes the value of man as an individual, his right to freedom, happiness and development, and declares the principles of equality and humanity to be the norm for relations between people. Among the values traditional culture the most important place was occupied by the values ​​of humanism (goodness, justice, non-acquisitiveness, search for truth), which was reflected in the classical literature of any country, including England.

Over the past 15 years, these values ​​have experienced a certain crisis. Humanism was opposed to the ideas of possessiveness and self-sufficiency (cult of money). As an ideal, people were offered a “self-mademan” - a person who made himself and does not need any external support. The ideas of justice and equality - the basis of humanism - have lost their former attractiveness and are now not even included in the program documents of most parties and governments of various countries in the world. Our society gradually began to turn into a nuclear one, when its individual members began to isolate themselves within the confines of their home and their own family.

The relevance of the topic I have chosen is due to a problem that has bothered humanity for thousands of years and is troubling us now - the problem of philanthropy, tolerance, respect for one's neighbor, the urgent need to discuss this topic.

With my research I would like to show that the problem of humanism, which originated in the Renaissance, which was reflected in the works of both English and Russian writers, remains relevant to this day.

And to begin with, I would like to return to the origins of humanism, considering its appearance in England.

1.1 The emergence of humanism in England. History of the development of humanism in English literature

The emergence of new historical thought dates back to late Middle Ages, when in the most advanced countries of Western Europe the process of decomposition of feudal relations was actively underway and a new capitalist mode of production was emerging. This was a transitional period when centralized states took shape everywhere in the form of absolute monarchies on the scale of entire countries or individual territories, prerequisites for the formation of bourgeois nations arose, and an extreme intensification of social struggle occurred. The bourgeoisie emerging among the urban elite was then a new, progressive layer and acted in its ideological struggle against the ruling class of feudal lords as a representative of all lower strata of society.

New ideas find their most vivid expression in the humanistic worldview, which has had a very significant impact on all areas of culture and scientific knowledge this transition period. The new worldview was fundamentally secular, hostile to the purely theological interpretation of the world that dominated in the Middle Ages. He was characterized by the desire to explain all phenomena in nature and society from the point of view of reason (rationalism), to reject the blind authority of faith, which previously so strongly constrained the development of human thought. Humanists worshiped the human personality, admired it as the highest creation of nature, the bearer of reason, high feelings and virtues; Humanists seemed to contrast the human creator with the blind power of divine providence. The humanistic worldview was characterized by individualism, which at the first stage of its history essentially acted as a weapon of ideological protest against the class-corporate system of feudal society, which suppressed the human personality, and against church ascetic morality, which served as one of the means of this suppression. At that time, the individualism of the humanistic worldview was still tempered by the active social interests of the majority of its leaders, and was far from the egoism characteristic of later developed forms of the bourgeois worldview.

Finally, the humanistic worldview was characterized by a greedy interest in ancient culture in all its manifestations. Humanists sought to “revive”, that is, to make as a role model, the work of ancient writers, scientists, philosophers, artists, classical Latin, partly forgotten in the Middle Ages. And although already from the 12th century. In medieval culture, interest in the ancient heritage began to awaken, only during the period of the emergence of the humanistic worldview, in the so-called Renaissance (Renaissance), this trend became dominant.

The rationalism of the humanists was based on idealism, which largely determined their understanding of the world. As representatives of the intelligentsia of that time, the humanists were far from the people, and often openly hostile to them. But for all that, the humanistic worldview at the time of its heyday had a clearly progressive character, was the banner of the struggle against feudal ideology, and was imbued with a humane attitude towards people. On the basis of this new ideological trend in Western Europe, the free development of scientific knowledge, previously hampered by the dominance of theological thinking, became possible.

The revival is associated with the process of formation of secular culture and humanistic consciousness. The philosophy of the Renaissance is defined by:

Focus on people;

Belief in his great spiritual and physical potential;

Life-affirming and optimistic character.

In the second half of the 14th century. a tendency emerged and then increasingly increased over the next two centuries (reaching its highest point especially in the 15th century) to give the study humanistic literature the most great importance and to regard classical Latin and Greek antiquity as the sole example and model for all that concerns spiritual and cultural activity.

The essence of humanism lies not in the fact that it turned to the past, but in the way in which it is cognized, in the relationship in which it consists of this past: it is the relationship to the culture of the past and to the past that clearly determines the essence of humanism. Humanists discover the classics because they separate, without mixing, their own from the Latin. It was humanism that really discovered antiquity, the same Virgil or Aristotle, although they were known in the Middle Ages, because it returned Virgil to his time and his world, and sought to explain Aristotle within the framework of the problems and within the framework of the knowledge of Athens of the 4th century BC. In humanism there is no distinction between the discovery of the ancient world and the discovery of man, because they are all one; to discover the ancient world as such means to measure oneself against it, and to separate oneself, and to establish a relationship with it. Determine time and memory, and the direction of human creation, and earthly affairs, and responsibility. It is no coincidence that the great humanists were, for the most part, statesmen, active people, whose free creativity public life was in demand by their time.

The literature of the English Renaissance developed in close connection with the literature of pan-European humanism. England, later than other countries, took the path of developing a humanistic culture. English humanists learned from continental humanists. Particularly significant was the influence of Italian humanism, which dates back in its beginnings to the 14th and 15th centuries. Italian literature, from Petrarch to Tasso, was, in essence, a school for English humanists, an inexhaustible source of advanced political, philosophical and scientific ideas, a rich treasury of artistic images, plots and forms, from which all English humanists, from Thomas More to Bacon and Shakespeare, drew their ideas . Acquaintance with Italy, its culture, art and literature was one of the first and main principles of any education in general in Renaissance England. Many Englishmen traveled to Italy to personally come into contact with the life of this advanced country of what was then Europe.

The first center of humanistic culture in England was Oxford University. From here the light of a new science and a new worldview began to spread, which fertilized the entire English culture and gave impetus to the development of humanistic literature. Here, at the university, a group of scientists appeared who fought against the ideology of the Middle Ages. These were people who studied in Italy and adopted the foundations of new philosophy and science there. They were passionate admirers of antiquity. Having studied at the school of humanism in Italy, Oxford scholars did not limit themselves to popularizing the achievements of their Italian brethren. They grew into independent scientists.

English humanists adopted from their Italian teachers an admiration for the philosophy and poetry of the ancient world.

The activities of the first English humanists were predominantly scientific and theoretical in nature. They developed general issues of religion, philosophy, social life and education. Early English humanism of the early 16th century received its fullest expression in the work of Thomas More.

1.2. The emergence of humanism in Russia. History of the development of humanism in Russian literature.

Already in the first significant Russian poets of the 18th century - Lomonosov and Derzhavin - one can find nationalism combined with humanism. It is no longer Holy Rus', but Great Rus' that inspires them; the national epic, the rapture of the greatness of Russia relate entirely to the empirical existence of Russia, without any historical and philosophical justification.

Derzhavin, the true “singer of Russian glory,” defends human freedom and dignity. In poems written for the birth of Catherine II’s grandson (the future Emperor Alexander I), he exclaims:

“Be the master of your passions,

Be a man on the throne."

This motive of pure humanism is increasingly becoming the crystallizing core of the new ideology.

Russian Freemasonry of the 18th and early 19th centuries played a huge role in the spiritual mobilization of the creative forces of Russia. On the one hand, it attracted people who were looking for a counterbalance to the atheistic movements of the 18th century, and in this sense it was an expression of the religious needs of the Russian people of that time. On the other hand, Freemasonry, captivating with its idealism and noble humanistic dreams of serving humanity, was itself a phenomenon of extra-church religiosity, free from any church authority. Capturing significant sections of Russian society, Freemasonry undoubtedly raised creative movements in the soul, was a school of humanism, and at the same time awakened intellectual interests.

At the heart of this humanism was a reaction against the one-sided intellectualism of the era. A favorite formula here was the idea that “enlightenment without a moral ideal carries poison in itself.” In Russian humanism associated with Freemasonry, moral motives played a significant role.

All the main features of the future “advanced” intelligentsia were also formed - and in the first place here was the consciousness of duty to serve society, and practical idealism in general. This was the path of ideological life and effective service to the ideal.

2.1. Humanism in the works “Utopia” by Thomas More and “We” by Evgeny Zamyatin.

Thomas More in his work “Utopia” speaks of universal human equality. But is there a place for humanism in this equality?

What is utopia?

“Utopia - (from the Greek u - no and topos - place - i.e. a place that does not exist; according to another version, from eu - good and topos - place, i.e. blessed country), an image of an ideal social system, lacking scientific justification; genre science fiction; designation of all works containing unrealistic plans for social transformation." (“Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V. Dahl)

A similar term arose thanks to Thomas More himself.

Simply put, utopia is a fictional picture of an ideal life arrangement.

Thomas More lived at the beginning of modern times (1478-1535), when the wave of humanism and the Renaissance swept across Europe. Most literary and political works Moras already have historical interest for us. Only “Utopia” (published in 1516) has retained its significance for our time - not only as a talented novel, but also as a work of socialist thought that is brilliant in its design.

The book is written in the “traveler's story” genre, popular at that time. Allegedly, a certain navigator Raphael Hythloday visited the unknown island of Utopia, whose social structure amazed him so much that he tells others about it.

Knowing well the social and moral life of his homeland, the English humanist, Thomas More, was imbued with sympathy for the misfortunes of its people. These sentiments of his were reflected in famous work with a long title in the spirit of that time - “A very useful, as well as entertaining, truly golden book about the best structure of the state and about the new island of Utopia...”. This work instantly gained great popularity in humanistic circles, which did not stop Soviet researchers from calling Mora almost the first communist.

