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Examples of humanity from life and literature. Humanistic traditions of 19th century literature in early 20th century prose

Examples of humanity from life and literature. Humanistic traditions of 19th century literature in early 20th century prose

03.03.2019

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Introduction

2.1 Humanism in the works of Thomas More "Utopia" and Evgeny Zamyatin "We"

Conclusion

Applications

Introduction

The whole world is going through difficult times today. The new political and economic situation could not but affect the culture. Her relationship with the authorities has changed radically. The common core of cultural life has disappeared - a centralized management system and a unified cultural policy. Identifying ways forward cultural development became the business of society itself and the subject of controversy. The absence of a unifying socio-cultural idea and the retreat of society from the ideas of humanism led to a deep crisis in which the culture of all mankind found itself by the beginning of the 21st century.

Humanism (from lat. humanitas - humanity, lat. humanus - humane, lat. homo - man) - a worldview, in the center of which is the idea of man as the highest value; emerged as a philosophical movement during the Renaissance.

Humanism is traditionally defined as a system of views that recognize the value of a person as a person, his right to freedom, happiness and development, and declaring the principles of equality and humanity as the norm of relations between people. Among the values of traditional culture important place occupied the values of humanism (goodness, justice, non-covetousness, the search for truth), which is reflected in the classical literature of any country, including England.

Over the past 15 years, these values have experienced a certain crisis. Ideas of possessiveness and self-sufficiency (the cult of money) were opposed to humanism. As an ideal, people were offered a "self-made man" - a person who made himself and did not need any external support. The ideas of justice and equality - the basis of humanism - have lost their former attractiveness and are now not even included in the program documents of most parties and governments in various countries of the world. Our society gradually began to turn into a nuclear society, when individual members of it began to withdraw within the framework of their homes and their own families.

The relevance of the topic I have chosen is due to the problem that has bothered humanity for thousands of years and worries now - the problem of philanthropy, tolerance, respect for one's neighbor, the urgent need to discuss this topic.

Through my research, I would like to show that the problem of humanism, which originated in the Renaissance, reflected both in the work of English and Russian writers, remains relevant to this day.

And to begin with, I would like to return to the origins of humanism, considering its appearance in England.

1.1 The emergence of humanism in England. The history of the development of humanism in English literature

The birth of a new historical thought dates back to the late Middle Ages, when the process of disintegration of feudal relations was actively going on in the most advanced countries of Western Europe and a new capitalist mode of production was emerging. It was a transitional period, when centralized states in the form of absolute monarchies on the scale of entire countries or individual territories, the preconditions for the formation of bourgeois nations arose, and the social struggle became extremely aggravated. The bourgeoisie, which was emerging among the urban elite, was then a new, progressive stratum and acted in its ideological struggle against the ruling class of feudal lords as a representative of all the lower strata of society.

New ideas find their most striking expression in the humanistic worldview, which had a very significant impact on all areas of culture and scientific knowledge of this transition period. The new worldview was basically secular, hostile to the purely theological interpretation of the world that prevailed in the Middle Ages. He was characterized by the desire to explain all phenomena in nature and society from the point of view of reason (rationalism), to reject the blind authority of faith, which had so much hampered the development of human thought earlier. Humanists bowed before the human person, admired her as the highest creation of nature, the bearer of reason, high feelings and virtues; humanists, as it were, opposed the human creator to the blind power of divine providence. The humanistic worldview was characterized by individualism, which at the first stage of its history, in essence, acted as an instrument of ideological protest against the estate-corporate system of feudal society, which suppressed the human personality, against church ascetic morality, which served as one of the means of this suppression. At that time, the individualism of the humanistic worldview was still moderated by the active public interests of most of its leaders, and was far from the egoism inherent in the later developed forms of the bourgeois worldview.

Finally, the humanistic worldview was characterized by an avid interest in ancient culture in all its manifestations. Humanists sought to "revive", that is, to make a role model, the work of ancient writers, scientists, philosophers, artists, classical Latin, partly forgotten in the Middle Ages. And although already from the XII century. V medieval culture interest in the ancient heritage began to awaken, only during the period of the emergence of a humanistic worldview, in the so-called Renaissance (Renaissance), this trend became dominant.

The rationalism of the humanists was based on idealism, which largely determined their idea of the world. As representatives of the then intelligentsia, the humanists were far from the people, and often openly hostile to them. But for all that, the humanistic worldview at the time of its heyday had a pronounced progressive character, was the banner of the struggle against feudal ideology, and was imbued with a humane attitude towards people. On the basis of this new ideological current in Western Europe the free development of scientific knowledge, previously hampered by the dominance of theological thinking, became possible.

The revival is associated with the process of formation of secular culture, humanistic consciousness. The philosophy of the Renaissance defines:

Aspiration to the person;

Belief in his great spiritual and physical potential;

Life-affirming and optimistic character.

In the second half of the XIV century. a tendency to give the study of humanistic literature the most great importance and to regard classical Latin and Greek antiquity as the only example and model for everything that concerns spiritual and cultural activity. The essence of humanism lies not in the fact that it turned to the past, but in the way in which it is known, in the relation in which it is to this past: it is the attitude to the culture of the past and to the past that clearly determines the essence of humanism. The humanists discover the classics because they separate, without mixing, their own from the Latin. It was humanism that really discovered antiquity, the same Virgil or Aristotle, although they were known in the Middle Ages, because it returned Virgil to its time and its world, and sought to explain Aristotle within the framework of the problems and within the framework of the knowledge of Athens of the 4th century BC. Humanism does not distinguish between the discovery of the ancient world and the discovery of man, because they are all the same; to discover the ancient world as such is to measure oneself with it, and to separate and establish a relationship with it. Determine the time and memory, and the direction of human creation, and earthly affairs, and responsibility. It is no coincidence that the great humanists were for the most part statesmen, active people, whose free creativity in public life was in demand by their time.

The literature of the English Renaissance developed in close connection with the literature of pan-European humanism. England later than other countries took the path of development of humanistic culture. The English humanists learned from the continental humanists. The influence was especially significant Italian humanism, dating back in its beginnings to the XIV and XV centuries. Italian literature, from Petrarch to Tasso, was, in essence, a school for English humanists, an inexhaustible source of advanced political, philosophical and scientific ideas, the richest treasury of artistic images, plots and forms, from which all English humanists drew their ideas, from Thomas More to Bacon. and Shakespeare. Acquaintance with Italy, its culture, art and literature was one of the first and basic principles of any education in general in Renaissance England. Many British traveled to Italy to personally come into contact with the life of this advanced country of what was then Europe.

Oxford University was the first center of humanistic culture in England. From here began to spread the light of a new science and a new worldview, which fertilized the entire English culture and gave impetus to the development of humanistic literature. Here, at the university, a group of scientists appeared who fought against the ideology of the Middle Ages. These were people who had studied in Italy and had adopted there the foundations of a new philosophy and science. They were passionate admirers of antiquity. Having gone through the school of humanism in Italy, Oxford scholars did not confine themselves to popularizing the achievements of their Italian brethren. They grew up to be independent scientists.

The English humanists adopted from their Italian teachers admiration for the philosophy and poetry of the ancient world.

The activities of the first English humanists were predominantly scientific and theoretical. They developed general questions of religion, philosophy, social life and education. Early English humanism of the early 16th century found its fullest expression in the work of Thomas More.

1.2 The emergence of humanism in Russia. The history of the development of humanism in Russian literature

Already among the first significant Russian poets of the 18th century - Lomonosov and Derzhavin - one can find nationalism combined with humanism. It is no longer Holy Rus', but Great Rus' that inspires them; the national epic, the intoxication with the greatness of Russia relate wholly to the empirical existence of Russia without any historical and philosophical justification.

Derzhavin, the true "singer of Russian glory", defends the freedom and dignity of man. In poems written for the birth of the grandson of Catherine II (the future Emperor Alexander I), he exclaims:

"Be the master of your passions,

Be on the throne man

This motif of pure humanism is increasingly becoming the crystallization core of the new ideology.

In the spiritual mobilization of the creative forces of Russia, Russian Freemasonry of the 18th and early XIX centuries. On the one hand, it attracted people who were looking for a counterbalance to the atheistic currents of the 18th century, and in this sense it was an expression of the religious demands of the Russian people of that time. On the other hand, Freemasonry, captivating with its idealism and noble humanistic dreams of serving humanity, was itself a phenomenon of non-church religiosity, free from any church authority. Capturing significant sections of Russian society, Freemasonry undoubtedly raised creative movements in the soul, was a school of humanism, and at the same time awakened intellectual interests.

At the heart of this humanism was a reaction against the one-sided intellectualism of the era. The favorite formula here was the idea that "enlightenment without moral ideal carries a poison in itself." In Russian humanism, associated with Freemasonry, moral motives played an essential role.

