Culture of Kievan Rus folk art. Folklore of Kievan Rus

Main periods of Russian history February 13th, 2015

The history of any country can be divided into periods with significantly different quality of the state. There are six such major periods in the history of Russia.
1. Ancient Rus',IX - XIIIcenturies



The period of Ancient Rus' is often called the period of Kievan Rus. However, this is not entirely true. Kyiv was the political center of Rus' only until the last thirdXXIIV. In 1169 the great reign was transferred to Vladimir. In turn, in 1325 the residence of the metropolitan was transferred to Moscow and Moscow became the political center. Accordingly, in the history of Ancient Rus', one can single out: the period of Kievan Rus - fromIX century to 1169, the period of Vladimir Rus' - from 1169 to 1325 and the period of Moscow Rus' from 1325 - to the middle of the 16th century.

2. Tatar-Mongol yoke,XIII - XVcenturies


This period is characterized by the collapse and subsequent assembly of the Russian state. Historically, there have been several rival assembly centers, of which the main- Grand Duchy of Moscow,Grand Duchy of Tver and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Moscow won.

3. Moscow kingdom,XVI - XVIcenturies


The end of the period of Muscovite Rus' can be considered 1547, when IvanIV- Terrible was married to the kingdom. From this date began the period of Muscovy. The adoption of royal regalia marked a fundamental change in the political system of Rus' - from the system of great and specific principalities to autocracy.

4. Russian Empire,XVIII- StartXXcenturies

The next major stage in the history of Russia was the period of the Russian Empire. It began in 1721 after the victory in the Northern War, when Peter I took the title of emperor. Ended - as a result of the February bourgeois revolution1917and the abdication of the last Emperor Nicholas II from the throne.

5. USSR, beginning - endXXV.

From 1917 to 1991, the period of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics lasted, when, in my opinion, historical Russia reached its highest prosperity and power. Usually, the beginning of the Soviet period is considered to be the Great October Socialist Revolution, i.e. October 1917 However, from a formal point of view, the formation of the USSR took place on December 30, 1922, whenRSFSR , Ukrainian SSR , Byelorussian SSR AndTranscaucasian SFSR merged into a single state. The end of the Soviet period is December 8, 1991, when the degenerates Yeltsin, Kravchuk and Shushkevich, as the heads of the RSFSR, the Republic of Belarus and Ukraine, signed the Belovezhskaya agreements on the collapse of the USSR and the formation of the CIS.

6. Since 1991, the period began Russian Federation in which we now live.

It is clear that this structuring is rough. It is also clear that within each period it is possible and necessary to single out sub-periods, and within sub-periods, sub-sub-periods, etc. That is, the given structuring has the property of self-similarity, when a part is similar to the whole. It is quite possible that it also has a fractal dimension)).

Traditionally, the date of the beginning of Russian statehood is considered to be 862, to which the Tale of Bygone Years refers the calling of the Varangians-Rus (there are various versions about the origin of this people) to Novgorod the Great tribal unions eastern Baltic and upper Volga region: East Slavic Slovenes and Krivichi and Finno-Ugric Chuds, Meri and Vesi. In 882, the Rurik dynasty captured Kyiv and also took possession of the lands of the Polyans, Drevlyans, Severyans, Radimichi, Ulichi and Tivertsy, which together formed the main territory of the Old Russian state.

Old Russian state

Also Rus', Russian land. In Western Europe - "Russia" and Rusia (Russia, Ruscia, Rusca, Rutigia). Since the 11th century, the name "prince of the Russians" has been used. And at the beginning of the XII century (in papal letters) the name "Russia" appears. In Byzantium - Ρως, "Ros", Name "Rosia"(Greek Ρωσα) was first used in Ser. X century by Constantine Porphyrogenitus.