The humanistic worldview of the author of “Utopia” led him to conclusions of great social relevance and significance, especially in the first part of this work. The author’s insight was by no means limited to stating the terrible picture of social disasters, emphasizing at the very end of his work that upon careful observation of the life of not only England, but also “all states,” they do not represent “nothing but some kind of conspiracy of the rich, under the pretext and under in the name of the state, thinking about their own benefits.”

Already these deep observations suggested to More the main direction of projects and dreams in the second part of Utopia. Numerous researchers of this work have noted not only direct, but also indirect references to the texts and ideas of the Bible (primarily the Gospels), especially to ancient and early Christian authors. Of all the works that had the greatest impact on More, Plato's Republic stands out. Many humanists saw in Utopia a long-awaited rival to this greatest creation political thought, a work that had existed by that time for almost two millennia.

In line with humanistic quests that creatively synthesized the ideological heritage of antiquity and the Middle Ages and boldly rationalistically compared political and ethnic theories with the social development of that era, More’s “Utopia” emerged, which reflected and originally comprehended the full depth of socio-political conflicts of the era of the decomposition of feudalism and the primitive accumulation of capital.

After reading More's book, you are very surprised at how much the idea of ​​what is good for a person and what is bad has changed since More's time. To the average resident of the 21st century, More’s book, which laid the foundation for the whole “genre of utopias,” no longer seems at all like a model of an ideal state. Quite the contrary. I would really not want to live in the society described by More. Euthanasia for the sick and decrepit, forced labor service, according to which you must work as a farmer for at least 2 years, and even after that you can be sent to the fields during harvesting. "All men and women have one common occupation - agriculture, from which no one is exempt." But on the other hand, the Utopians work strictly 6 hours a day, and all the dirty, hard and dangerous work is done by slaves. The mention of slavery makes you wonder if this work is so utopian? Are ordinary people equal in it?

Ideas about universal equality are slightly exaggerated. However, slaves in “Utopia” work not for the benefit of the master, but for the entire society as a whole (the same thing, by the way, happened under Stalin, when millions of prisoners worked for free for the benefit of the Motherland). To become a slave, you must commit serious crime(including adultery or debauchery). Slaves spend the rest of their days doing hard physical work, but if they work diligently they can even be pardoned.

More's utopia is not even a state in the usual sense of the word, but a human anthill. You will live in standard houses, and after ten years, you will exchange housing with other families by lot. This is not even a house, but rather a hostel in which many families live - small primary units of local government, headed by elected leaders, siphogrants or phylarchs. Naturally, there is a common household, they eat together, all matters are decided together. There are strict restrictions on freedom of movement; in case of repeated unauthorized absence, you will be punished by being made a slave.

The idea of ​​the Iron Curtain is also implemented in Utopia: she lives in complete isolation from the outside world.

The attitude towards parasites here is very strict - every citizen either works on the land or must master a certain craft (moreover, a useful craft). Only a select few who have demonstrated special abilities are exempt from physical labor and can become scientists or philosophers. Everyone wears the same, simplest clothes made of coarse cloth, and while doing business, a person takes off his clothes so as not to wear them out, and puts on coarse skins or skins. There are no frills, just the essentials. Everyone shares the food equally, with any surplus given to others, and the best food donated to hospitals. There is no money, but the wealth accumulated by the state is kept in the form of debt obligations in other countries. The same reserves of gold and silver that are in Utopia itself are used to make chamber pots, cesspools, as well as to create shameful chains and hoops that are hung on criminals as punishment. All this, according to More, should destroy the citizens’ desire for money-grubbing.

It seems to me that the island described by More is some kind of concept of collective farms driven to a frenzy.

The reasonableness and practicality of the author’s view is striking. In many ways, he approaches social relations in the society he invented like an engineer creating the most efficient mechanism. For example, the fact that the Utopians prefer not to fight, but to bribe their opponents. Or, for example, the custom when people choosing a partner for marriage are obliged to view him or her naked.

Any progress in the life of Utopia makes no sense. There are no factors in society that force science and technology to develop or change attitudes towards certain things. Life as it is suits citizens and any deviation is simply not necessary.

Utopian society is limited on all sides. There is practically no freedom in anything. The power of equals over equals is not equality. A state in which there is no power cannot exist - otherwise it is anarchy. Well, once there is power, there can no longer be equality. A person who controls the lives of others is always in

privileged position.

Communism was literally built on the island: from each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs. Everyone is obliged to work, engaged in agriculture and crafts. The family is the basic unit of society. Its work is controlled by the state, and what it produces is donated to a common treasury. The family is considered a social workshop, and not necessarily based on blood relationships. If children do not like their parents' craft, they may move to another family. It is not difficult to imagine what kind of unrest this will lead to in practice.

Utopians live a boring and monotonous life. Their whole life is regulated from the very beginning. However, dining is allowed not only in the public canteen, but also in the family. Education is accessible to all and is based on a combination of theory and practical work. That is, children are given a standard set of knowledge, and at the same time they are taught to work.

Social theorists especially praised More for the absence of private property on Utopia. In More's own words, "wherever there is private property"Where everything is measured by money, it is hardly ever possible for the state to be governed justly or happily." And in general, “there is only one way for social well-being - to declare equality in everything.”

The Utopians strongly condemn war. But even here this principle is not fully observed. Naturally, the Utopians fight when they defend their borders. But they are fighting

also in the case “when they feel sorry for some people oppressed

tyranny." In addition, “the Utopians consider the most just

the cause of war is when some people do not use their own land, but own it as if in vain and in vain.” Having studied these reasons for the war, we can conclude that the Utopians must fight constantly until they build communism and “world peace.” Because there will always be a reason. Moreover, “Utopia”, in fact, must be an eternal aggressor, because if rational, non-ideological states wage war when it is beneficial for them, then the Utopians always do so if there are reasons for it. After all, they cannot remain indifferent for ideological reasons.

All these facts, one way or another, suggest the thought: was Utopia a utopia in the full sense of the word? Was it the ideal system to which one would like to strive?

On this note, I would like to turn to E. Zamyatin’s work “We”.

It should be noted that Evgeniy Ivanovich Zamyatin (1884-1937), who was a rebel by nature and worldview, was not a contemporary of Thomas More, but lived during the creation of the USSR. The author is almost unknown to a wide circle of Russian readers, since the works he wrote back in the 20s were published only in the late 80s. The writer spent the last years of his life in France, where he died in 1937, but he never considered himself an emigrant - he lived in Paris with a Soviet passport.

E. Zamyatin's creativity is extremely diverse. He has written a large number of stories and novels, among which the dystopia “We” occupies a special place. Dystopia is a genre that is also called negative utopia. This is an image of such a possible future, which frightens the writer, makes him worry about the fate of humanity, about the soul of an individual, a future in which the problem of humanism and freedom is acute.

The novel “We” was created shortly after the author returned from England to revolutionary Russia in 1920 (according to some information, work on the text continued in 1921). In 1929, the novel was used for massive criticism of E. Zamyatin, and the author was forced to defend himself, justify himself, and explain himself, since the novel was regarded as his political mistake and “a manifestation of sabotage to the interests of Soviet literature.” After another study at the next meeting of the writing community, E. Zamyatin announced his resignation from the All-Russian Union of Writers. The discussion of Zamyatin’s “case” was a signal for a toughening of the party’s policy in the field of literature: the year was 1929 - the year of the Great Turning Point, the onset of Stalinism. It became pointless and impossible for Zamyatin to work as a writer in Russia and, with the permission of the government, he went abroad in 1931.

E. Zamyatin creates the novel “We” in the form of diary entries of one of the “lucky ones”. The city-state of the future is filled with the bright rays of the gentle sun. Universal equality is repeatedly confirmed by the hero-narrator himself. He derives a mathematical formula, proving to himself and to us, the readers, that “freedom and crime are as inextricably linked as movement and speed...”. He sarcastically sees happiness in restricting freedom.

The narration is a summary of the builder of the spaceship (in our time he would be called the chief designer). He talks about that period of his life, which he later defines as an illness. Each entry (there are 40 of them in the novel) has its own title, consisting of several sentences. It is interesting to note that usually the first sentences indicate the micro-theme of the chapter, and the last gives access to its idea: “Bell. Mirror sea. I will always burn”, “Yellow. 2D shadow. Incurable soul", "Author's debt. The ice is swelling. The hardest love."

What immediately alarms the reader? - not “I think”, but “we think”. A great scientist, a talented engineer, does not recognize himself as an individual, does not think about what he does not have own name and, like the rest of the inhabitants of the Great State, he bears the “number” - D-503. “No one is “one,” but “one of.” Looking ahead, we can say that in the most bitter moment for him, he will think about his mother: for her, he would not be the Builder of the Integral, number D-503, but would be “a simple human piece - a piece of herself.”

The world of the United State, of course, is something strictly rationalized, geometrically ordered, mathematically verified, with the dominant aesthetics of cubism: rectangular glass boxes of houses where numbered people live (“divine parallelepipeds of transparent dwellings”), straight visible streets, squares (“Square Cuba. Sixty-six powerful concentric circles: stands and sixty-six rows: quiet lamps of faces..."). People in this geometrized world are an integral part of it, they bear the stamp of this world: “Round, smooth balls of heads floated past - and turned around.” The sterile clean planes of glass make the world of the United State even more lifeless, cold, and unreal. The architecture is strictly functional, devoid of the slightest decoration, “unnecessary things,” and in this one can discern a parody of the aesthetic utopias of the futurists of the early twentieth century, where glass and concrete were glorified as new building materials of the technical future.

Residents of the United State are so devoid of individuality that they differ only by index numbers. All life in the United State is based on mathematical, rational principles: addition, subtraction, division, multiplication. Everyone is a happy arithmetic mean, impersonal, devoid of individuality. The emergence of geniuses is impossible; creative inspiration is perceived as an unknown type of epilepsy.