All the main features of the future "advanced" intelligentsia were also taking shape - and in the first place here was the consciousness of the duty to serve society, in general, practical idealism. It was the path of ideological life and active service to the ideal.

2.1. Humanism in the works "Utopia" by Thomas More and "We" by Evgeny Zamyatin

Thomas More in his work "Utopia" speaks of universal equality. But is there a place for humanism in this equality?

What is a utopia?

“Utopia - (from the Greek u - no and topos - a place - that is, a place that does not exist; according to another version, from eu - good and topos - a place, that is, a blessed country), an image of an ideal social system, devoid of scientific justification; genre science fiction; the designation of all works containing unrealistic plans for social transformations. (“Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V. Dahl)

A similar term arose thanks to Thomas More himself.

Simply put, a utopia is a fictional picture of an ideal life arrangement.

Thomas More lived at the beginning of a new time (1478-1535), when a wave of humanism and the Renaissance swept over all of Europe. Most literary and political works Moras are already of historical interest for us. Only "Utopia" (published in 1516) has retained its significance for our time - not only as a talented novel, but also as a work of socialist thought brilliant in its design.

The book was written in the then popular genre of "traveler's story". Allegedly, a certain navigator Raphael Gitlodey visited the unknown island of Utopia, whose social structure impressed him so much that he tells others about it.

Knowing well the social and moral life of his homeland, the English humanist, Thomas More, was imbued with sympathy for the misfortunes of her masses. These moods of his were reflected in the famous work with a long title in the spirit of that time - "A very useful, as well as entertaining, truly golden book about the best structure of the state and about the new island of Utopia ...". This work instantly gained great popularity in humanistic circles, which did not prevent Soviet researchers from calling More almost the first communist.

The humanistic outlook of the author of "Utopia" led him to conclusions of great social acuteness and significance, especially in the first part of this work. The author's insight was by no means limited to ascertaining a terrible picture of social disasters, emphasizing at the very end of his work that, with careful observation of the life of not only England, but also "all states", they represent "nothing but a conspiracy of the rich, under the pretext and under in the name of the state thinking about their own benefits.

Already these deep statements prompted More the main direction of projects and dreams in the second part of "Utopia". Numerous researchers of this work stated not only direct, but also indirect references to the texts and ideas of the Bible (primarily gospel ones), especially ancient and early Christian authors. Of all the works that had the greatest impact on More, Plato's "State" stands out. Many humanists saw Utopia as a long-awaited rival to this greatest creation political thought, a work that existed by that time for almost two millennia.

In line with humanistic quests that creatively synthesized the ideological legacy of antiquity and the Middle Ages and boldly rationalistically compared political and ethnic theories with the social development of that era, More's Utopia arises, reflecting and originally comprehending the full depth of the socio-political conflicts of the era of the decomposition of feudalism and the initial accumulation of capital.

After reading More's book, you are very surprised at how much the idea of \u200b\u200bwhat is good for a person and what is bad has changed since More's time. To the ordinary citizen of the 21st century, More's book, which laid the foundation for a whole "genre of utopias", does not at all seem to be a model of an ideal state. Rather, the opposite is true. I really would not want to live in the society described by More. Euthanasia for the sick and decrepit, forced labor service, according to which you must work as a farmer for at least 2 years, and after that you can be sent to the fields during the harvest. "All men and women have one common occupation - agriculture, from which no one is spared." But on the other hand, Utopians work strictly 6 hours a day, and slaves do all the dirty, hard and dangerous work. The mention of slavery makes one wonder if this work is so utopian? Are the inhabitants so equal in it?

Ideas about universal equality are slightly exaggerated. However, the slaves in “Utopia” do not work for the good of the master, but for the whole society as a whole (by the way, the same thing happened under Stalin, when millions of prisoners worked for free for the good of the Motherland). To become a slave, one must commit a serious crime (including treason or debauchery). Slaves until the end of their days are engaged in heavy physical work, however, in the case of diligent work, they can even be pardoned.

Mora's utopia is not even a state in the usual sense of the word, but a human anthill. You will live in standard houses, and after ten years, you will change housing with other families by lot. This is not even a house, but rather a hostel in which many families live - small primary cells local government headed by elected leaders, syphogrants or philarchs. Naturally, a common household is conducted, they eat together, all matters are decided jointly. There are severe restrictions on freedom of movement, in the event of repeated unauthorized absences you will be punished - by making you a slave.

The idea of the Iron Curtain is also implemented in Utopia: it lives in complete isolation from the outside world.

The attitude towards parasites is very strict here - every citizen either works on the land or must master a certain craft (moreover, a useful craft). Only the chosen ones who have shown special abilities are exempted from physical labor and can become scientists or philosophers. Everyone wears the same, the simplest, clothes made of coarse cloth, and, while doing business, a person takes off his clothes so as not to wear them out, and puts on rough skins or skins. There are no frills, everything is just the essentials. Everyone shares the food equally, and all the surplus is given to others, and best products transferred to hospitals. There is no money, and the wealth accumulated by the state is kept in the form of debt obligations in other countries. The same reserves of gold and silver that are in Utopia itself are used to make chamber pots, slop tubs, and also to create shameful chains and hoops that are hung on criminals as punishment. All this, according to More, should destroy the citizens' craving for money-grubbing.

It seems to me that the island described by More is some kind of frenzied concept of collective farms.

The prudence and practicality of the author's view are striking. In many ways, to social relations in the society he invented, he fits as an engineer who creates the most efficient mechanism. For example, the fact that utopians prefer not to fight, but to bribe their opponents. Or, for example, the custom when people choosing a mate for marriage are required to consider him or her naked.

Any progress in the life of Utopia does not make sense. There are no factors in society that force science and technology to develop, to change attitudes towards certain things. Life, as it is, suits citizens and some kind of deviation is simply not needed.

Utopia society is limited on all sides. There is practically no freedom in anything. The power of equals over equals is not equality. There can be no state in which there is no power - otherwise it is anarchy. Well, since there is power, there can no longer be equality. The person who controls the lives of others is always in a privileged position.

Communism is literally built on the island: from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs. Everyone is obliged to work, being engaged in agriculture and handicrafts. The family is the basic unit of society. Its work is controlled by the state, and what is produced is donated to a common piggy bank. The family is considered a social workshop, and not necessarily based on consanguinity. If children don't like their parents' craft, they can move to another family. It is easy to imagine what unrest this will lead to in practice.

Utopians live boring and monotonous. Their whole life is regulated from the very beginning. Lunch, however, is allowed not only in the public dining room, but also in the family. Education is open to all and is based on a combination of theory and practical work. That is, children are given a standard set of knowledge, and at the same time they are taught to work.

More was especially praised by the socialist theorists for the absence of private property on Utopia. In the words of More himself, "wherever there is private property, where everything is measured by money, it is hardly ever possible for the state to be governed justly or happily." And in general, "for public welfare there is only one way - to declare equality in everything."

Utopians strongly condemn the war. But even here this principle is not observed to the end. Naturally, Utopians fight when they defend their borders. But they also fight in the case “when they pity some people oppressed by tyranny.” In addition, “Utopians consider it the most just cause of war when a people does not use their own land, but owns it, as it were, in vain and in vain ". After examining these reasons for the war, we can conclude that the Utopians must fight constantly until they build communism and "peace in the world." Because there is always a reason. Moreover, “Utopia”, in fact, should be an eternal aggressor, because if rational, non-ideological states wage war when it is beneficial for them, then utopians always, if there are reasons for it. After all, they cannot remain indifferent for ideological reasons.

All these facts, one way or another, suggest the thought: was Utopia a utopia in the full sense of the word? Was it the ideal system to which one would like to aspire?

On this note, I would like to turn to the work of E. Zamyatin “We”. humanism personality mor zamyatin

It should be noted that Evgeny Ivanovich Zamyatin (1884--1937), who is a rebel by nature and outlook, was not a contemporary of Thomas More, but caught the time of the creation of the USSR. The author is almost unknown to a wide range of Russian readers, since the works written by him back in the 1920s were published only in the late 1980s. The writer spent the last years of his life in France, where he died in 1937, but he never considered himself an emigrant - he lived in Paris with a Soviet passport.

The work of E. Zamyatin is extremely diverse. He wrote a large number of stories and novels, among which the anti-utopia "We" occupies a special place. Dystopia is a genre that is also called negative utopia. This image of such a possible future, which frightens the writer, makes him worry about the fate of mankind, for the soul individual person, a future in which the problem of humanism and freedom is acute.