During the period of maximum expansion of the borders, the Old Russian state also included the lands of the Dregovichi, Vyatichi, Volhynians, White Croats, Yotvingians, Muroms, Meshchers, possessions at the mouth of the Dnieper (Oleshye), on the lower Don (Sarkel) and on the banks of the Kerch Strait (Tmutarakan Principality) . Gradually, the tribal nobility was supplanted by the Rurikovich, who already at the beginning of the 11th century reigned throughout the territory of Rus'. Tribal names gradually ceased to be mentioned during the 11th-12th centuries (with the exception of tribal names in the territories of the eastern Baltic and the middle Volga basin dependent on Russian princes). At the same time, starting from the end of the 10th century, each generation of Rurikovich divided Rus' among themselves, but the consequences of the first two sections (972 and 1015) were gradually overcome through a fierce struggle for power, as well as the suppression of individual lines of the Rurikovich (1036). Section of 1054, after which the so-called. The “triumvirate of the Yaroslavichs”, despite the long-term concentration of power in the hands of the younger Yaroslavich Vsevolod (1078-1093), was never completely overcome. After the struggle for power after his death, complicated by the intervention of the Polovtsy, in 1097, at the Lyubech Congress of Princes, the principle "everyone keeps his fatherland" was established.

After the allied actions of the princes, the fight against the Polovtsy was transferred from the southern Russian borders deep into the steppes, the new Kiev prince Vladimir Monomakh and his eldest son Mstislav, after a series of internal wars, managed to achieve recognition by part of the Russian princes of their power, others were deprived of their possessions. At the same time, the Rurikovichs began to enter into intra-dynastic marriages.

Russian principalities

In the 1130s, the principalities began to gradually come out of the power of the Kyiv princes, although the prince who owned Kiev was still considered the eldest in Rus'. With the beginning of the fragmentation of the Russian lands, the names "Rus", "Russian land" in most cases are applied to the Kyiv principality.

With the collapse of the Old Russian state, the Volyn principality was formed, Galician Principality, the principality of Kiev proper, the principality of Muromo-Ryazan, the Novgorod land, the principality of Pereyaslav, the principality of Polotsk, the principality of Rostov-Suzdal, the principality of Turov-Pinsk, the principality of Chernigov. In each of them, the process of formation of appanages began.

On March 12, 1169, the troops of ten Russian princes, acting on the initiative of Andrei Bogolyubsky, plundered Kiev for the first time in the practice of inter-princely strife, after which Andrei gave Kiev to his younger brother without leaving Vladimir, thereby, in the words of Klyuchevsky V.O., “teared seniority from places." Andrei himself, and later his younger brother Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212) sought (temporarily) recognition of their seniority by the majority of Russian princes.

By the beginning of the 13th century, unifying trends were also emerging. The Pereyaslav principality passed into the possession of the Vladimir princes, and the united Galicia-Volyn principality arose under the rule of the senior branch of the descendants of Vladimir Monomakh. In 1201, Roman Mstislavich Galitsky, being invited by the Kyiv boyars to reign, also gave the city to his younger cousin. In the annals under 1205, Roman is called "the autocrat of all Rus'." TO XIII century In addition to the Kyiv princes, Ryazan, Vladimir, Galician and Chernigov also began to be titled grand dukes.

After Mongol invasion the institution of "participles in the Russian land" disappeared, when the Kyiv lands were considered as the common property of the Rurik family, and the name "Rus" was assigned to all East Slavic lands.

The strengthening of the positions of the Grand Dukes of Vladimir after the Mongol invasion was facilitated by the fact that they did not participate in the large-scale South Russian civil strife before it, that the principality, until the turn of the XIV-XV centuries, did not have common borders with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which was expanding into Russian lands, and also that that the Grand Dukes of Vladimir Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, and then his son Alexander Nevsky, were recognized in the Golden Horde as the oldest in Russia. In fact, all the great princes were directly subordinate to the khans, first of the Mongol Empire, and from 1266 of the Golden Horde, independently collected tribute in their possessions and forwarded it to the khan. From the middle of the 13th century, the Bryansk princes almost constantly owned the title of Grand Dukes of Chernigov. Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tverskoy (1305-1318) was the first of the great princes of Vladimir to be called the "prince of all Rus'."

Since 1254, the Galician princes bore the title of "Kings of Rus'". In the 1320s, the Galicia-Volyn principality entered a period of decline (which some researchers associate with the new onslaught of the Golden Horde) and in 1392 ceased to exist, its lands were divided between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (full name - Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russian, Zhemoytsky and others) and the Kingdom of Poland. A little earlier, the main part of the South Russian lands was annexed by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Bryansk 1356, Kyiv 1362).