This or that number (resident of the United State) does not have any value in the eyes of others and is easily replaceable. Thus, the death of several “gazeless” builders of the “Integral”, who died while testing the ship, the purpose of whose construction was to “integrate” the universe, is indifferently perceived by the numbers.

Individual numbers who have shown a tendency towards independent thinking are subjected to the Great Operation to remove fantasy, which kills the ability to think. A question mark - this evidence of doubt - does not exist in the United State, but, of course, there is an exclamation mark in abundance.

Not only does the state regard any personal manifestation as a crime, but numbers do not feel the need to be a person, a human individual with their own unique world.

The main character of the novel D-503 tells the story of the “three freedmen”, well known to every schoolchild in the United State. This story is about how three numbers, as an experience, were freed from work for a month. However, the unfortunate ones returned to their workplace and spent hours at a time performing those movements that at a certain time of the day were already a need for their body (sawing, planing the air, etc.). On the tenth day, unable to bear it, they held hands and entered the water to the sounds of a march, plunging deeper and deeper until the water stopped their torment. For the numbers, the guiding hand of the Benefactor, complete submission to the control of the guardian spies, became a necessity:

“It’s so nice to feel someone’s watchful eye, lovingly protecting from the slightest mistake, from the slightest wrong step. This may sound somewhat sentimental, but the same analogy comes to my mind again: the guardian angels that the ancients dreamed of. How much of what they only dreamed of has materialized in our lives...”

On the one hand, the human personality realizes itself as equal to the whole world, and on the other hand, powerful dehumanizing factors appear and intensify, primarily technical civilization, which introduces a mechanistic, hostile principle to man, since the means of influence of technical civilization on man, the means of manipulating his consciousness, become increasingly powerful and global.

One of critical issues that the author is trying to solve is the issue of freedom of choice and freedom in general.

Both Mora and Zamyatin have forced equality. People cannot differ in any way from their own kind.

Modern researchers determine the main difference between dystopia and utopia is that “utopians are looking for ways to create an ideal world that will be based on a synthesis of the postulates of goodness, justice, happiness and prosperity, wealth and harmony. And dystopians strive to understand how the human person will feel in this exemplary atmosphere.”

Not only equality of rights and opportunities is clearly expressed, but also forced material equality. And all this is combined with total control and restriction of freedoms. This control is needed to maintain material equality: people are not allowed to stand out, do more, surpass their peers (thus becoming unequal). But this is everyone’s natural desire.

Not a single social utopia talks about specific people. Everywhere the masses of the people are considered, or individual social groups. The individual in these works is nothing. “One is zero, one is nonsense!” The problem with utopian socialists is that they think about the people as a whole, and not about specific people. The result is complete equality, but this is the equality of unhappy people.

Is happiness possible for people in a utopia? Happiness from what? From victories? Thus they are performed by everyone equally. Everyone is involved in it and, at the same time, no one. From lack of exploitation? So in utopia it is replaced by public

exploitation: a person is forced to work all his life, but not for the capitalist and not

on oneself, but on society. Moreover, this social exploitation is even more terrible, since

How can a person have no way out? If you can quit working for a capitalist, then it is impossible to hide from society. Yes, and move somewhere else

forbidden.

It is difficult to name at least one freedom that is respected on Utopia. There is no freedom of movement, no freedom to choose how to live. A person driven into a corner by society without the right to choose is deeply unhappy. He has no hope for change. He feels like a slave locked in a cage. People cannot live in a cage, neither material nor social. Claustrophobia sets in and they want change. But this is not feasible. The Utopian society is a society of deeply unhappy, depressed people. People with depressed consciousness and lack of willpower.

Therefore, it should be recognized that the model of social development proposed to us by Thomas More seemed ideal only in the 16th and 17th centuries. Subsequently, with increasing attention to the individual, they lost all meaning of implementation, because if we are to build a society of the future, then it should be a society of expressed individualities, a society of strong personalities, and not mediocrity.

Considering the novel “We”, first of all it is necessary to indicate that it is closely connected with Soviet history, the history of Soviet literature. Ideas of ordering life were characteristic of all literature of the first years Soviet power. In our computerized, robotic era, when the “average” person becomes an appendage to a machine, capable only of pressing buttons, ceasing to be a creator, a thinker, the novel is becoming more and more relevant.

E. Zamyatin himself noted his novel as a signal of the danger threatening man and humanity from the hypertrophied power of machines and the power of the state - no matter what.

In my opinion, with his novel E. Zamyatin affirms the idea that the right to choose is always inseparable from a person. The refraction of “I” into “we” cannot be natural. If a person succumbs to the influence of an inhumane totalitarian system, then he ceases to be a person. You cannot build the world only by reason, forgetting that man has a soul. The machine world should not exist without peace, a humane world.

The ideological devices of Zamyatin’s Unified State and More’s Utopia are very similar. In More's work, although there are no mechanisms, the rights and freedoms of people are also squeezed by the grip of certainty and predetermination.

Conclusion

In his book, Thomas More tried to find the features that an ideal society should have. Reflections on the best political system took place against the backdrop of cruel morals, inequality and social contradictions in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Evgeniy Zamyatin wrote about the prerequisites for which he saw with his own eyes. At the same time, the thoughts of Mora and Zamyatin for the most part are just hypotheses, a subjective vision of the world.

More's ideas were certainly progressive for their time, but they did not take into account one important detail, without which Utopia is a society without a future. Utopian socialists did not take into account the psychology of people. The fact is that any Utopia, making people forcibly equal, denies the possibility of making them happy. After all, a happy person is someone who feels better in something, superior to others in something. He may be richer, smarter, more beautiful, kinder. Utopians deny any possibility for such a person to stand out. He must dress like everyone else, study like everyone else, have exactly as much property as everyone else. But man by nature strives for the best for himself. Utopian socialists proposed punishing any deviation from the norm set by the state, while at the same time trying to change the human mentality. Make him an unambitious, obedient robot, a cog in the system.

Zamyatin’s dystopia, in turn, shows what could happen if this “ideal” of society proposed by the utopians is achieved.

But it is impossible to completely isolate people from the outside world. There will always be those who, at least out of the corner of their eye, know the joy of freedom. And it will no longer be possible to drive such people into the framework of totalitarian suppression of individuality. And in the end, it is precisely such people, who have learned the joy of doing what they want, who will bring down the entire system, the entire political system, which is what happened in our country in the early 90s.

What kind of society can rightfully be called ideal, taking into account the achievements of modern sociological thought? Of course, this will be a society of complete equality. But equality in rights and opportunities. And this will be a society of complete freedom. Freedom of thought and speech, action and movement. Modern Western society is closest to the described ideal. It has many disadvantages, but it makes people happy.

If society is truly ideal, how can there not be freedom in it?..

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What place do moral qualities occupy in the life of each of us? What do they mean to us? It is about the importance of humanity and mercy that V.P. reflects in his text. Astafiev.

One of the problems raised by the author is the problem of the need to develop humanism, mercy and humanity in each individual and the significance of the influence of these qualities on moral analysis our own actions, carried out by each of us, as well as manifestations of humanism in our lives.

The young man who shot his first prey while hunting does not feel joy because he killed a living creature, although there was no need for it, as evidenced by the words “and he seemed to have no use for the bird.” The lyrical hero, reflecting, comes to the conclusion that this young man already has feelings of humanity and mercy, which the lyrical hero himself did not have at such a young age, as evidenced by his remark “pain and repentance came to me when I was already gray-haired and echoed in young guy, almost still a boy."

In world literature there are many examples of the manifestation of humanism and humanity. For example, in the story by A.P. Platonov's "Yushka" the main character deprived himself of a lot in order to raise money for his adopted daughter, for which he can be called a kind and humane person. The people who took out their anger on him and offended him were angry and cruel, and repentance came to them only after Yushka’s death, that is, too late, like the hero of the text V.P. Astafiev, to whom this pain of repentance came “to the gray-haired one.”

Speaking about the humanity and humanity of people, one cannot help but recall the heroine of the novel by M.A. Bulgakov's "The Master and Margarita", who selflessly asks Woland to have mercy on the unfortunate Frida, and does not ask about the fate of the Master, although she sacrificed herself only for this.

Thus, the development of moral qualities helps a person to develop as a person in which there is no place for cruelty and unjustified anger.

Reading the text of the Russian Soviet writer V.P. Astafieva, I remembered the statement of the ancient Greek philosopher Pythagoras of Samos, who once said: “As long as people continue to kill animals en masse, they will kill each other. He who sows the seeds of murder and pain will not reap joy and love.” It is about the meaning of killing living beings and their impact on the human psyche, as well as the need moral education The humanity in each of us is discussed by the author of the text we read.

Effective preparation for the Unified State Exam (all subjects) -

Thesis

Shulgin, Nikolai Ivanovich

Academic degree:

Candidate of Philosophy

Place of thesis defense:

HAC specialty code:

Speciality:

Theory and history of culture

Number of pages:

Chapter 1. Basic philosophical and cultural problems of humanistic thought.

§1. Origins and various meanings of the concept “humanism”.

§ 2. Trends in the development of secular humanism in philosophical and cultural thought of the 19th - 20th centuries.

§3. Religious-idealistic humanism in Russian and Western European thought of the 19th-20th centuries.

Chapter 2. Reflection of the problems of humanism in second literature half of the 19th century centuries.

§ 1. Fiction in the socio-historical and general cultural context of the 19th century.

§2. The crisis of humanism in fiction

Western Europe and the USA.

§ 3. Russian literature: synthesis of Christian and Renaissance humanism.