The novel “We” was created shortly after the author returned from England to revolutionary Russia in 1920 (according to some reports, work on the text continued into 1921). In 1929, the novel was used for massive criticism of E. Zamyatin, and the author was forced to defend himself, justify himself, explain himself, since the novel was regarded as his political mistake and "a manifestation of wrecking the interests of Soviet literature." After another study at the next meeting of the writers' community, E. Zamyatin announced his withdrawal from the All-Russian Union of Writers. The discussion of Zamyatin's "case" was a signal for a toughening of the party's policy in the field of literature: the year was 1929 - the year of the Great Turning Point, the onset of Stalinism. It became meaningless and impossible for Zamyatin to work as a writer in Russia, and, with the permission of the government, he went abroad in 1931.

E. Zamyatin creates the novel “We” in the form of diary entries of one of the “lucky ones”. The city-state of the future is filled with bright rays of the gentle sun. Universal equality is repeatedly confirmed by the hero-narrator himself. He derives a mathematical formula, proving to himself and to us, the readers, that “freedom and crime are as inseparably linked as motion and speed...”. He sarcastically sees happiness in the restriction of freedom.

The narrative is a note-summary of the builder of the spaceship (in our time he would be called the chief designer). He talks about that period of his life, which he himself later defines as an illness. Each entry (there are 40 of them in the novel) has its own title, consisting of several sentences. It is interesting to see that usually the first sentences indicate the micro-theme of the chapter, and the last gives an outlet for its idea: “The bell. Mirror Sea. I burn forever”, “Yellow. 2D shadow. Incurable soul”, “Author's duty. Ice swells. The hardest love.

What alerts the reader right away? - not "I think", but "we think". The great scientist, a talented engineer, does not realize himself as a person, does not think about the fact that he does not have his own name and, like the rest of the inhabitants of the Great State, he wears a “number” - D-503. “No one is 'one', but 'one of'. Looking ahead, we can say that in the most bitter moment for him, he will think about his mother: for her, he would not be the Builder of the Integral, number D-503, but would be "a simple human piece - a piece of herself."

The world of the United State, of course, is something strictly rationalized, geometrically ordered, mathematically verified, with the dominant aesthetics of cubism: rectangular glass boxes of houses where people-numbers live (“divine parallelepipeds of transparent dwellings”), straight overlooked streets, squares (“Square Cuba. Sixty-six powerful concentric circles: stands. And sixty-six rows: quiet lamps of faces ... "). People in this geometrized world are an integral part of it, they bear the stamp of this world: "Round, smooth balls of heads floated past - and turned around." Sterile clear planes of glass make the world of the United State even more lifeless, cold, unreal. The architecture is strictly functional, devoid of the slightest decorations, “unnecessities”, and this is a parody of the aesthetic utopias of the futurists of the early twentieth century, where glass and concrete were praised as new Construction Materials technical future.

The inhabitants of the United State are so devoid of individuality that they differ only by index numbers. All life in the One State is based on mathematical, rational foundations: addition, subtraction, division, multiplication. Everyone is a happy arithmetic mean, impersonal, devoid of individuality. The appearance of geniuses is impossible, creative inspiration is perceived as an unknown kind of epilepsy.

This or that number (resident of the United State) does not have any value in the eyes of others and is easily replaceable. Thus, the death of several “neglected” builders of the “Integral”, who died while testing the ship, the purpose of which was to “integrate” the universe, is perceived indifferently by numbers.

Individual numbers who have shown a tendency to independent thinking are Great Operation to remove the fantasy that kills the ability to think. The question mark - this is evidence of doubt - does not exist in the One State, but in abundance, of course, the exclamation mark.

Not only the state regards any personal manifestation as a crime, but the numbers do not feel the need to be a person, a human individual with their own unique world.

The protagonist of the novel, D-503, cites the story of the "three scapegoats" well known to every schoolchild in the United State. This story is about how three numbers, in the form of experience, were released from work for a month. However, the unfortunate returned to their workplace and spent hours doing those movements that at a certain time of the day were already the need of their body (sawed, planed the air, etc.). On the tenth day, unable to stand it, they joined hands and entered the water to the sounds of the march, sinking deeper and deeper until the water stopped their torment. For the numbers, the guiding hand of the Benefactor, complete submission to the control of the custodians-spies, has become a need:

“It's so nice to feel someone's keen eye, lovingly protecting from the slightest mistake, from the slightest wrong step. Let it sound a little sentimental, but the same analogy comes to my mind again: the guardian angels that the ancients dreamed of. How much of what they only dreamed of materialized in our lives ... "

On the one hand, the human personality recognizes itself as equal to the whole world, and on the other hand, powerful dehumanizing factors appear and intensify, first of all, technological civilization, which introduces a mechanistic, hostile principle to man, since the means of influencing a technical civilization on a person, the means of manipulating his consciousness become ever more powerful, global.

One of the most important questions the author is trying to solve is the question of freedom of choice and freedom in general.

Both More and Zamyatin have forced equality. People cannot differ from their own kind in any way.

Modern researchers determine that the main difference between dystopia and utopia is that “utopians are looking for ways to create an ideal world based on the synthesis of the postulates of goodness, justice, happiness and prosperity, wealth and harmony. And dystopians seek to understand how the human person would feel in this exemplary atmosphere.

It is quite obvious that not only equality of rights and opportunities is expressed, but also forced material equality. And all this is combined with total control and restriction of freedoms. This control is needed to maintain material equality: people are not allowed to stand out, do more, surpass their own kind (thus becoming unequal). But this is the natural desire of everyone.

No social utopia speaks of specific people. Everywhere the masses or individual social groups are considered. The individual is nothing in these works. "One is zero, one is nonsense!" The problem with utopian socialists is that they think about the people as a whole, and not about specific people. As a result, complete equality is realized, but this is the equality of unfortunate people.

Is it possible for people to be happy in a utopia? Happiness from what? From victories? So they are done by everyone equally. Everyone is involved in it and, at the same time, no one. From lack of exploitation? Thus, in a utopia, it is replaced by social exploitation: a person is forced to work all his life, but not for the capitalist and not for himself, but for society. Moreover, this social exploitation is even more terrible, since here a person has no way out. If, working for a capitalist, you can quit, then it is impossible to hide from society. Yes, and moving anywhere is prohibited.

It is difficult to name at least one freedom that is respected in Utopia. There is no freedom to move, no freedom to choose how to live. A person driven into a corner by society without the right to choose is deeply unhappy. He has no hope for change. He feels like a slave locked in a cage. People cannot live in a cage, either material or social. Claustrophobia sets in, they want change. But this is not feasible. The society of utopians is a society of deeply unhappy, depressed people. People with depressed consciousness and lack of willpower.

Therefore, it should be recognized that the model of the development of society, proposed to us by Thomas More, seemed ideal only in the 16th and 17th centuries. In the future, with increasing attention to the individual, they lost all sense of implementation, because if we build a society of the future, then it should be a society of pronounced individuals, a society of strong personalities, and not mediocrities.

Considering the novel “We”, first of all, it is necessary to indicate that it is closely connected with Soviet history, the history of Soviet literature. The ideas of streamlining life were characteristic of all the literature of the first years of Soviet power. In our computerized, robotic era, when the “average” person becomes an appendage to the machine, is only able to press buttons, ceasing to be a creator, a thinker, the novel is becoming more and more relevant.

E. Zamyatin himself noted his novel as a signal of danger threatening man and humanity from the hypertrophied power of machines and the power of the state - it doesn’t matter which one.

In my opinion, with his novel, E. Zamyatin affirms the idea that the right to choose is always inseparable from a person. The refraction of "I" into "we" cannot be natural. If a person succumbs to the influence of an inhumane totalitarian system, then he ceases to be a person. It is impossible to build the world only according to reason, forgetting that a person has a soul. The machine world should not exist without the world, the humane world.

Ideologically, the devices of the Unified State of Zamyatin and Mora's Utopia are very similar. Although there are no mechanisms in Mora's work, the rights and freedoms of people are also squeezed by the vise of certainty and predetermination.

Conclusion

In his book, Thomas More tried to find the features that an ideal society should have. Reflections on the best state system took place against the backdrop of cruel morals, inequality and social contradictions in Europe 16-17 centuries.

Yevgeny Zamyatin wrote about what he saw with his own eyes. At the same time, the thoughts of More and Zamyatin for the most part are only hypotheses, a subjective vision of the world.

More's ideas were certainly progressive for their time, but they did not take into account one important detail, without which Utopia is a society without a future. Utopian socialists did not take into account the psychology of people. The fact is that any Utopia, by making people compulsorily equal, denies the possibility of making them happy. After all, a happy person is someone who feels better in something, superior in something to others. He can be richer, smarter, prettier, kinder. Utopians, on the other hand, deny any possibility for such a person to stand out. He must dress like everyone else, study like everyone else, have exactly as much property as everyone else. But after all, a person by nature strives for the best for himself. Utopian socialists proposed to punish any deviation from the norm set by the state, while simultaneously trying to change the mentality of a person. Make him an unambitious, obedient robot, a cog in the system.