In the XIV century, the great principalities of Tver and Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod were also formed in the north-east of Rus', the Smolensk princes also began to be titled great. Since 1363, the label for the great reign of Vladimir, which meant seniority within North-Eastern Rus' and Novgorod, was issued only to Moscow princes, who from that time began to be titled great. In 1383, Khan Tokhtamysh recognized the Grand Duchy of Vladimir as the hereditary possession of the Moscow princes, while at the same time sanctioning the independence of the Grand Duchy of Tver. The Grand Duchy of Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod was annexed to Moscow in 1392. In 1405, Lithuania captured Smolensk. Finally, all Russian lands were divided between the great principalities of Moscow and Lithuania by the end of the 15th century.

Russian state

Since the 15th century, the terms “Russia”, “Russian” appear in Russian sources and spread more and more until they are finally approved in the Russian language. The period from the end of the XV to early 18th century in modern Russian historiography is referred to as the "Russian State".

Grand Duchy of Moscow

In 1478 Novgorod land was annexed to Moscow, in 1480 the Mongol-Tatar yoke was thrown off. In 1487, after a successful campaign against the Kazan Khanate, the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III proclaimed himself the "Prince of Bulgaria", which was one of the reasons for the beginning of the transfer of specific princes from the eastern outskirts of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to Moscow service along with the lands. As a result of five Russo-Lithuanian wars, Lithuania lost the Verkhovsky principalities, Smolensk and Bryansk. Other major territorial acquisitions were the Tver (1485) and Ryazan Grand Duchies (1521). In addition to independence from the Golden Horde and territorial integrity, the Grand Duchy of Moscow in the last period of its existence in the status of a Grand Duchy was also distinguished by a common code of laws (Sudebnik of 1497), the elimination of appanages and the introduction of a local system.

Russian kingdom

From January 16, 1547, after the Grand Duke Ivan IV Vasilyevich accepted the title of tsar. Also Rus', Russia, Russia, the Russian kingdom, Russian kingdom, Moscow kingdom. In the middle of the 16th century, the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates were annexed, which additionally substantiated the royal title of the Moscow monarch.

In 1569, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania accepted the Union of Lublin with Poland, which united the two states into a confederation, while transferring the southern Russian lands to Poland and generally returning to the borders of the middle of the 13th century.

In 1613, in the title of the metropolitan, the term "Rusiya", and in Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich - "Rosiya". "Muscovy" is the name of the Russian state in foreign sources of the 16th-17th centuries. The term "Russia" is finally fixed by Peter the Great (1689-1725). On the coins of Peter I, before the adoption of the title of emperor, it was written “Tsar Peter Alekseevich, Ruler of All Russia” and “Moscow ruble” on the back. (“Overlord of All Russia” was abbreviated in “V.R.P.”, but sometimes it was written in full). On May 19, 1712, the capital was moved to St. Petersburg.

Russian empire

After the adoption by Tsar Peter Alekseevich of the title of Emperor.

August 18 (31), 1914 in connection with the war with Germany, the name of the capital was changed from German to Russian - Petrograd.

Russian Republic

After a special legal meeting. In fact - after the abdication of Mikhail Alexandrovich, brother of Nicholas II from March 3, 1917

Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic- this name was first mentioned on January 21 (February 3), 1918 in the Decree on the annulment of state loans, the decree was signed by the Chairman of the Central Executive Committee Ya. Sverdlov. This name of the state was introduced after the transformation of the Russian Republic into a "federation of Soviet national republics"at the III All-Russian Congress of Soviets on January 10-18 (23-31), 1918 in the Tauride Palace in Petrograd.

Before the III All-Russian Congress of Soviets, the name Russian Republic was used.

Federation Declaration:

• January 3 (16), 1918 - the text of the Declaration was written.
• January 5 (18), 1918 - announced by Sverdlov at the All-Russian constituent assembly(dissolved on 6 (19) January).
• January 12 (25), 1918 - III All-Russian Congress Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies in the adopted Declaration.
• January 18 (31), 1918 - at the united III Congress of Soviets (after the unification of the III Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies with the III Congress of Soviets of Peasants' Deputies) in the re-adopted Declaration.
• January 28 (15), 1918 - in the Resolution of the III All-Russian Congress of Soviets "On Federal Institutions of the Russian Republic".
• On March 6-8, 1918, at the VII Congress of the RCP (b), a decision was once again made to transform the country into a federation.
• July 10, 1918 - in the Constitution at a meeting of the V All-Russian Congress of Soviets.