Introduction of the dissertation (part of the abstract) On the topic "Humanism in European and Russian culture of the second half of the 19th century: based on the material of fiction"

The relevance of research

Problems of humanism are attracting growing attention not only from specialists, but also from public and cultural figures in different countries. This is due to the general interest in the problem of man that characterizes the entire twentieth century; with the rapid development of disciplines that study man in his various aspects - philosophical anthropology, cultural studies, sociology, psychology. At the same time, many authors note that, along with the deepening of specific knowledge, a holistic idea of ​​what a person is has not only not developed, but, on the contrary, is increasingly falling apart into many different theories and concepts. And if in theoretical terms such a variety of approaches can be considered justified, then in practical terms it entails many problems. With the “erosion” of a person’s image, ideas about his place in the world, about his relationship with nature, society, with other people, about the criteria for assessing certain behavioral practices and social trends, educational and psychotherapeutic methods, etc., also “blur away.” and in connection with this, the understanding of humanism becomes increasingly uncertain. And we can assume that further research in this area will, simultaneously with the growing diversity of views, approaches, points of view, still strive to ultimately develop whole system ideas about a person. Thus, the relevance of the chosen topic seems undoubted.

Interest in this problem is also caused by the fact that in the twentieth century the differences that exist between Russian and Western types humanism: between humanism, which is based on ideas about the unity and reality of the highest spiritual values ​​(developed in religious-philosophical, philosophical-idealistic directions), and secular, secularized humanism. The social practice of recent centuries has provided many examples of the concrete embodiment and development of ideas of both ideas about humanism, and thus, now researchers have rich empirical material for verifying various concepts. In particular, in our opinion, those dead ends of secularized humanism that Russian philosophers wrote about have come to light: the loss of the idea of ​​the reality of higher values ​​and ideals has led not only to the erosion moral standards, the growth of negative social trends, but also to the processes of personality disintegration, moreover, to the justification of these trends, for example, in the postmodern paradigm. This situation also requires special understanding.

At the same time, it can be noted that research into the problem of humanism is more fruitful when it is based not only on material from sociology, psychology, cultural studies or other scientific disciplines, but also on the material of art and especially fiction, since fiction has as its central theme precisely man and most directly influences the development of humanitarian knowledge. Outstanding writers in their works act not only as psychologists and sociologists, often penetrating deeper into the problem than scientists, but also as thinkers, often far ahead of scientific thought and, moreover, giving it new ideas. It is no coincidence that philosophical and scientific texts that have man as their theme constantly refer the reader to literary examples. Therefore, tracing the development of the ideas of humanism on the material of fiction seems not only relevant, but also logical.

The period of development of fiction analyzed in this work is almost unanimously noted by literary critics as the most holistic and complete, on the one hand, and diverse in areas, on the other. Moreover, it was in the second half of the 19th century that the trends that became dominant in the next century were formed and reflected in literary, artistic and literary critical works. At the same time, the similarities and differences in the ideological and artistic approaches of Russian and Western literature were determined. The choice of specific countries and works from the entire body of Western literature for the study is determined, firstly, by their greatest representativeness, and secondly, by the scope of the work.

Degree of development of the problem

Research in line with the chosen topic falls into two blocks: on the one hand, these are philosophical and cultural works devoted to human problems and the problems of humanism as such, on the other hand, literary critical works related to the selected period. Since the very appearance and approval of the term “humanism” is traditionally associated with the Renaissance, the dissertation research was based on works written since this period.

These include, firstly, the works of the Renaissance thinkers themselves, among whom are C. de Bovel, G. Boccaccio, JI. Bruni, P. Brazzolini, JI. Valla, G. Manetti, Pico della Mirandola, F. Petrarca, M. Ficino, C. Salutati, B. Fazio, later M. Montaigne, N. Cusansky, and others. Further development of the ideas of humanism occurs in the New Age and the Age of Enlightenment in the works of such authors as F.-M. Voltaire, A.C. Helvetius, T. Hobbes,

P. Holbach, D. Diderot, J.-J. Rousseau, T. Starkey and others. In the 19th century. develops social issues in the works of F. Baader, J1.

Feuerbach, ML. Bakunin, A. Bebel, V.G. Belinsky, A.A. Bogdanova,

I. Weidemeier, A.I. Herzen, I. Dietzgen, N.A. Dobrolyubov, E. Kaabe, K. Kautsky, P.A. Kropotkina, N.V. Stankevich, N.G. Chernyshevsky, as well as K. Marx, F. Engels and later V.I. Lenin. At the same time, philosophical, anthropological and cultural studies developed in classical European philosophy in the works of G. Hegel, J.-G. Herdera, G.E. Lessing, I. Kant, etc.; in German classical literature in the works of I.V. Goethe, F. Schiller; The historical and cultural perspective of the research is reflected in the works of A. Bastian, F. Graebner, J. McLennan, G. Spencer, E. Tylor, J. Fraser, F. Frobenius, C. Lévi-Strauss, and domestic authors such as S.S. Averintsev and others. In the 20th century, axiological and anthropological problems developed in the works of many authors - A. Bergson, N. Hartmann, A. Gehlen, E. Cassirer, G. Marcel, H. Plessner, M. Scheler, P. Teilhard de Chardin , M. Heidegger, etc. In addition, research concerning the problems of suppression of personality through total manipulation of consciousness has acquired a special role; issues of interaction between man and technology, models of a new stage of social development, etc. These themes were developed by many authors, such as G. Le Bon, G. Tarde, S. Silege, then F. Nietzsche, O. Spengler, N.A. Berdyaev, X. Ortega y Gasset, E. Fromm; G. M. McLuhan, J. Galbraith, R. Aron, G. Marcuse, K. Popper, F. Fukuyama, J. Attali, etc.

And the actual topic of humanism, the analysis of this concept, is also devoted to many works. It was raised by many of the above-mentioned authors, and in the twentieth century it became the subject of special research in the works of P. Kurtz, S. Neering, L. Harrison, M.

Zimmerman, T. Erizer, in Russia - JT.E. Balashova, JT.M. Batkina, N.K. Batova, I.M. Borzenko, G.V. Gilishvili, M.I. Drobzheva, G.K. Kosikova, A.A. Kudishina, O.F. Kudryavtseva, S.S. Slobodenyuka, E.V.

Finogentova, Yu.M. Mikhalenko, T.M. Ruyatkina, V.A. Kuvakin and many others. It can be summarized that, thus, the overwhelming majority of representatives of humanitarian thought in one way or another contributed to the development of the problem of humanism.

Analysis of Western and Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century is presented both in articles by the writers themselves, who often acted as literary critics, and in the works of Western and Russian literary and art critics of the 19th and 20th centuries. - M. Arnold, E. Auerbach, JT. Butler, G. Brandes, S.T. Williams, J. Gissing, J. Ruskin, I. Tan, E. Starkey, T.S. Eliot; N.N. Strakhova, N.A. Dobrolyubova, N.G. Chernyshevsky, D.I. Pisareva; A.A. Aniksta, M. M. Bakhtina, N.V. Bogoslovsky, L.Ya. Ginzburg, Ya.E. Golosovkera, Yu.I. Danilina, A.S. Dmitrieva, V.D. Dneprova, E.M. Evnina, Ya.N. Zasursky, D.V. Zatonsky, M.S. Kagan, V.V. Lashova, J1.M. Lotman, V.F. Pereverzeva, A. Puzikova, N.Ya. Eidelman, B.Ya. Eikhenbaum and many others. Thus, one can note a very large volume of works devoted to various aspects of the chosen topic, but at the same time, a special comparative analysis of humanism in Russian and Western literature has not been carried out, which determined the choice of the research topic.

Object of study: the main trends in the development of fiction in Russia and Western countries in the second half of the 1st 19th century.

Subject of research: interpretation of humanism in Russian and Western fiction of the second half of the 19th century.

Purpose of the study: to conduct comparative analysis embodiments of Western and Russian types of humanism in fiction of the second half of the 19th century.

In accordance with the purpose of the study, the following research objectives were set:

1. Conduct an analysis of the development of the concept of humanism in philosophical and cultural thought and determine its various meanings and interpretations.

2. Systematize the main differences between secular and religious humanism; identify problems associated with the affirmation of secularized humanism.

3. Give a comparative historical overview of the main trends in the development of fiction in the second half of the 19th century in the USA, European countries and Russia; trace the connection of the main literary trends with one or another interpretation of humanism.

4. Show the internal unity of various trends in Russian fiction.

5. To substantiate the special, synthetic character of the Russian type of humanism on the material of the most outstanding works of Russian fiction of the second half of the 19th century.

Methodological basis of dissertation research

In the philosophical and cultural aspect, the methodological basis of the study was made up of the principles of dialectical methodology (the principle of comprehensive consideration of the subject, the principle of unity of the historical and logical, the principle of development, the principle of the unity and struggle of opposites), the method of comparative historical analysis, elements of hermeneutic methodology, as well as general scientific methods: inductive, deductive and comparative historical. When studying fiction of the selected period, methods became theoretically and methodologically significant for # the author literary analysis, used by Russian and Western researchers.

Scientific novelty of the research

1. The main aspects of the development of humanistic thought are identified: socio-political, historical-cultural, philosophical-anthropological, ethical-sociological.

2. Three main types of humanism are identified: religious-idealistic humanism; classical secular (Renaissance) humanism; converted secular humanism; the transition from the second to the third type of humanism is justified; the concept is revealed and the dead-end nature of the transformed secular humanism is shown. sch

3. The relationship between the ideological and artistic crisis in Western literature of the second half of the 19th century is shown. and disappointment in the ideals of classical secular humanism.

4. The formation of the main literary movements the second half of the 19th century from the position of secularization of classical secular humanism and its transformation into converted secular humanism.

5. A synthetic type of humanism characteristic of Russian culture has been identified and its main features have been highlighted: affirmation of the ideals of man and society; a call to implement these ideals in life; humanism in the aspect of compassion and sacrifice; psychologism,

It is aimed at identifying and affirming the Human in any personality.