Zamyatin's anti-utopia, in turn, shows what can happen if this “ideal” of society, proposed by utopians, is achieved. But it is impossible to completely isolate people from the outside world. There will always be those who, at least out of the corner of their eye, will know the joy of freedom. And it will no longer be possible to drive such people into the framework of totalitarian suppression of individuality. And in the end, it is precisely such people, who have known the joy of doing what they want, who will bring down the entire system, the entire political system, which happened in our country in the early 90s.

What kind of society can rightfully be called ideal, given the achievements of modern sociological thought? Undoubtedly, it will be a society of complete equality. But equality in rights and opportunities. And it will be a society of complete freedom. Freedom of thought and speech, action and movement. Closest to the described ideal is modern Western society. It has many disadvantages, but it makes people happy. If society is truly ideal, how can there be no freedom in it?

List of used literature

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7. Volodin A.I. "Utopia and history", 1976

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9. Kautsky K. "Thomas More and his Utopia", 1924

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Dictionary of medical terms

humanism (lat. humanus human, humane)

a system of views that recognizes the value of a person as a person, characterized by the protection of his dignity and freedom of development, considering the good of a person as the main criterion for evaluation social institutions, and the principles of equality and justice

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. D.N. Ushakov

humanism

humanism, pl. no, m. (from Latin humanus - human) (book).

The ideological movement of the Renaissance, aimed at liberation human personality and thoughts from the shackles of feudalism and Catholicism (historical).

Enlightened philanthropy (obsolete).

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova.

humanism

Humanity, humanity in social activities, in relation to people.

The progressive movement of the Renaissance, aimed at the liberation of man from the ideological enslavement of the times of feudalism.

adj. humanistic, th, th.

New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova.

humanism

m. The ideological and cultural movement of the Renaissance, which opposed the principle of free all-round development of the human personality to scholasticism and the spiritual domination of the church.

Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998

humanism

HUMANISM (from lat. humanus - human, humane) recognition of the value of a person as a person, his right to free development and manifestation of his abilities, affirmation of the good of a person as a criterion for assessing social relations. In a narrower sense, the secular freethinking of the Renaissance, which opposed scholasticism and the spiritual dominance of the church, is associated with the study of the newly open works classical antiquity.

Big Law Dictionary

humanism

(humanism principle) - one of the principles of law in a democratic state. In a broad sense, it means a historically changing system of views on society and a person, imbued with respect for the individual. The principle of G. is enshrined in Art. 2 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation: "Man, his rights and freedoms are the highest value", as well as in Art. 7 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, art. 8 Code of Criminal Procedure of the RSFSR and other legislative acts. In criminal law, it means that punishment and other measures of a criminal law nature applied to a person who has committed a crime cannot cause physical suffering or degrade human dignity.

Humanism

(from Latin humanus ≈ human, humane), a historically changing system of views that recognizes the value of a person as a person, his right to freedom, happiness, development and manifestation of his abilities, considering the good of a person as a criterion for evaluating social institutions, and the principles of equality, justice, humanity desired norm of relations between people.

G.'s ideas have a long history. The motives of humanity, philanthropy, dreams of happiness and justice can be found in the works of oral folk art, in literature, moral-philosophical and religious concepts of various peoples since ancient times. But G.'s system of views was first formed in the Renaissance. G. acted at this time as a broad current of social thought, embracing philosophy, philology, literature, art, and imprinted in the minds of the era. G. was formed in the struggle against feudal ideology, religious dogma, and the spiritual dictatorship of the church. Humanists, having revived many literary monuments classical antiquity, used them to develop secular culture and education. They counterposed secular knowledge to theological-scholastic knowledge, to religious asceticism - the enjoyment of life, to the humiliation of man - the ideal of a free, comprehensively developed personality. In the 14th-15th centuries Italy was the center of humanistic thought (F. Petrarch, G. Boccaccio, Lorenzo Balla, Picodella Mirandola, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, and others), and then geography spread to other European countries ah simultaneously with the Reformation movement. Many great thinkers and artists of that time contributed to the development of G. ≈ M. Montaigne, F. Rabelais (France), W. Shakespeare, F. Bacon (England), L. Vives, M. Cervantes (Spain), W. Hutten, A. Dürer (Germany), Erasmus of Rotterdam, and others. Renaissance G. was one of the main expressions of that revolution in culture and worldview, which reflected the beginning formation of capitalist relations. Further development G.'s ideas are connected with the social thought of the period of bourgeois revolutions (17th - early 19th centuries). The ideologists of the emerging bourgeoisie developed the ideas of "natural rights" of man, put forward as a criterion of suitability social structure its correspondence to the abstract "human nature", tried to find ways to combine the good of the individual and public interests, based on the theory of " reasonable selfishness”, correctly understood personal interest, the French enlighteners of the 18th century. ≈ P. Holbach, A. K. Helvetius, D. Diderot, and others ≈ distinctly connected G. with materialism and atheism. A number of G.'s principles were developed in the German classical philosophy. I. Kant put forward the idea eternal peace, formulated a position expressing the essence of G., ≈ a person can be only an end for another person, but not a means. True, the implementation of these principles was attributed by Kant to an indefinite future.

The system of humanistic views created under the conditions of rising capitalism was a great achievement for social thought. At the same time, it was internally contradictory and historically limited, because it was based on the individualistic concept of personality, on the abstract understanding of man. This inconsistency of abstract geography was clearly revealed with the establishment of capitalism, a system in which, in direct contrast to the ideals of geography, a person is transformed into a means of producing capital, subject to the domination of spontaneous social forces and laws alien to him, the capitalist division of labor, which disfigures the individual and makes it one-sided. The dominance of private property and the division of labor gives rise to different kinds alienation of man. This proves that, on the basis of private property, the principles of civil society cannot become the norms of relations between people. Criticizing private property, T. More, T. Campanella, Morelli and G. Mably believed that only by replacing it with the community of property, humanity can achieve happiness and prosperity. These ideas were developed by the great utopian socialists A. Saint-Simon, C. Fourier, and R. Owen, who saw the contradictions of the already established capitalist system and, inspired by the ideals of Germany, developed projects for reforming society on the basis of socialism. However, they could not find real ways to create a socialist society, and in their ideas about the future, along with brilliant conjectures, there was a lot of fantastic. The humanistic tradition in the social thought of Russia in the 19th century. represented revolutionary democrats≈ A. I. Herzen, V. G. Belinsky, N. G. Chernyshevsky, A. N. Dobrolyubov, T. G. Shevchenko and others. G.'s ideas inspired the classics of great Russian literature of the 19th century.

A new stage in the development of geography began with the emergence of Marxism, which rejected the abstract, ahistorical interpretation of “human nature” only as a biological “generic essence” and affirmed its scientific concrete historical understanding, showing that “... the essence of man ... is the totality of all social relations” (K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 3, p. 3). Marxism abandoned the abstract, supra-class approach to the problems of geography and placed them on real historical ground, formulated new concept G. is proletarian, or socialist, G., which has absorbed the best achievements of the humanistic thought of the past. K. Marx was the first to determine the real ways of realizing the ideals of G., linking it with scientific theory community development, With revolutionary movement proletariat, with the struggle for communism. Communism abolishes private property and the exploitation of man by man, national oppression and racial discrimination, social antagonisms and wars, eliminates all forms of alienation, puts the achievements of science and culture at the service of man, creates material, social and spiritual prerequisites for the harmonious and comprehensive development of a free human personality. Under communism, labor is transformed from a means of subsistence into the first necessity of life, and highest goal society becomes the development of man himself. That is why Marx called communism real, practical G. (see K. Marx and F. Engels, From early works, 1956, p. 637). The opponents of communism deny the humanistic character of Marxism on the grounds that it is based on materialism and includes the theory of class struggle. This criticism is untenable, because materialism, recognizing the value of earthly life, focuses on its transformation in the interests of man, and the Marxist theory of class struggle as an irreplaceable means of solving social problems during the transition to socialism is not at all an apology for violence. It justifies the forced use of revolutionary violence to suppress the resistance of the minority in the interests of the majority, in those conditions when it becomes impossible to solve urgent social problems without it. The Marxist worldview is revolutionary-critical and humanistic at the same time. The ideas of Marxist geometry received their further concretization in the works of V. I. Lenin, who studied new era development of capitalism, the revolutionary processes of this era, as well as the beginning of the era of transition from capitalism to socialism, when these ideas began to be put into practice.