Variation in the name of the Republic In the period between the III All-Russian Congress of Soviets and the adoption of the first Constitution (at the V Congress), in which the name of the state was finally fixed, the documents contained variants of the still unsettled name of the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic:

The words have changed places:

• Russian Federative Socialist Soviet Republic,
• Russian Socialist Soviet Federative Republic,
• Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic;

Incomplete name with different word order (4 words):

• Russian Federative Soviet Republic,
• Russian Soviet Federative Republic,
• Russian Socialist Federative Republic,
• Russian Socialist Soviet Republic,
• Russian Soviet Socialist Republic;

Incomplete name with different word order (3 words):

• Russian Soviet Republic,
• Soviet Russian Republic
• Russian Federative Republic
• Russian Federation of Soviets

Other names:

• Russian Republic,
• Soviet Republic,
• Republic of Soviets.

Note: the new power did not immediately spread to the territory of the former Russian Empire (republic).

Note: Already, being part of the USSR, on December 5, 1936, the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic was renamed the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, i.e. two words have been swapped.

In everyday life and semi-officially, the abbreviated form was often applied to the RSFSR - Russian Federation, but this name was not officially enshrined in the constitution until 1992 (it is worth noting that since 1990 this name was supposed to be approved as the official name of the country)

Formed by the unification of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and the ZSFSR.

On December 5, 1936 (according to the new constitution), in the name of the RSFSR, the order of the words "socialist" and "Soviet" was brought into line with the order of these words in the name of the USSR.

Russian Federation

Russian Federation- On December 25, 1991, by law No. 2094-I, the state of the RSFSR was renamed the Russian Federation (the modern name is enshrined in the constitution along with the name Russia). On April 21, 1992, appropriate amendments were made to the 1978 Constitution (Basic Law) of the RSFSR that was then in force.

Also until the adoption of the new constitution in 1993, a new coat of arms was in development. De facto, on the territory of the Russian Federation in the first half of the 1990s, letterheads and seals of institutions with the old coat of arms and the name of the state of the RSFSR were still used, although they were supposed to be replaced during 1992.

The use of the name "Russian Federation" before the collapse of the USSR

• 1918 - in paragraph e) of Article 49 of the Constitution of the RSFSR of 1918 (as a variant of the name).
• 1966 - in the title of the book "Chistyakov O.I., Formation of the Russian Federation (1917-1922), M., 1966".
• 1978 - in the preamble to the 1978 Constitution of the RSFSR.

In modern Russia, some documents are still in force in which the old name "RSFSR" remains:

• Law of the RSFSR of December 15, 1978 (as amended on June 25, 2002) "On the protection and use of historical and cultural monuments"
• Law of the RSFSR dated 07/08/1981 (as amended on 05/07/2009) "On the judiciary of the RSFSR"
• Declaration of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR of June 12, 1990 N 22-1 "On State Sovereignty of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic"
• Law of the RSFSR of October 24, 1990 N 263-1 "On the operation of acts of the bodies of the Union of the SSR on the territory of the RSFSR"
• Law of the RSFSR of October 31, 1990 N 293-1 "On ensuring the economic basis of the sovereignty of the RSFSR"
• Law of the RSFSR of March 22, 1991 N 948-1 (as amended on July 26, 2006) “On Competition and Restriction of Monopoly Activities in Commodity Markets”
• Law of the RSFSR of 04/26/1991 N 1107-1 (as amended on 07/01/1993) "On the rehabilitation of repressed peoples"
• Law of the RSFSR dated 06/26/1991 N 1488-1 (as amended on 12/30/2008) "On investment activity in the RSFSR"
• Law of the RSFSR dated 06/26/1991 N 1490-1 (as amended on 02/02/2006) "On the priority provision of the agro-industrial complex with material and technical resources"
• Decree of the President of the RSFSR of November 15, 1991 N 211 (as amended on June 26, 1992) “On increasing wages employees of budgetary organizations and institutions"
• Decree of the President of the RSFSR of November 21, 1991 N 228 "On the organization of the Russian Academy of Sciences"
• Decree of the President of the RSFSR of November 25, 1991 N 232 (as amended on October 21, 2002) "On the commercialization of the activities of trade enterprises in the RSFSR"
• Decree of the President of the RSFSR of November 28, 1991 N 240 (as amended on October 21, 2002) "On the commercialization of the activities of public service enterprises in the RSFSR"
• Decree of the President of the RSFSR of December 3, 1991 N 255 "On priority measures for organizing the work of the industry of the RSFSR"
• Decree of the President of the RSFSR of December 3, 1991 N 256 "On measures to stabilize the work of the industrial complex of the RSFSR in the context of economic reform"
• Decree of the President of the RSFSR of December 3, 1991 N 297 (as amended on February 28, 1995) "On measures to liberalize prices"
• Decree of the President of the RSFSR of December 12, 1991 N 269 (as amended on October 21, 2002) "On the Common Economic Space of the RSFSR"
• Law of the RSFSR of December 25, 1991 N 2094-1 "On changing the name of the state of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic"
• Decree of the Government of the RSFSR of December 24, 1991 N 62 (as amended on November 13, 2010) "On approval of the lists of federal roads in the RSFSR"