The study obtained a number of new results, which are summarized in the following provisions for defense:

1. In humanistic thought in the process of its development, several main aspects/problems emerged: the socio-political aspect as the problem of realizing the ideal of personal and social existence in real historical conditions; historical and cultural aspect: problems of the essence of culture, criteria of progress; philosophical and anthropological aspect: questions about the needs, goals, values ​​of the individual; ethical-sociological aspect: problems of relations between the individual and society, the nature of morality, etc. Different answers to these questions have formed different interpretations of humanism.

2. One of the central problems of humanistic thought was the problem of the ideal of man and society. On this basis, three main types of humanism can be distinguished: religious-idealistic humanism; classical secular (Renaissance) humanism; converted secular humanism. The first is based on the idea of ​​the existence of a higher spiritual principle of the universe, which determines personal and social ideals. In classical secular humanism, these ideals are preserved, but their ideological justification loses integrity and is gradually “eroded.” Converted secular humanism is characterized by the destruction of ideals, the justification of “present” existence and the cult of material needs, and a tendency towards moral relativism. On this path, humanistic thought actually reached a dead end, which in practice was expressed in the growth of social and psychological problems.

3. The second half of the 19th century, according to experts, was marked by a social and ideological crisis, which was reflected in the development of fiction in Europe and the USA. The works of leading Western writers questioned the possibility of a just structure of the world, the ability of man to defend his freedom and independence in a hostile environment, and the predominance of good over evil in the human soul. Thus, the crisis was associated with disappointment in the ideals of classical secular humanism.

4. The search for a way out of the crisis in Western fiction was expressed in two main trends: the rejection of ideals that seemed unrealizable, the affirmation of the “natural” person and the legitimacy of any of his desires and passions (the current of naturalism); and the implementation of a kind of escape from the surrounding reality (neo-romanticism, escape into “ pure art", the flow of decadence). Both trends are associated with the gradual destruction of the value core preserved in classical secular humanism, with its further secularization and the establishment of transformed secular humanism.

5. In Russian culture, religious Christian ideas were creatively rethought on the basis of the best achievements of secular Western culture. This gave rise to a special synthetic type of humanism, which brought leading Russian atheist thinkers closer to their opponents standing on a religious-idealistic platform, and at the same time noticeably different from Western European humanism.

6. The synthetic type of humanism, reflected in Russian fiction, was characterized by the following main features: affirmation of the reality and effectiveness of the ideals of man and society, to which every individual should strive; a call to implement these ideals in life; humanism in the aspect of goodness, compassion, sacrifice as the central idea of ​​most literary works; deep psychologism, not aimed at the naturalistic " anatomical dissection"of the human soul, but to identify and affirm Man in any, even "fallen" personality, colored by love, understanding, and affirmation of the fraternal unity of all people.

Approbation of dissertation research

Approbation of scientific material and conclusions obtained was carried out with participation (in speeches) at:

International conferences: “Formation of a unified educational space in the Greater Altai region: problems and prospects” (Rubtsovsk, 2005);

All-Russian conferences, symposiums and meetings: scientific and practical conference " Theory and practice educational work V higher school "(Barnaul, 2000); scientific symposium " Man of culture"(Biysk, 2000); seminar-meeting “Problems of transformation and quality of socio-humanitarian education in Russian universities based on second generation state standards” (Barnaul, 2002); scientific and practical conference "" (Rubtsovsk, 2005);

Many regional, interregional, city and intra-university conferences: regional scientific and practical conference " Spiritual origins of Russian culture"(Rubtsovsk, 2001-2004); interregional scientific and practical conference “Psychological and pedagogical training of specialists” (Moscow, 2001); interregional scientific and practical conference " Theory, practice and education in social work: realities and prospects"(Barnaul, 2002); city ​​scientific and practical conference “Science for the city and the region” (Rubtsovsk, 2003, 2004); intra-university scientific and practical conference " Man in the context of the modern sociocultural situation"(Rubtsovsk, 2004, 2005).

Conclusion of the dissertation on the topic "Theory and history of culture", Shulgin, Nikolai Ivanovich

Conclusion

Humanism is one of the most popular and frequently used terms. It is used in a variety of disciplines - philosophy, sociology, psychology, cultural studies; as well as in everyday language, in literature, in the means mass media. At the same time, humanism is one of the most arbitrarily interpreted concepts. At the same time, the difference in interpretations, as M. Heidegger quite rightly noted in his time, is connected primarily with the general worldview platform of the author who uses this term, and she, in turn, with this or that culture, the mentality of the nation, with a specific social environment . Therefore, even the systematization of the meanings and meanings of this concept, identifying the sources of its various interpretations are relevant from a theoretical point of view.

Perhaps even more relevant is the study of humanism from a socio-practical position, since it is the cornerstone concept of those spheres of social life, trends and processes that directly concern a person - education and upbringing, building a civil society, affirming and protecting human rights; the basic foundations of most social reforms. At the same time, as a rule, the initiators and authors of social programs and projects do not record the fact that they often contain direct contradictions between the stated “ humanistic“goals and specific practices and methods, which often turn out to be contrary to the real interests of the individual, that is, precisely inhumane. Thus, clarifying the concept of humanism can contribute to a more qualified and detailed analysis of these programs and the development of sound recommendations.

Studying the history of the development of this concept, the reasons for the emergence of its various meanings requires the use of theoretical and empirical material from many fields of knowledge, primarily philosophical and cultural thought. But no less important and promising, in our opinion, is the application of the results obtained to the analysis of those areas where humanism is a central concept. These, of course, include fiction. Man, his problems, his place in the world, relationships with other people, with nature and society have always been the main theme of fiction. And without exaggeration, we can say that within its framework a unique literary anthropology developed, which not only intersected with philosophical anthropology, but in many ways significantly ahead of it, providing it with a wealth of empirical material, developing many specific and even general interesting ideas that were subsequently are in demand by philosophers, cultural scientists, psychologists, sociologists and everyone who in one way or another is faced with the problem of man.

When studying the processes and trends in the development of fiction in the second half of the nineteenth century, as the most indicative and in many respects defining period, what is striking is the fact that the ideological and artistic crisis noted by literary scholars, which gripped most European countries and American literature in this period, is inextricably linked with the crisis of humanism as such. The humanism of this time represented classical Renaissance-Enlightenment humanism, which was in the process of transformation, with its belief in the omnipotence of the human mind, the ability to transform the world on rational principles and in accordance with the principles of justice; with conviction in the triumph of the principles of freedom, equality and fraternity, with faith in the linear progress of civilization. The reality of the noted historical period practically dispelled these illusions. This led to the fact that the old ideals began to be discarded and humanism began to move into its transformed form. If earlier a person, whom the humanistic worldview affirmed, was understood as an ideal person, endowed with very specific qualities, to which every person should strive, now the “real” person has appeared on the scene, and “humanity” began to be seen as justifying all existence , any manifestations of personality, including those that were previously rejected as unworthy of a person. In other words, there was a denial not of one or another specific ideal, but of the ideal as such. These trends, as we know, were reinforced by the philosophy of positivism, which gained particular popularity during this period and significantly influenced the art of the second half of the nineteenth century. It was dominated by a non-judgmental attitude, a cold-blooded “scientific” attitude towards what was depicted, towards evil and pathologies, towards the “underground” of the human soul, which later quite naturally turned into an apology for this underground. As has already been said, these processes had and have a serious social refraction, therefore it is especially important to trace their origins and roots, to identify the reasons that led to such a transformation of the concept of humanism.

At the same time, as is known, in Russian fiction these processes proceeded significantly differently. As already mentioned, the religious-Christian worldview played a special role in its formation. Its interaction with secular culture, with rapidly developing social thought, and the scientific worldview is one of the constantly discussed topics. But almost all authors agree that Orthodox Christian ideas in Russia were creatively rethought on the basis of the best achievements of secular Western and domestic culture and gave rise to a special type of worldview, far from both church-dogmatic Orthodoxy and positivism, popular in Europe. As a result, development philosophical thought, art, culture in general in our country proceeded significantly differently.

This largely explains the phenomenon of the extraordinary popularity of Russian fiction in the West, the deep and ongoing interest in it, which, starting from the end of the nineteenth century, continued for many years. And now, as we know, a number of Russian writers are not only included in the golden fund of world literature, but occupy leading positions in it. First of all, this is due to the truly humanistic potential of Russian literature, with its deep interest in the individual, which is fundamentally different from the positivist-scientific, dispassionate research, “scalping” of the human soul. At the same time, she was far from justifying the “bottom” and opposed moral relativism or individualistic closure in “ ivory tower" Russian writers saw their ultimate task not in blaming the “fallen” but also not in justifying them, but in seeing the “divine spark” in every person and contributing to his moral awakening.

Thus, the basis of the Russian, synthetic type of humanism is precisely the affirmation of the ideals of the individual and society, to which each individual should strive; a call to affirm these ideals in life; conviction in the reality and effectiveness of higher values; humanism in the aspect of goodness, compassion, sacrifice as the central idea of ​​most literary works. Of course, this does not mean that in Russian literature there were no tendencies similar to Western decadence or naturalism, but they were identified much weaker and, most importantly, reflected the same crisis phenomena that gave rise to these tendencies in the West.

Of course, within the framework of one study it was not possible to cover the entire spectrum of aspects of the problem raised and various approaches to solving it. At the same time, I would like to hope that the work will contribute to the understanding of the importance of analyzing the concept of humanism, its manifestations in culture, art and, in particular, in Russian fiction; will be of interest to other specialists working on similar problems.

List of references for dissertation research Candidate of Philosophical Sciences Shulgin, Nikolai Ivanovich, 2006

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Literature and library science

Issues of humanism - respect for people - have been of interest to people for a long time, since they directly affected everyone living on earth. These questions were raised especially acutely in extreme situations for humanity, and above all during the civil war, when a grandiose clash of two ideologies brought human life to the brink of death, not to mention such “little things” as the soul, which was generally in some kind of one step away from complete destruction.