Socialist geography opposes abstract geography, which preaches "humanity in general" without connection with the struggle for the real liberation of man from all forms of exploitation. But within the framework of abstract G.'s ideas, two main tendencies can be distinguished. On the one hand, the ideas of abstract geography are used to disguise the anti-humanistic character of modern capitalism, to criticize socialism, to fight the communist worldview, and to falsify socialist geography. On the other hand, in bourgeois society there are layers and groups that stand on the positions of abstract geography. but are critical of capitalism, stand for peace and democracy, and are concerned about the future of mankind. The two world wars unleashed by imperialism, the misanthropic theory and practice of fascism, which openly trampled on the principles of geography, the ongoing rampant racism, militarism, the arms race, and the nuclear threat looming over the world pose the problems of geography very sharply before humanity. People who oppose imperialism from the standpoint of abstract geography and the social evil it engenders are, to a certain extent, allies of revolutionary socialist humanity in the struggle for the real happiness of man.

The principles of Marxist, socialist geography are distorted by right and "left" revisionists. Both essentially identify socialist geography with abstract geography. But while the former see the essence of Marxism in general in abstract humanist principles, the latter reject any geography as a bourgeois concept. In fact, life proves the correctness of the principles of socialist geology. With the victory of socialism, first in the USSR and then in other countries of the socialist community, the ideas of Marxist geography received real practical support in the humanistic achievements of the new social system, which chose the humanistic principle as the motto of its further development: “Everything in the name of man, for the good of man."

Lit .: Marx K., Economic and philosophical manuscripts of 1844, in the book: Marx K. and Engels F., From early works, M., 1956; Marx K., Toward a Criticism of the Hegelian Philosophy of Law. Introduction, K. Marx and F. Engels, Op. , 2nd ed. , v. 1; Marx K. and Engels F., Manifesto of the Communist Party, ibid., vol. 4: Engels F., Development of socialism from utopia to science, ibid., vol. 19: Lenin V.I., State and revolution, ch. 5, Poly. coll. soch., 5th ed., v. 33; his, Tasks of the Youth Unions, ibid., vol. 41; Program of the CPSU (Adopted by the XXII Congress of the CPSU), M., 1969; On overcoming the cult of personality and its consequences. Decree of the Central Committee of the CPSU, M., 1956; Gramsci A., Prison Notebooks, Selected. prod., vol. 3, trans. from Italian., M., 1959; Volgin V.P., Humanism and socialism, M., 1955; Fedoseev P. N., Socialism and humanism, M., 1958; Petrosyan M. I., Humanism, M., 1964; Kurochkin P.K., Orthodoxy and humanism, M., 1962; The construction of communism and the spiritual world of man, M., 1966; Konrad N. I., West and East, M., 1966; From Erasmus of Rotterdam to Bertrand Russell. Sat. Art., M., 1969: Ilyenkov E. V., On idols and ideals, M., 1968: Kurella A., Own and others, M., 1970; Simonyan E. A., Communism is real humanism, M., 1970.

V. J. Kelle. humanism.

Utopias fell under the pressure of world waves humanism, pacifism, international socialism, international anarchism, etc.

In any case, it was precisely from the second half of the 1980s that sharp criticism of traditional American feminism began in the English-speaking world as a manifestation of bourgeois liberalism and humanism from such post-structuralist feminist theorists as Toril Moy, Chris Whedon, Rita Felsky, etc.

They embarked on a vicious path leading from humanism to animalism - the opposite way to what Mankind has done, stimulated by the greatest creative acts of the living history of the Universe.

The idea of the internal unity of ethics and culture, the requirement to make humanism and the moral development of the individual as criteria for the progress of culture, the defense of the principle of equality of all people on earth without distinction in the color of their skin, adamant anti-militarism and anti-fascism in convictions and practical activities - all these are features of his appearance that give you reason to characterize Schweitzer as an outstanding moral phenomenon in the life of a bourgeois society in an era of deep crisis of its culture.

In the fear of popular movements, in the misunderstanding of their progressive anti-feudal orientation, the historical limitations humanism as an essentially bourgeois enlightenment movement.

Lieutenant Baranovsky with his search for justice, persistent illusions of the abstract bourgeois humanism fell victim to its own contradictions, found itself under the wheels of history, inexorable in its course.

About the facts of the soullessness of Gusenitsin, I wrote a report three times and was beaten three times for my humanism.

If humanism- so with forgiveness, if justice - then instantly, immediately and to everyone.

And was present there vague humanism and the dreamy vanity of Czar Alexander, the appalled Habsburgs of Austria, the angry Hohenzollerns of Prussia, the aristocratic traditions of Britain still trembling in fear of revolution, whose conscience was the slave labor of children in factories and the right to vote stolen from ordinary people.

In full accordance with the ideas of the romantic humanism Hawthorne saw in the individual consciousness the source of social evil and at the same time a tool to overcome it.

This is what your policy has led to, - shouted Dessalines, - this is the result of your humanism.

Proclaiming and affirming principles humanism, high morality and morality, singing and poeticizing nature, Fidler with with good reason said that he was trying to be faithful in his work to the traditions of Henryk Sienkiewicz and Stefan Zeromsky - Polish classics, close to him in spirit.

Despite the fact that until very recently humanism catastrophically devalued by National Socialism, Heidegger now set out to sharply raise its current price.

Hating wars and politics, Deira did not force Kai to change his beliefs and devote himself to serving ideals with her. humanism.

Main source artistic power Russian classical literature - its close connection with the people; Russian literature saw the main meaning of its existence in serving the people. “Burn the hearts of people with the verb” called on the poets A.S. Pushkin. M.Yu. Lermontov wrote that the mighty words of poetry should sound

... like a bell on a veche tower

In the days of celebrations and troubles of the people.

N.A. gave his lyre to the struggle for the happiness of the people, for their liberation from slavery and poverty. Nekrasov. The work of brilliant writers - Gogol and Saltykov-Shchedrin, Turgenev and Tolstoy, Dostoevsky and Chekhov - with all the difference in artistic form and ideological content of their works, united by a deep connection with the life of the people, a truthful depiction of reality, a sincere desire to serve the happiness of the motherland. The great Russian writers did not recognize "art for art's sake", they were the heralds of socially active art, art for the people. Revealing the moral greatness and spiritual wealth of the working people, they aroused in the reader sympathy for ordinary people, faith in the strength of the people, its future.

Beginning in the 18th century, Russian literature waged a passionate struggle for the liberation of the people from the oppression of serfdom and autocracy.

This is also Radishchev, who described the autocratic system of the era as "a monster oblo, mischievously, huge, stifled and barking."

This is Fonvizin, who put to shame the rude feudal lords of the Prostakovs and Skotinins type.

This is Pushkin, who considered the most important merit that in "his cruel age he glorified freedom."

This is Lermontov, who was exiled by the government to the Caucasus and found his untimely death there.

There is no need to enumerate all the names of Russian writers in order to prove the fidelity of our classical literature to the ideals of freedom.

Along with the acuteness of the social problems that characterize Russian literature, it is necessary to point out the depth and breadth of its formulation of moral problems.

Russian literature has always tried to arouse “good feelings” in the reader, protested against any injustice. Pushkin and Gogol for the first time raised their voices in defense of the "little man", the humble worker; after them, Grigorovich, Turgenev, Dostoevsky took under the protection of the "humiliated and insulted". Nekrasov. Tolstoy, Korolenko.

At the same time, consciousness was growing in Russian literature that " small man"should not be a passive object of pity, but a conscious fighter for human dignity. This idea was especially clearly manifested in the satirical works of Saltykov-Shchedrin and Chekhov, who condemned any manifestation of humility and obsequiousness.

great place in Russian classical literature devoted to moral problems. With all the variety of interpretations of the moral ideal by various writers, it is easy to see that for all goodies Russian literature is characterized by dissatisfaction with the existing situation, a tireless search for truth, an aversion to vulgarity, a desire to actively participate in public life, and a readiness for self-sacrifice. By these features, the heroes of Russian literature differ significantly from the heroes of Western literature, whose actions for the most part driven by the pursuit of personal happiness, career, enrichment. The heroes of Russian literature, as a rule, cannot imagine personal happiness without the happiness of their homeland and people.

Russian writers asserted their bright ideals above all artistic images people with warm hearts, an inquisitive mind, a rich soul (Chatsky, Tatyana Larina, Rudin, Katerina Kabanova, Andrey Bolkonsky, etc.)

Truthfully covering Russian reality, Russian writers did not lose faith in the bright future of their homeland. They believed that the Russian people "will pave a wide, clear breasted road for themselves ..."

Thesis

Shulgin, Nikolai I.

Academic degree:

PhD in Philosophy

Place of defense of the dissertation:

VAK specialty code:

Speciality:

Theory and history of culture

Number of pages:

Chapter 1. The main philosophical and cultural problems of humanistic thought.