wonderful country and dramatic story- that's what historians say about it. Indeed, over the 12 centuries of its existence, it has gone through a lot - the search for religion, invasions, wars, turmoil, palace coups, perestroika ... Each of these stages left a scar, first of all - on the life of the people ...

Below are the conditional names of the periods:

1. Ancient Rus', IX-XIII centuries. It is often called the period of Kievan Rus.
2. Tatar-Mongol yoke, XIII-XV centuries.
3. Moscow kingdom, XVI-XVI centuries.
4. Russian Empire, XVIII - early XX centuries.
5. USSR, beginning - end of XX centuries.
6. Since 1991, the period of the Russian Federation began, in which we now live.

And now about everything in more detail. Let us analyze in detail, but briefly the main periods of the history of Russia.

It all started like this...

No, this is not the first period in the history of Russia, but only the prerequisites for it. So...

In the 6th-7th centuries, Slavic tribes moved from the vast plains of Eastern Europe to the Northern Black Sea region. In the valleys of the Don and Dnieper. They were pagan farmers who worshiped the sun, lightning, and wind.

Cities gradually began to form: Kyiv, Chernigov, Novgorod, Yaroslavl. Tribal chiefs and princes were engaged in the usual activities for that period: they fought with their neighbors - the nomadic tribes of the Pechenegs and Khazars, fought with each other and mercilessly oppressed and robbed their subjects. Gradually, the level of strife and civil strife became more and more tangible, and the Novgorod elders turned to the Varangians - as the Slavs then called the Scandinavian Vikings - with the words: “Our land is great and plentiful, but there is no order in it. Come reign and rule over us."

3 Varangian princes undertook to restore order: Sineus, Truvor and Rurik. The new princes founded, in fact, the state of Rus'. And the Varangian-Slavic people who inhabited these lands began to be called Russian.

This is the beginning of the 1st period of the history of Russia.

Rurik's reign

Rurik became the founder of the Rurik dynasty, who ruled Russia for several centuries. He himself headed the newly minted state from 862 to 879.

After the death of Rurik for some time, power passed to the guardian of his son, Oleg. He is for not long years reign (from 879 to 912) managed to capture Kyiv and make it the capital of Rus'. After that, the Russian state became known as Kievan Rus. This state became so strong that Oleg's squad captured the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople, or, as the Russians called it, Constantinople.

After the death of Oleg, the son of Rurik, Igor, ruled for a short time (from 912 to 945). He was killed by the Drevlyans, a neighboring vassal tribe, who rebelled from unthinkable extortions. Olga, Igor's wife, cruelly avenged the Drevlyans for the death of her husband. But in general, she was a very enlightened ruler. Olga sat on the throne from 945 to 957 and even converted to Christianity, for which she was later ranked among the most revered saints.

New religion

Paganism was no longer suitable for Kievan Rus - a rather strong and modern state. It was necessary to choose a monotheistic religion. And Prince Vladimir of Kyiv (980-1015), Olga's grandson, was presented with a choice of 3 religions:

• Christianity in the Roman and Orthodox traditions.
• Islam.
• Judaism, which was professed by the rulers of the then powerful Khazar kingdom.

Prince Vladimir made a historic decision. He chose Orthodoxy - the religion of Byzantium. And this choice became fateful for Russia for the entire time of its further history.

The Baptism of Rus' is one of the most significant events in the first period of the history of Russia: which began in 988, it was not easy. The most stubborn keepers of the pagan faith were mercilessly destroyed. Many had to be baptized, as they say, "with fire and sword." However, most of the population quietly accepted the new faith.

The reign of Vladimir in Russian history is considered a bright and joyful page - best time Kievan Rus.