Federal agency railway transport

Siberian State Transport University

Department “_________________________________________________”

(name of the department)

"The problem of humanism in literature"

using the example of the works of A. Pisemsky, V. Bykov, S. Zweig.

Essay

In the discipline "Culturology"

Head Developed

d assessor student gr. D-112

Bystrova A.N ___________ Khodchenko S.D.

(signature) (signature)

_______________ ______________

(date of inspection) (date of submission for inspection)

2011

Introduction…………………………………………………………
The concept of humanism………………………………………………………………
Pisemsky’s humanism (using the example of the novel “The Rich Groom”
The problem of humanism in the works of V. Bykov (using the example of the story “Obelisk”…………………………………………….
The problem of humanism in S. Zweig’s novel “Impatience of the Heart”………………………………………………………………………………..
Conclusion……………………………………………………..
Bibliography…………………………………………….

Introduction

Issues of humanism respect for people have been of interest to people for a long time, since they directly affected everyone living on earth. These questions were raised especially acutely in extreme situations for humanity, and above all during the civil war, when a grandiose clash of two ideologies brought human life to the brink of death, not to mention such “little things” as the soul, which was generally in some kind of one step away from complete destruction. In the literature of the time, the problem of identifying priorities, choosing between one’s own life and the lives of others is solved ambiguously by different authors, and in the abstract the author will try to consider what conclusions some of them come to.

Abstract topic “The problem of humanism in literature.”

The theme of humanism is eternal in literature. Word artists of all times and peoples turned to her. They didn’t just show sketches of life, but tried to understand the circumstances that prompted a person to take one or another action. The questions raised by the author are varied and complex. They cannot be answered simply, in monosyllables. They require constant reflection and search for an answer.

As a hypothesisthe position has been adopted that the solution to the problem of humanism in literature is determined by the historical era (the time of creation of the work) and the worldview of the author.

Goal of the work: identifying the features of the problem of humanism in domestic and foreign literature.

In accordance with the goal, the author decided to do the following: tasks:

1) consider the definition of the concept of “humanism” in reference books;

2) identify the features of solving the problem of humanism in literature using the example of the works of A. Pisemsky, V. Bykov, S. Zweig.

1. The concept of humanism

A person engaged in science encounters terms that are considered generally understandable and commonly used for all areas of knowledge and for all languages. These include the concept of “humanism.” According to the precise remark of A.F. Losev, “this term turned out to have a very deplorable fate, which was, however, all other too popular terms, namely the fate of enormous uncertainty, ambiguity and often even banal superficiality.” The etymological nature of the term “humanism” is dual, that is, it goes back to two Latin words: humus - soil, earth; humanitas - humanity. In other words, even the origin of the term is ambiguous and carries the charge of two elements: the earthly, material element and the element of human relationships.

To move further in the study of the problem of humanism, let us turn to dictionaries. Here is how the explanatory “Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S.I. Ozhegov interprets the meaning of this word: “1. Humanity, humaneness in social activities, in relation to people. 2. The progressive movement of the Renaissance, aimed at liberating people from the ideological stagnation of feudalism and Catholicism.” 2 And here is how the Big Dictionary of Foreign Words defines the meaning of the word “humanism”: “Humanism is a worldview imbued with love for people, respect for human dignity, concern for the welfare of people; humanism of the Renaissance (Renaissance, 14-16 centuries) social and literary movement", reflecting the worldview of the bourgeoisie in its struggle against feudalism and its ideology (Catholicism, scholasticism), against the feudal enslavement of the individual and striving for the revival of the ancient ideal of beauty and humanity." 3

The “Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary,” edited by A. M. Prokhorov, gives the following interpretation of the term humanism: “recognition of the value of man as an individual, his right to free development and manifestation of his abilities, affirmation of the good of man as a criterion for assessing social relations.” 4 In other words, the compilers of this dictionary recognize the following as the essential qualities of humanism: the value of man, the affirmation of his rights to freedom, to the possession of material wealth.

The “Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary” of E.F. Gubsky, G.V. Korableva, V.A. Lutchenko calls humanism “reflected anthropocentrism, which comes from human consciousness and has as its object the value of a person, except that it alienates a person from himself , subordinating it to superhuman powers and truths, or using it for purposes unworthy of man.” 5

Turning to dictionaries, one cannot help but notice that each of them gives a new definition of humanism, expanding its ambiguity.

2. Pisemsky’s humanism (using the example of the novel “The Rich Groom”)

The novel "The Rich Groom" was a huge success. This is a work from the life of the noble-bureaucratic province. The hero of the work, Shamilov, pretending to a higher philosophical education, always fiddling with books that he is not able to overcome, with articles that he is just beginning, with vain hopes of ever passing the candidate exam, ruins the girl with his trashy spinelessness, then no matter how what never happened is that he married a rich widow for convenience and ends up in the pitiful role of a husband living at the support and under the boot of an evil and capricious woman. People of this type are not at all to blame for the fact that they do not act in life, they are not to blame for the fact that they are useless people; but they are harmful in that with their phrases they captivate those inexperienced creatures who are seduced by their external showiness; having enticed them, they do not satisfy their demands; having increased their sensitivity and ability to suffer, they do nothing to alleviate their suffering; in a word, these are swamp lights that lead them into the slums and go out when the unfortunate traveler needs light to see his predicament.In words, these people are capable of exploits, sacrifices, and heroism; This is at least what every ordinary mortal will think when listening to their ranting about man, about the citizen, and other similar abstract and lofty subjects. In fact, these flabby creatures, constantly evaporating into phrases, are incapable of either a decisive step or assiduous work.

Young Dobrolyubov writes in his diary in 1853: reading “The Rich Groom” “awakened and determined for me the thought that had long been dormant in me and vaguely understood by me about the need for work, and showed all the ugliness, emptiness and misfortune of the Shamilovs. I thanked Pisemsky from the bottom of my heart.” 6

Let's take a closer look at Shamilov's image. He spent three years at the university, hung around, listened to lectures on various subjects as incoherently and aimlessly as a child listens to the tales of an old nanny, left the university, went home to the province, and said there that “he intends to take the exam for an academic degree and I came to the province to better engage in science.” Instead of reading seriously and consistently, he supplemented himself with magazine articles and immediately after reading an article he embarked on independent creativity; either he decides to write an article about Hamlet, or he draws up a plan for a drama from Greek life; writes ten lines and quits; but he talks about his work to anyone who agrees to listen to him. His tales interest a young girl who, in her development, stands above the district society; Finding in this girl a diligent listener, Shamilov becomes close to her and, having nothing else to do, imagines himself madly in love; as for the girl, the one like a pure soul, falls in love with him in the most conscientious manner and, acting boldly, out of love for him, overcomes the resistance of her relatives; An engagement takes place with the condition that Shamilov receive a candidate’s degree before the wedding and decide to serve. Therefore, there is a need to work, but the hero does not master a single book and begins to say: “I don’t want to study, I want to get married.” 6 . Unfortunately, he does not say this phrase so simply. He begins to accuse his loving bride of coldness, calls her a northern woman, and complains about his fate; pretends to be passionate and fiery, comes to the bride while drunk and, with drunken eyes, hugs her completely inappropriately and very ungracefully. All these things are done partly out of boredom, partly because Shamilov really doesn’t want to prepare for the exam; in order to get around this condition, he is ready to go to his bride’s uncle for bread and even beg through the bride for a secure piece of bread from an old nobleman, a former friend of her late father. All these nasty things are hidden behind the mantle of passionate love, which seems to darken Shamilov’s reason; the implementation of these nasty things is hampered by circumstances and the strong will of an honest girl. Shamilov also makes scenes, demands that the bride give herself to him before marriage, but she is so smart that she sees his childishness and keeps him at a respectful distance. Seeing serious rebuff, the hero complains about his fiancée to a young widow and, probably to console herself, begins to declare his love to her. Meanwhile, relations with the bride are maintained; Shamilov is sent to Moscow to take the candidate exam;

6 A.F. Pisemsky “The Rich Groom”, text based on the ed. Fiction, Moscow 1955, p. 95

Shamilov does not pass the exam; does not write to his fiancée and finally manages to convince himself without much difficulty that his fiancée does not understand him, does not love him, and is not worth it. The bride dies of consumption from various shocks, and Shamilov chooses the good part, that is, marries the young widow who consoled him; this turns out to be very convenient, because this widow has a wealthy fortune. The young Shamilovs come to the city in which the entire action of the story took place; Shamilov is given a letter written to him by his late fiancée the day before his death, and regarding this letter the following scene occurs between our hero and his wife, fittingly completing his cursory characterization:

“Show me the letter your friend gave you,” she began.

What letter? Shamilov asked with feigned surprise, sitting down by the window.

Don’t shut yourself up: I heard everything... Do you understand what you are doing?

What am I doing?

Nothing: you just accept letters from your former friends from the person who was previously interested in me, and then you also tell him that you are now being punished by whom? let me ask you. By me, probably? How noble and how smart! You are also considered an intelligent person; but where is your mind? what does it consist of, please tell me?.. Show me the letter!

It was written to me, and not to you; I'm not interested in your correspondence.

I have not had and do not have correspondence with anyone... I will not allow you to play with yourself, Pyotr Alexandrovich... We made a mistake, we did not understand each other.

Shamilov was silent.

“Give me the letter, or go wherever you want right now,” repeated Katerina Petrovna.

Take it. Do you really think that I attach any special interest to him? Shamilov said with mockery. And, throwing the letter on the table, he left. Katerina Petrovna began to read it with comments. “I am writing this letter to you for the last time in my life...”

Sad start!

“I'm not angry with you; you forgot your vows, forgot the relationship that I, crazy, considered inextricable.”

Tell me, what inexperienced innocence! “In front of me now...”

Boring!.. Annushka!..

The maid appeared.