§1. Origins and different meanings of the concept of "humanism".

§ 2. Trends in the development of secular humanism in the philosophical and cultural thoughts XIX- XX centuries.

§3. Religious-idealistic humanism in Russian and Western European thought of the 19th-20th centuries.

Chapter 2. Reflection of the problems of humanism in the literature of the second half of the XIX century.

§ 1. Fiction in the socio-historical and general cultural context of the 19th century.

§2. The Crisis of Humanism in Fiction

Western Europe and USA.

§ 3. Russian literature: a synthesis of Christian and Renaissance humanism.

Introduction to the thesis (part of the abstract) On the topic "Humanism in European and Russian culture of the second half of the 19th century: based on fiction"

The relevance of research

The problems of humanism attract the growing attention not only of specialists, but of public and cultural figures in different countries. This is due to the general interest in the problem of man, which characterizes the entire twentieth century; with the rapid development of disciplines that study a person in his various aspects - philosophical anthropology, cultural studies, sociology, psychology. At the same time, many authors note that, along with the deepening of specific knowledge, a holistic idea of what a person is not only not developed, but, on the contrary, is increasingly disintegrating into many different theories and concepts. And if in theoretical terms such a variety of approaches can be considered justified, then in practical terms it entails many problems. With the “blurring” of the image of a person, ideas about his place in the world, about his relationship with nature, society, with other people, about the criteria for evaluating certain behavioral practices and social trends, educational and psychotherapeutic methods, etc., are also “blurred”, and in connection with this, the understanding of humanism becomes more and more uncertain. And it can be assumed that further research in this area will, along with the growing diversity of views, approaches, points of view, still strive to the limit to develop an integral system of ideas about a person. Thus, the relevance of the chosen topic seems undoubted.

Interest in this problem is also caused by the fact that in the twentieth century the differences that exist between Russian and Western types of humanism became clearer: between humanism, which is based on ideas about the unity and reality of higher spiritual values (developed in religious-philosophical, philosophical -idealistic directions), and secular, secularized humanism. The social practice of recent centuries has given many examples of the concrete embodiment and development of ideas of both ideas about humanism, and thus now researchers have rich empirical material for verifying various concepts. In particular, in our opinion, those dead ends of secularized humanism that Russian philosophers wrote about were revealed: the loss of the idea of the reality of higher values and ideals led not only to the erosion moral standards, the growth of negative social tendencies, but also to the processes of personality disintegration, moreover, to the justification of these tendencies, for example, in the postmodernist paradigm. This situation also requires special consideration.

At the same time, it can be noted that studies of the problem of humanism are more fruitful when they are based not only on the material of sociology, psychology, cultural studies or other scientific disciplines, but also on the material of art and especially fiction, since fiction has its central theme precisely of a person and most directly affects the development of humanitarian knowledge. Prominent writers in their works they act not only as psychologists and sociologists, often penetrating deeper into the problem than scientists, but also as thinkers, often far ahead of scientific thought and, moreover, giving it new ideas. It is no coincidence that philosophical and scientific texts that have a human theme as their theme constantly refer the reader to literary examples. Therefore, to trace the development of the ideas of humanism on the material of fiction seems to be not only relevant, but also natural.

The period of development of fiction analyzed in this work is almost unanimously noted by literary critics as the most complete and complete, on the one hand, and diverse in directions, on the other. Moreover, it was in the second half of the 19th century that the tendencies that became dominant in the next century were formed and reflected in literary-artistic and literary-critical works. At the same time, the similarities and differences in the ideological and artistic approaches of Russian and Western literature were determined. The choice for the study of specific countries and works from the entire array of Western literature is due, firstly, to their greatest representativeness, and secondly, to the scope of the work.

The degree of development of the problem

Research in line with the chosen topic is divided into two blocks: on the one hand, these are philosophical and cultural works devoted to the problems of man and the problems of humanism as such, on the other hand, literary and critical works related to the chosen period. Since the very appearance and assertion of the term "humanism" is traditionally associated with the Renaissance, the dissertation research was based on works written starting from this period.

These include, firstly, the works of the Renaissance thinkers themselves, among whom we can name C. de Beauvel, J. Boccaccio, JI. Bruni, P. Brazzolini, JI. Valla, G. Manetti, Pico del Mirandola, F. Petrarch, M. Ficino, C. Salutati, B. Fazio, later M. Montaigne, N. Cusa, and others. Further development of the ideas of humanism takes place in the New Age and the Age of Enlightenment in the works of such authors as F.-M. Voltaire, A. K. Helvetius, T. Hobbes,

P. Holbach, D. Diderot, J.-J. Rousseau, T. Starkey and others. In the XIX century. develops social issues in the works of F. Baader, J1.

Feuerbach, ML. Bakunin, A. Bebel, V.G. Belinsky, A.A. Bogdanov,

I. Weidemeier, A.I. Herzen, I. Dietzgen, N.A. Dobrolyubov, E. Kaabe, K. Kautsky, P.A. Kropotkin, N.V. Stankevich, N.G. Chernyshevsky, as well as K. Marx, F. Engels and later V.I. Lenin. At the same time, philosophical-anthropological and cultural studies developed in classical European philosophy in the works of G. Hegel, J.-G. Herder, G.E. Lessing, I. Kant, etc.; in German classical literature in the works of I.V. Goethe, F. Schiller; the historical and cultural perspective of research is reflected in the works of A. Bastian, F. Gröbner, J. McLennan, G. Spencer, E. Tylor, J. Fraser, F. Frobenius, K. Levi-Strauss, domestic authors, such as S.S. Averintsev and others. In the 20th century, axiological and anthropological problems develop in the works of many authors - A. Bergson, N. Hartmann, A. Gelen, E. Cassirer, G. Marcel, X. Plessner, M. Scheler, P. Teilhard de Chardin , M. Heidegger and others. In addition, studies related to the problems of suppressing the personality through total manipulation of consciousness have acquired a special role; issues of interaction between man and technology, models of a new stage of social development, etc. These themes were developed by many authors, such as G. Lebon, G. Tarde, S. Silega, then F. Nietzsche, O. Spengler, N.A. Berdyaev, X. Ortega y Gasset, E. Fromm; G. M. McLuhan, J. Galbraith, R. Aron, G. Marcuse, K. Popper, F. Fukuyama, J. Attali and others.

And actually the theme of humanism, the analysis of this concept is also devoted to many works. It was raised by many of the above authors, and in the twentieth century it became the subject of a special study in the works of P. Kurtz, S. Nearing, L. Harrison, M.

Zimmerman, T. Erizer, in Russia - JT.E. Balashova, JT.M. Batkina, N.K. Batova, I.M. Borzenko, G.V. Gilishvili, M.I. Drobzhev, G.K. Kosikova, A.A. Kudishina, O.F. Kudryavtseva, S.S. Slobodenyuk, E.V.

Finogentova, Yu.M. Mikhalenko, T.M. Ruyatkina, V. A. Kuvakin and many others. It can be summarized that, thus, the vast majority of representatives of humanitarian thought in one way or another contributed to the development of the problem of humanism.

Analysis of Western and Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century is presented both in the articles of the writers themselves, who often acted as literary critics, and in the works of Western and Russian literary and art critics of the 19th and 20th centuries. - M. Arnold, E. Auerbach, JT. Butler, G. Brandeis, S.T. Williams, J. Gissing, J. Ruskin, I. Tan, E. Starkey, T.S. Eliot; N.N. Strakhova, N.A. Dobrolyubova, N.G. Chernyshevsky, D.I. Pisarev; A.A. Aniksta, M. M. Bakhtina, N.V. Bogoslovsky, L.Ya. Ginzburg, Ya.E. Golosovker, Yu.I. Danilina, A.S. Dmitrieva, V.D. Dneprov, E.M. Evnina, Ya.N. Zasursky, D.V. Zatonsky, M.S. Kagan, V.V. Lashova, J1.M. Lotman, V.F. Pereverzeva, A. Puzikova, N.Ya. Eidelman, B.Ya. Eikhenbaum and many others. Thus, one can note a very large amount of work devoted to various aspects of the chosen topic, but at the same time, a special comparative analysis of humanism in Russian and Western literature has not been carried out, which led to the choice of the research topic.

Object of study: the main trends in the development of fiction in Russia and Western countries in the second half of the 19th century.

Subject of research: interpretation of humanism in Russian and Western fiction second half of the 19th century.

The purpose of the study: to conduct a comparative analysis of the embodiment of the Western and Russian types of humanism in the literature of the second half of the 19th century.

In accordance with the purpose of the study, the following research tasks are set in the work:

1. Analyze the development of the concept of humanism in philosophical and cultural thought and determine its various meanings and interpretations.

2. Systematize the main differences between secular and religious humanism; identify problems associated with the establishment of secularized humanism.

3. Give a comparative historical overview of the main trends in the development of fiction in the second half of the 19th century in the USA, European countries and Russia; trace the connection of the main literary trends with one or another interpretation of humanism.

4. Show the internal unity of various areas of Russian fiction.

5. Substantiate the special, synthetic nature of the Russian type of humanism on the basis of the most outstanding works of Russian fiction in the second half of the 19th century.

Methodological basis of the dissertation research

In the philosophical and cultural aspect, the methodological basis of the study was the principles of dialectical methodology (the principle of a comprehensive consideration of the subject, the principle of the unity of the historical and logical, the principle of development, the principle of the unity and struggle of opposites), the method of comparative historical analysis, elements of hermeneutic methodology, as well as general scientific methods: inductive , deductive and comparative-historical. In the study of fiction of the selected period, theoretically and methodologically significant for # the author were the methods literary analysis used by Russian and Western researchers.

Scientific novelty of the research

1. The main aspects of the development of humanistic thought are identified: socio-political, historical and cultural, philosophical and anthropological, ethical and sociological.

2. There are three main types of humanism: religious-idealistic humanism; classical secular (Renaissance) humanism; converted secular humanism; justified the transition from the second to the third type of humanism; the concept is revealed and the dead-end character of the transformed secular humanism is shown. sch

3. The relationship between the ideological and artistic crisis in Western literature of the second half of the 19th century is shown. and disillusionment with the ideals of classical secular humanism.

4. The formation of the main literary movements the second half of the 19th century from the standpoint of the secularization of classical secular humanism and its transformation into a transformed secular humanism.

5. A synthetic type of humanism, characteristic of Russian culture, has been identified and its main features have been identified: affirmation of the ideals of man and society; a call for the embodiment of these ideals in life; humanism in the aspect of compassion and sacrifice; psychology,

Aimed at identifying and affirming the Human in any personality.

In the study, a number of new results were obtained, which are summarized in the following provisions submitted for defense:

1. Several main aspects/problems have emerged in humanistic thought in the process of its development: the socio-political aspect as the problem of realizing the ideal of personal and social existence in real historical conditions; historical and cultural aspect: problems of the essence of culture, criteria for progress; philosophical and anthropological aspect: questions about the needs, goals, values of the individual; ethical and sociological aspect: problems of relations between the individual and society, the nature of morality, etc. Different answers to these questions have formed different interpretations of humanism.

2. One of central issues humanistic thought was the problem of the ideal of man and society. On this basis, three main types of humanism can be distinguished: religious-idealistic humanism; classical secular (Renaissance) humanism; converted secular humanism. The first is based on the idea of the existence of a higher spirituality the universe that determines personal and social ideals. In classical secular humanism, these ideals are preserved, but their ideological justification loses its integrity and is gradually "blurred". The transformed secular humanism is characterized by the destruction of ideals, the justification of "existent" being and the cult of material needs, a tendency towards moral relativism. On this path, humanistic thought actually reached a dead end, which in practice was expressed in the growth of social and psychological problems.

3. The second half of the 19th century, according to experts, was marked by a social and ideological crisis, which was reflected in the development of fiction in Europe and the United States. In the works of leading Western writers, the possibility of a just world order, the ability of a person to defend his freedom and independence in a hostile environment, the predominance of good over evil in the human soul were questioned. Thus, the crisis was associated with disillusionment with the ideals of classical secular humanism.

4. The search for a way out of the crisis in Western fiction was expressed in two main trends: the rejection of ideals that seemed unrealizable, the assertion of a “natural” person and the legitimacy of any of his desires and passions (the course of naturalism); and the implementation of a kind of escape from the surrounding reality (neo-romanticism, going into " pure art”, the course of decadence). Both tendencies are associated with the gradual destruction of the value core that was preserved in classical secular humanism, with its further secularization and the establishment of transformed secular humanism.

5. In Russian culture, religious and Christian ideas were creatively rethought on the basis of the best achievements of secular Western culture. This gave rise to a special synthetic type of humanism, which brought the leading Russian atheist thinkers closer to their opponents, who stood on a religious-idealistic platform, and at the same time differed markedly from Western European humanism.

6. The synthetic type of humanism, reflected in Russian fiction, was characterized by the following main features: assertion of the reality and effectiveness of the ideals of man and society, to which every person should strive; a call for the embodiment of these ideals in life; humanism in the aspect of kindness, compassion, sacrifice as the central idea of most literary works; deep psychologism, not aimed at the naturalistic " anatomical dissection"of the human soul, but on the identification and affirmation of Man in any, even "fallen" personality, colored by love, understanding, affirmation of the fraternal unity of all people.

Approbation of dissertation research

Approbation of the scientific material and the findings was carried out with the participation (in speeches) at:

International conferences: "Formation of a unified educational space in the Greater Altai region: problems and prospects" (Rubtsovsk, 2005);

All-Russian conferences, symposiums and meetings: scientific and practical conference " Theory and practice educational work V high school "(Barnaul, 2000); scientific symposium " Man of Culture"(Biysk, 2000); seminar-meeting "Problems of transformation and quality of socio-humanitarian education in Russian universities on the basis of state standards of the second generation" (Barnaul, 2002); scientific and practical conference "" (Rubtsovsk, 2005);

Many regional, interregional, city and intra-university conferences: regional scientific and practical conference " Spiritual origins of Russian culture» (Rubtsovsk, 2001-2004); interregional scientific and practical conference "Psychological and pedagogical training of specialists" (Moscow, 2001); interregional scientific and practical conference " Theory, practice and education in social work: realities and prospects"(Barnaul, 2002); city scientific-practical conference "Science - city and region" (Rubtsovsk, 2003, 2004); intrauniversity scientific and practical conference " Man in the context of the modern socio-cultural situation» (Rubtsovsk, 2004, 2005).

Dissertation conclusion on the topic "Theory and history of culture", Shulgin, Nikolai Ivanovich

Conclusion

Humanism is one of the most popular and frequently used terms. It is used in a wide variety of disciplines - in philosophy, sociology, psychology, cultural studies; as well as in everyday language, in literature, in the media. At the same time, humanism is one of the most arbitrarily interpreted concepts. At the same time, the difference in interpretations, as M. Heidegger quite rightly noted in his time, is primarily associated with the worldview platform of the author who uses this term, and she, in turn, with a particular culture, the mentality of a nation, with a specific social environment. . Therefore, even the very systematization of meanings and meanings this concept, revealing the origins of its various interpretations are relevant from a theoretical point of view.

Perhaps even more relevant is the study of humanism from a socio-practical position, since it is the cornerstone concept of those areas of public life, trends and processes that directly relate to a person - education and upbringing, building a civil society, asserting and protecting human rights; the basic foundations of most social reforms. At the same time, as a rule, the initiators and authors of social programs and projects do not fix the fact that they often contain direct contradictions between the declared “ humanistic» goals and specific practices and methods, which very often turn out to be contrary to the real interests of the individual, that is, precisely inhumane. Thus, the clarification of the concept of humanism can contribute to a more qualified and detailed analysis of these programs, the development of sound recommendations.

The study of the history of the development of this concept, the reasons for the emergence of its various meanings requires the involvement of theoretical and empirical material from many areas of knowledge, primarily philosophical and cultural thought. But no less important and promising, in our opinion, is the application of the results obtained to the analysis of those areas where humanism was the central concept. Literature is definitely one of them. Man, his problems, his place in the world, relationships with other people, with nature and society have always been the main theme of fiction. And without exaggeration, we can say that within its framework a peculiar literary anthropology developed, which not only intersected with philosophical anthropology, but in many ways significantly outstripped it, providing it with the richest empirical material, developing many private and even general interesting ideas, which subsequently were are in demand by philosophers, culturologists, psychologists, sociologists and everyone who in one way or another faces the problem of a person.

When studying the processes and trends in the development of fiction in the second half of the nineteenth century, as the most significant and in many respects defining period, it is striking that the ideological and artistic crisis noted by literary critics, which engulfed most European countries and American literature in this period, is inextricably linked with the crisis of humanism as such. The humanism of this time was a classic Renaissance-enlightenment humanism, which was in the process of transformation, with its belief in the omnipotence of the human mind, the ability to transform the world on rational principles and in accordance with the principles of justice; with conviction in the triumph of the principles of freedom, equality and fraternity, with faith in the linear progress of civilization. The reality of the noted historical period has practically dispelled these illusions. This led to the fact that the old ideals began to be discarded and humanism began to move into its transformed form. If earlier a person, who was claimed by the humanistic worldview, was understood as an ideal person endowed with very specific qualities, to which every person should strive, now a “cash” person has entered the stage, and “humanity" began to be seen in justifying all being , any manifestations of personality, including those that were previously rejected as unworthy of a person. In other words, there was a denial no longer of certain specific ideals, but of the ideal as such. These tendencies, as is known, were reinforced by the philosophy of positivism, which gained particular popularity during this period and significantly influenced the art of the second half of the nineteenth century. It was dominated by a non-judgmental, cold-blooded “scientific” attitude towards what is depicted, towards evil and pathologies, towards the “underground” of the human soul, which later quite naturally turned into an apology for this underground. As already mentioned, these processes had and have a serious social refraction, so it is especially important to trace their origins and roots, to identify the reasons that led to such a transformation of the concept of humanism.