Go, give the master this letter and tell him that I advise him to make a medallion for him and keep it on his chest.

The maid left and, returning, reported to the lady:

Pyotr Alexandrych ordered to say that they will take care of him without your advice.

In the evening, Shamilov went to Karelin, sat with him until midnight and, returning home, read Vera’s letter several times, sighed and tore it up. The next day he spent the whole morning asking his wife for forgiveness. 7 .

As we see, the problem of humanism is considered here from the position of relations between people, the responsibility of everyone for their actions. And the hero is a man of his time, his era. And he is what society has made him. And this point of view echoes the position of S. Zweig in the novel “Impatience of the Heart.”

7 A.F. Pisemsky “The Rich Groom”, text based on the ed. Fiction, Moscow 1955, p. 203

3. The problem of humanism in S. Zweig’s novel “Impatience of the Heart”

The organic connection between Zweig’s worldview and the ideology of bourgeois liberalism was very correctly pointed out in the article “The Death of Stefan Zweig” by the famous Austrian novelist Franz Werfel, who accurately described the social environment from which Zweig, a man and an artist, emerged. “It was a world of liberal optimism, which with superstitious naivety believed in the self-sufficient value of man, and in essence - in the self-sufficient value of the tiny educated layer of the bourgeoisie, in its sacred rights, the eternity of its existence, in its straightforward progress. The established order of things seemed to him protected and protected by a system of thousands of precautions. This humanistic optimism was the religion of Stefan Zweig, and he inherited the illusions of security from his ancestors. He was a man devoted to the religion of humanity with childish self-forgetfulness, under the shadow of which he knew the abysses of life, he approached them like. artist and psychologist. But above him shone the cloudless sky of his youth, which he worshiped - the sky of literature, art, the only sky that liberal optimism valued and knew. Obviously, the darkening of this spiritual sky was a blow for Zweig that he could not bear. .."

Already at the beginning of the artist’s creative career, Zweig’s humanism acquired the features of contemplation, and criticism of bourgeois reality took on a conditional, abstract form, since Zweig spoke not against specific and quite visible ulcers and diseases of capitalist society, but against the “eternal” Evil in the name of the “eternal” Justice .

The thirties for Zweig were years of cruel spiritual crisis, inner turmoil and increasing loneliness. However, the pressure of life pushed the writer to search for a solution to the ideological crisis and forced him to reconsider the ideas that underlay his humanistic principles.

Written in 1939, his first and the only novel“Impatience of the Heart” also did not resolve the doubts that tormented the writer, although it contained Zweig’s attempt to rethink the question of a person’s life duty.

The novel takes place in a small provincial town of the former Austria-Hungary on the eve of the First World War. Its hero, the young Lieutenant Hoffmiller, meets the daughter of a local rich man, Kekesfalva, who falls in love with him. Edith Kekesfalva is sick: her legs are paralyzed. Hofmiller - fair man, he treats her with friendly sympathy and only out of compassion pretends that he shares her feeling. Unable to find the courage to directly tell Edith that he does not love her, Hofmiller gradually becomes confused, agrees to marry her, but after a decisive explanation flees the city. Abandoned by him, Edith commits suicide, and Hofmiller, not at all wanting it, essentially becomes her murderer. This is the plot of the novel. Its philosophical meaning is revealed in Zweig's discussion of two types of compassion. One is cowardly, based on simple pity for the misfortunes of one’s neighbor, which Zweig calls “impatience of the heart.” It hides man's instinctive desire to protect his peace and well-being and to dismiss real help for the suffering and suffering. The other is courageous, open compassion, not afraid of the truth of life, whatever it may be, and setting as its goal to help real help person. Zweig, denying with his novel the futility of the sentimental “impatience of the heart,” tries to overcome the contemplation of his humanism and give it an effective character. But the writer’s misfortune was that he did not reconsider the fundamental foundations of his worldview and turned to an individual person, unwilling or unable to understand that true humanism requires not only the moral re-education of a person, but a radical change in the conditions of his existence, which will be the result of a collective action and creativity of the masses.

Despite the fact that the main plot of the novel “Impatience of the Heart” is based on a personal, private drama, as if taken out of the sphere of generally significant and important social conflicts, it was chosen by the writer in order to determine what a person’s social behavior should be 7 8.

The meaning of the tragedy was interpreted by Doctor Condor, who explained to Hofmiller the nature of his behavior towards Edith: “There are two types of compassion. One is cowardly and sentimental, it is, in essence, nothing more than the impatience of the heart, rushing to quickly get rid of the painful sensation at the sight of someone else’s misfortune; This is not compassion, but only an instinctive desire to protect one’s peace from the suffering of one’s neighbor. But there is another compassion - true, which requires action, not sentimentality, it knows what it wants, and is full of determination, through suffering and compassion, to do everything that is humanly possible, and even beyond it.” 8 9. And the hero himself reassures himself: “What was the significance of one murder, one personal guilt in comparison with thousands of murders, with a world war, with the mass destruction and destruction of human lives, the most monstrous of all that history has known?” 9 10

After reading the novel, we can conclude that effective compassion, requiring practical actions from a person, should become the norm of a person’s personal and social behavior. The conclusion is very important, bringing Zweig closer to Gorky’s understanding of humanism. True humanism requires not only the moral activity of man, but also a radical change in the conditions of his existence, which is possible as a result social activity people and their participation in historical creativity.

4. The problem of humanism in the works of V. Bykov (using the example of the story “Obelisk”)

Vasily Bykov's stories can be defined as heroic-psychological. In all his works he portrays the war as a terrible national tragedy. But the war in Bykov’s stories is not only a tragedy, but also a test of a person’s spiritual qualities, for during the most intense periods of the war all the deep secrets of the human soul were revealed. V. Bykov's heroes are full of consciousness of moral responsibility to the people for their actions. And often the problem of heroism is solved in Bykov’s stories as a moral and ethical one. Heroism and humanism are considered as a whole. Let's look at this using the example of the story "Obelisk".

The story “Obelisk” was first published in 1972 and immediately caused a flow of letters, leading to a discussion that unfolded in the press. It was about the moral side of the action of the hero of the story, Ales Morozov; one of the participants in the discussion viewed it as a feat, others as a rash decision. The discussion allowed us to penetrate into the very essence of heroism as an ideological and moral concept, and made it possible to comprehend the variety of manifestations of the heroic not only during the war, but also in peacetime.

The story is permeated with Bykov’s characteristic atmosphere of reflection. The author is strict with himself and his generation, because the feat of the war period for him is the main measure of civic value and a modern person.

At first glance, the teacher Ales Ivanovich Moroz did not accomplish the feat. During the war he did not kill a single fascist. He worked under the occupiers and taught children at school, as before the war. But this is only at first glance. The teacher appeared to the Nazis when they arrested five of his students and demanded his arrival. This is the feat. True, in the story itself the author does not give a clear answer to this question. He simply introduces two political positions: Ksendzov and Tkachuk. Ksendzov is just convinced that there was no feat, that the teacher Moroz was not a hero and, therefore, in vain his student Pavel Miklashevich, who miraculously escaped in those days of arrests and executions, spent almost the rest of his life ensuring that the name of Moroz was imprinted on obelisk above the names of the five dead students.

The dispute between Ksendzov and the former partisan commissar Tkachuk flared up on the day of the funeral of Miklashevich, who, like Moroz, taught in rural school and by this alone he proved his loyalty to the memory of Ales Ivanovich.

People like Ksendzov have quite reasonable arguments against Moroz: after all, it turns out that he himself went to the German commandant’s office and got the school opened. But Commissioner Tkachuk knows more: he looked into the moral side of Moroz’s act. “We won’t teach and they will fool you” 10 11 - this is the principle that is clear to the teacher, which is also clear to Tkachuk, sent from the partisan detachment to listen to Moroz’s explanations. Both of them learned the truth: the struggle for the souls of teenagers continues during the occupation.

Teacher Moroz waged this struggle until his very last hour. He understood that the Nazis’ promise to release the guys who sabotaged the road if their teacher appeared was a lie. But he had no doubt about anything else: if he didn’t show up, his enemies would use this fact against him and discredit everything he taught the children.

And he went to certain death. He knew that everyone, both him and the guys, would be executed. And such was the moral strength of his feat that Pavlik Miklashevich, the only survivor of these guys, carried the ideas of his teacher through everything. life trials. Having become a teacher, he passed on Morozov’s “leaven” to his students. Tkachuk, having learned that one of them, Vitka, had recently helped catch a bandit, remarked with satisfaction: “I knew it. Miklashevich knew how to teach. Still that sourdough, you can see right away" 11 12.

The story outlines the paths of three generations: Moroz, Miklashevich, Vitka. Each of them fulfills his heroic path with dignity, not always clearly visible, not always recognized by everyone.

The writer makes you think about the meaning of heroism and a feat that is not like the usual one, helps you understand the moral origins of a heroic act. Before Moroz, when he went from a partisan detachment to the fascist commandant’s office, before Miklashevich, when he sought the rehabilitation of his teacher, before Vitka, when he rushed to protect the girl, there was the possibility of choice. The possibility of formal justification did not suit them. Each of them acted, guided by the judgment of their own conscience. A person like Ksendzov would most likely prefer to eliminate himself.

The dispute that takes place in the story “Obelisk” helps to understand the continuity of heroism, selflessness, and true kindness. Characterizing the general patterns of characters created by V. Bykov, L. Ivanova writes that the hero of his stories “...even in hopeless circumstances...remains a person for whom the most sacred thing is not to go against his conscience, which dictates the moral maximalism of the actions that he commits.” 12 13.