At the same time, as is known, in Russian fiction, these processes proceeded significantly differently. As already mentioned, the religious-Christian worldview played a special role in its formation. His interaction with secular culture, with the rapidly developing social and social thought, scientific worldview is one of the constantly discussed topics. But practically all authors agree that Orthodox Christian ideas in Russia were creatively rethought on the basis of the best achievements of secular Western and domestic culture and gave rise to a special type of worldview, far from church dogmatic Orthodoxy, and from the positivism popular in Europe. As a result, the development of philosophical thought, art, culture as a whole in our country proceeded significantly differently.

This largely explains the phenomenon of the extraordinary popularity of Russian fiction in the West, a deep and unceasing interest in it, which, starting from the end of the nineteenth century, continued for many years. And now, as you know, a number of Russian writers are not only included in the golden fund of world literature, but occupy leading places in it. First of all, this is due to the truly humanistic potential of Russian literature, with its deep interest in the individual, which is fundamentally different from the positivist-scientific, dispassionate study, "scalping" of the human soul. At the same time, she was far from justifying the "bottom", opposed moral relativism or individualistic closure in " ivory tower". Russian writers saw their most important task not in condemning the "fallen", but not in justifying them, but in seeing the "spark of God" in every person and contributing to his moral awakening.

Thus, at the heart of the Russian, synthetic type of humanism lies precisely the affirmation of the ideals of the individual and society, to which each individual should strive; a call for the affirmation of these ideals in life; belief in the reality and effectiveness of higher values; humanism in the aspect of kindness, compassion, sacrifice as the central idea of most literary works. Of course, this does not mean that there were no trends in Russian literature similar to Western decadence or naturalism, but they were much weaker and, most importantly, reflected the same crisis phenomena that gave rise to these trends in the West.

Of course, within the framework of one study it was not possible to cover the entire spectrum of aspects of the problem raised and various approaches to its solution. At the same time, I would like to hope that the work will contribute to understanding the importance of analyzing the concept of humanism, its manifestations in culture, art and, in particular, in Russian fiction; will be of interest to other specialists working on similar problems.

List of references for dissertation research candidate of philosophical sciences Shulgin, Nikolai Ivanovich, 2006

Please note that the scientific texts presented above are posted for review and obtained through original dissertation text recognition (OCR). In this connection, they may contain errors related to the imperfection of recognition algorithms.
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Problems of Humanism in Civil War Literature

(A. Fadeev, I. Babel, B. Lavrenev, A. Tolstoy)

Questions of humanism - respect for man - have interested people for a long time, since they directly concerned every living person on earth. These questions were especially acute in extreme situations for humanity, and above all during the civil war, when a grandiose clash of two ideologies brought human life to the brink of death, not to mention such “little things” as the soul, which was generally in some kind of a step away from complete destruction. In the literature of that time, the problem of identifying priorities, choosing between the lives of several people and the interests of a large group of people is solved ambiguously. by different authors, and in the future we will try to consider what conclusions some of them come to.

Among the most bright works about the civil war, perhaps, the cycle of stories by Isaac Babel “Konarmiya” should be attributed. And one of them expresses a seditious thought about the International: "It is eaten with gunpowder and seasoned with the best blood." This is the story of "Gedali", which is a kind of dialogue about the revolution. Along the way, it is concluded that the revolution should “shoot” precisely because of its revolutionary nature. After all good people mingled with evil people making a revolution and counteracting it at the same time. Alexander Fadeev's story "The Rout" echoes this idea. A large place in this story is occupied by a description of events seen through the eyes of Me-chik, an intellectual who accidentally fell into a partisan detachment. Neither him nor Lyutov - the hero of Babel - the soldiers can not forgive the presence of glasses and their own beliefs in their heads, as well as manuscripts and photographs of their beloved girl in a chest and other similar things. Lyutov gained the trust of the soldiers by taking away a goose from a defenseless old woman, and lost it when he could not finish off a dying comrade, and Mechik was never trusted at all. In the description of these heroes, of course, many differences are found. I. Babel clearly sympathizes with Lyutov, if only because his hero is autobiographical, while A. Fadeev, on the contrary, tries in every possible way to denigrate the intelligentsia in the face of Mechik. He describes even his most noble motives in very pathetic words and somehow tearfully, and at the end of the story he puts the hero in such a position that the chaotic actions of the Sword take the form of outright betrayal. And all because Mechik is a humanist, and moral principles partisans (or rather, their almost complete absence) cause him doubts, he is not sure of the correctness of revolutionary ideals.

One of the most serious humanistic questions dealt with in the literature on the civil war is the problem of what a detachment should do with its seriously wounded soldiers in a difficult situation: carry them, taking them with them, putting the entire detachment at risk, abandon them, leaving them to a painful death. , or finish.

In Boris Lavrenev's story "Forty-First", this question, which is raised many times in all world literature, sometimes escalating into a dispute about the painless killing of hopelessly ill people, is decided in favor of killing a person finally and irrevocably. Less than half of the twenty-five people of Yevsyukov's detachment remained alive - the rest fell behind in the desert, and the commissar shot them with his own hand. Was this decision humane in relation to the lagging comrades? It is impossible to say exactly the total, because life is full of accidents, and everyone could die, or everything could survive. Fadeev solves similar problems in the same way, but with much greater moral torment for the heroes. And the unfortunate intellectual Mechik, having accidentally learned about the fate of the sick Frolov, who was almost his friend, about the cruel decision made, tries to prevent this. His humanistic convictions do not allow him to accept murder in this form. However, this attempt in the description of A. Fadeev looks like a shameful manifestation of cowardice. In a similar situation, the Ba-Belevsky Lyutov acts almost the same way. He cannot shoot a dying comrade, although he himself asks him about it. But his comrade fulfills the request of the wounded man without hesitation and also wants to shoot Lyutov for treason. Another Red Army soldier, Lyutov, takes pity on him and treats him to an apple. In this situation, Lyutov will be more likely to be understood than people who shoot enemies with equal ease, then their friends, and then treat the survivors with apples! However, Lyutov soon gets along with such people - in one of the stories he almost burned down the house where he spent the night, and all so that the hostess would bring him food.

Here another humanistic question arises: do the fighters of the revolution have the right to plunder? Of course, it can also be called requisition or borrowing for the benefit of the proletariat, but the essence of the matter does not change from this. Evsyukov’s detachment takes the camels from the Kyrgyz, although everyone understands that after that the Kyrgyz are doomed, Levinson’s partisans take the pig from the Korean, although it is the only hope for him to live through the winter, and Babel’s horsemen carry carts with looted (or requisitioned) things, and "men with their horses are buried from our red eagles through the forests." Such actions generally cause controversy. On the one hand, the Red Army soldiers are making a revolution for the benefit of common people On the other hand, they rob, kill, rape the same people. Does the people need such a revolution?

Another problem that arises in relations between people is the question of whether love can take place in war. Let us recall on this occasion the story of Boris Lavrenev "Forty-first" and the story of Alexei Tolstoy "The Viper". In the first work, the heroine, a former fisherwoman, a Red Army soldier and a Bolshevik, falls in love with a captured enemy and, then finding herself in a difficult situation, kills him herself. And what was left for her? In "Viper" it's a little different. There, a noble girl twice becomes an accidental victim of the revolution and, while in the hospital, falls in love with a random Red Army soldier. The war has so disfigured her soul that it is not difficult for her to kill a person.

The civil war put people in such conditions that there can be no talk of any love. The place remains only for the most rude and bestial feelings. And if someone dares to sincere love, then everything will end tragically. The war destroyed all the usual human values, turned everything upside down. In the name of the future happiness of mankind - the humanistic ideal - such terrible crimes were committed that are in no way compatible with the principles of humanism. The question of whether the future happiness is worth such a sea of blood has not yet been resolved by mankind, but in general such a theory has many examples of what happens when the choice is made in favor of murder. And if all the brutal instincts of the crowd one fine day are released, then such a quarrel, such a war will surely be the last in the life of mankind.

Examples of humanity from life and literature. Humanistic traditions of 19th century literature in early 20th century prose

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