Conclusion

Through the act of his Moroz, V. Bykov says that the law of conscience is always in force. This law has its own strict claims and its own terms of reference. And if a person, faced with a choice, voluntarily strives to fulfill what he himself considers an internal duty, he does not care about generally accepted ideas. And the last words of S. Zweig’s novel sound like a sentence: “... no guilt can be consigned to oblivion as long as the conscience remembers it.” 13 14 It is this position, in my opinion, that unites the works of A. Pisemsky, V. Bykov and S. Zweig, written in different social conditions, about completely different social and morally people.

The dispute that is being waged in the story “Obelisk” helps to understand the essence of heroism, selflessness, true kindness, and therefore true humanism. The problems of the collision of good and evil, indifference and humanism are always relevant, and, it seems to me, the more complex the moral situation, the stronger the interest in it. Of course, these problems cannot be solved by one work or even by all literature as a whole. Each time it is a personal matter. But maybe it will be easier for people to make a choice when they have a moral compass.

Bibliography

1. Large dictionary of foreign words: - M.: -UNWES, 1999.
2. Bykov, V.V. Obelisk. Sotnikov; Stories/Preface by I. Dedkov. M.: Det. lit., 1988.
3. Zatonsky, D. Artistic landmarks XX century. M.: Soviet writer, 1988
4. Ivanova, L. V. Modern Soviet prose about the Great Patriotic War. M., 1979.
5. Lazarev, L. I. Vasil Bykov: Essay on creativity. M.: Khudozh. lit., 1979
6. Ozhegov, S.I. Dictionary of the Russian language: Ok. 53000 words/s. I. Ozhegov; Under general Ed. Prof. M. I. Skvortsova. 24th ed., rev. M.: LLC “Publishing House “ONICS 21st Century”: LLC “Publishing House “Peace and Education”, 2003.
7. Plekhanov, S. N. Pisemsky. M.: Mol. Guard, 1987. (Life of remarkable people. Ser. biogr.; Issue 4 (666)).
8. Soviet encyclopedic dictionary / Ch. ed. A. M. Prokhorov. 4th ed. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1989.
9. Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. /Ed. E.F.Gubsky, G.V.Korableva, V.A.Lutchenko. M.: INFRA-M, 2000.
10. Zweig, Stefan. Impatience of the Heart: Novels; Novels. Per. with him. Kemerovo kN. publishing house, 1992
11. Zweig, Stefan. Collected works in 7 volumes. Volume 1, Preface by B. Suchkov, - M.: Publishing house. "Pravda", 1963.
12. Shagalov, A. A. Vasil Bykov. Stories about war. M.: Khudozh. lit., 1989.
13. Literature A.F. Pisemsky “The Rich Groom” / text is printed from the publication of fiction, Moscow, 1955.

2 Ozhegov S.I. Dictionary of the Russian language: Ok. 53000 words/s. I. Ozhegov; Under general Ed. Prof. M. I. Skvortsova. 24th ed., rev. M.: LLC Publishing House "ONICS 21st Century": LLC Publishing House "World and Education", 2003. p. 146

3 Large dictionary of foreign words: - M.: -UNWES, 1999. p. 186

4 Soviet encyclopedic dictionary / Ch. ed. A. M. Prokhorov. 4th ed. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1989. p. 353

5 Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. /Ed. E.F.Gubsky, G.V.Korableva, V.A.Lutchenko. M.: INFRA-M, 2000. p. 119

6 Plekhanov, S. N. Pisemsky. M.: Mol. Guard, 1987. (Life of remarkable people. Ser. biogr.; Issue 4. 0p. 117

7 8 Stefan Zweig. Collected works in 7 volumes. Volume 1, Preface by B. Suchkov, - M.: Publishing house. "Pravda", 1963. p. 49

8 9 Zweig Stefan. Impatience of the Heart: Novels; Novels. Per. with him. Kemerovo kN. publishing house, 1992. p.3165

9 10 Ibid., p.314

10 11 Bykov V.V. Obelisk. Sotnikov; Stories/Preface by I. Dedkov. M.: Det. Lit., 1988. p.48.

11 12 Ibid., p.53

12 13 Ivanova L.V. Modern Soviet prose about the Great Patriotic War. M., 1979, p. 33.

13 14 Zweig Stefan. Impatience of the Heart: Novels; Novels. Per. with him. Kemerovo kN. publishing house, 1992. - from 316

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Problems of humanism in literature about the Civil War

(A. Fadeev, I. Babel, B. Lavrenev, A. Tolstoy)

Issues of humanism - respect for people - have been of interest to people for a long time, since they directly affected everyone living on earth. These questions were raised especially acutely in extreme situations for humanity, and above all during the civil war, when a grandiose clash of two ideologies brought human life to the brink of death, not to mention such “little things” as the soul, which was generally in some kind of one step away from complete destruction. In the literature of that time, the problem of identifying priorities, choosing between the lives of several people and the interests of a large group of people was solved ambiguously by different authors, and in the future we will try to consider what conclusions some of them came to.

Among the most bright works about the civil war, perhaps, we should include the cycle of stories by Isaac Babel “Cavalry”. And one of them expressed a seditious thought about the International: “It is eaten with gunpowder and seasoned with the best blood.” This is the story “Gedali”, which is a kind of dialogue about the revolution. Along the way, the conclusion is drawn that the revolution must “shoot” precisely because of its revolutionary nature. After all good people mixed with evil people, making a revolution and at the same time opposing it. Alexander Fadeev’s story “Destruction” also echoes this idea. A large place in this story is occupied by the description of events seen through the eyes of Mechik, an intellectual who accidentally ended up in a partisan detachment. The soldiers cannot forgive either him or Lyutov, the hero of Babel, for having glasses and their own beliefs in their heads, as well as manuscripts and photographs of their beloved girl in a chest and other similar things. Lyutov gained the trust of the soldiers by taking a goose from a defenseless old woman, and lost it when he could not finish off his dying comrade, and Mechik never received trust at all. In the description of these heroes, of course, many differences are found. I. Babel clearly empathizes with Lyutov, if only because his hero is autobiographical, and A. Fadeev, on the contrary, strives in every possible way to denigrate the intelligentsia in the person of Mechik. He describes even his most noble motives in very pathetic words and somehow tearfully, and at the end of the story he puts the hero in such a position that Mechik’s chaotic actions take on the appearance of outright betrayal. And all because Mechik is a humanist, and the moral principles of the partisans (or rather, the almost complete absence of them) raise doubts in him; he is not sure of the correctness of revolutionary ideals.

One of the most serious humanistic questions considered in the literature about the civil war is the problem of what a detachment should do with its seriously wounded soldiers in a difficult situation: carry them, taking them with them, putting the entire detachment at risk, abandon them, leaving them to a painful death , or finish it off.

In Boris Lavrenev’s story “The Forty-First,” this question, which is raised many times throughout world literature, sometimes resulting in a dispute about the painless killing of hopelessly ill people, is resolved in favor of killing a person completely and irrevocably. Of the twenty-five people in Evsyukov’s detachment, less than half remain alive - the rest fell behind in the desert, and the commissar shot them with his own hands. Was this decision humane in relation to the comrades who lagged behind? It’s impossible to say the exact outcome, because life is full of accidents, and everyone could have died, or everything could have survived. Fadeev solves a similar question in the same way, but with much greater moral torment for the heroes. And the unfortunate intellectual Mechik, having accidentally learned about the fate of the sick Frolov, who was almost his friend, about the cruel decision made, tries to prevent this. His humanistic beliefs do not allow him to accept murder in this form. However, this attempt in the description of A. Fadeev looks like a shameful manifestation of cowardice. Babelevsky Lyutov acts in almost the same way in a similar situation. He cannot shoot his dying comrade, although he himself asks him to do so. But his comrade fulfills the request of the wounded man without hesitation and also wants to shoot Lyutov for treason. Another Red Army soldier takes pity on Lyutov and treats him to an apple. In this situation, Lyutov will be more likely to be understood than people who shoot their enemies, then their friends, with equal ease, and then treat the survivors with apples! However, Lyutov soon gets along with such people - in one of the stories, he almost burned down the house where he spent the night, and all so that the hostess would bring him food.

Here another humanistic question arises: do the fighters of the revolution have the right to plunder? Of course, it can also be called requisition or borrowing for the benefit of the proletariat, but this does not change the essence of the matter. Evsyukov’s detachment takes camels from the Kyrgyz, although everyone understands that after this the Kyrgyz are doomed, Levinson’s partisans take a pig from a Korean, although for him it is the only hope of surviving the winter, and Babel’s cavalrymen are carrying carts with looted (or requisitioned) things, and “men with their horses are buried in the forests from our red eagles.” Such actions generally cause controversy. On the one hand, the Red Army soldiers are making a revolution for the benefit of the common people, on the other hand, they are robbing, killing, and raping the same people. Do the people need such a revolution?

Another problem that arises in relationships between people is the question of whether love can take place in war. In this regard, let us recall Boris Lavrenev’s story “The Forty-First” and Alexei Tolstoy’s story “The Viper”. In the first work, the heroine, a former fisherman, Red Army soldier and Bolshevik, falls in love with a captured enemy and, later finding herself in a difficult situation, kills him herself. And what could she do? In “Viper” the matter is a little different. There, a noble girl twice becomes an accidental victim of the revolution and, while in the hospital, falls in love with a random Red Army soldier. The war has so disfigured her soul that killing a person is not difficult for her.

The civil war put people in such conditions that there can be no talk of any love. There is room only for the rudest and most brutal feelings. And if someone dares to sincerely love, then everything will definitely end tragically. The war destroyed all the usual human values ​​and turned everything upside down. In the name of the future happiness of humanity - the humanistic ideal - such terrible crimes were committed that are in no way compatible with the principles of humanism. The question of whether future happiness is worth such a sea of ​​blood has not yet been resolved by humanity, but in general such a theory has many examples of what happens when the choice is made in favor of murder. And if all the brutal instincts of the crowd are released one fine day, then such a quarrel, such a war will certainly be the last in the life of mankind.