New laws

After the death of Vladimir, for some time the throne was taken by his son Yaroslav (1019-1054), nicknamed, and not without reason, the Wise. He created the first code of laws "Russian Truth". He patronized scientists, architects and icon painters. He led a well-thought-out economic policy.

After Yaroslav, one after another, his sons and grandsons, who were at enmity with each other, became rulers. The country broke up into many principalities.

Historians believe that Kievan Rus ceased to exist in the 12th century - from that moment begins the 2nd period of the history of Russia.

Life under the yoke

At that time, a powerful warlike power was formed on the territory of Mongolia, Siberia and Northern China, headed by the outstanding commander Genghis Khan. From the nomadic tribes of the Mongols and Tatars, he created an army with a rigid organization, iron discipline and armed with hitherto unseen siege equipment. With a deadly wave, this army swept across the expanses of Asia and moved towards Europe. Despite the desperate resistance of some Russian princes, the Mongol-Tatar hordes captured the entire space of Ancient Rus', sowing death, smoke of conflagrations, and violence everywhere. However, the Tatar-Mongol conquerors retained the power of princes loyal to themselves and did not persecute the Orthodox Church, which remained the guardian of culture and the main unifying factor for the Russian people.

Gradually, the Tatar-Mongol conquerors and the Russian principalities established some kind of balance of forces and interests. The second period in the development of Russian history lasted for about two centuries.

Liberation victories

The Novgorod prince Alexander Nevsky (1252-1264), being in vassal dependence on the conquerors and continuing to pay tribute to them, managed to defeat the troops of the knightly Catholic order twice - on the banks of the Neva and on the ice of Lake Peipsi.

Prince Alexander Nevsky (Prince of Novgorod, Grand Duke of Kiev, Grand Duke of Vladimir, commander, saint of Russia Orthodox Church) was then canonized as a saint and became, as it were, a symbol of the victory of the Orthodox Russian army over the Catholic knightly orders. Considered one of the patron saints of Russia.

The new capital of Kievan Rus

And now, inconspicuous at first, the small principality of Moscow (originally the lot of the Grand Duchy of Vladimir), under the control of smart and prudent rulers, is gradually becoming the center of attraction for the rest of the Russian lands. In general, from the day of its foundation, the Muscovite state has been constantly expanding for many centuries, annexing more and more new lands. And do you know what period of Russian history this time belongs to? To the Moscow kingdom of the 16th - 16th centuries, which over the years became so strong that the grandson of the first Moscow prince Ivan Kalita - Prince Dmitry (1359-1389) - managed to gather an army of many thousands and move him towards a detachment of Tatars led by commander Mamai.

The battle on the banks of the Don - on the Kulikovo field - turned into a terrible bloody battle. And ended with the victory of the Russian rati. And although for many years after that Rus' paid tribute to the Tatar conquerors and was in vassal dependence on them, the victory on the Kulikovo field had the deepest historical significance. She showed the increased power of Russia and the ability to defeat the enemy in open battle.

But in general, over the 2 centuries of the yoke - as the Tatar-Mongol occupation was later called - Russia has largely lost various ties with the West. As if frozen on the historical path.

So in Russian history, "East - West" swung towards the East.

Freedom!

In the 15th century, Ivan III (1462-1505), nicknamed the Great by his contemporaries, became Prince of Moscow. Under him, Rus' stopped paying tribute to the Tatar conquerors. The reign of Ivan the Great was a happy time for Rus'.

He married the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Sophia Palaiologos, and received a double-headed eagle as the state emblem of Russia. Under him, relations with Europe were established. Foreign architects and builders came to Russia. In particular, the Italian masters who, together with Russian architects, rebuilt the Russian Kremlin.

Under him, the idea of ​​the Russian state finally appeared. It was confirmed by historical reality, and also reflected in the minds of the citizens of the country, who began to understand that their country is Russia. And this is not only the country of Russians, but also, after the fall in 1453, the center of world Orthodoxy.

Bloody time of Ivan the Terrible

The reign of Ivan IV (1533-1584), who ascended the throne in 1547, became one of the most controversial and bloody pages in the history of Russia. The king carried out the necessary reforms:

• He issued a new code of laws (Sudebnik of 1550).
• Streamlined the tax system.
• He created a well-trained archery army.

As a result of successful wars, he annexed the Kazan, Astrakhan, and then Siberian kingdoms to Russia. But entered into world history like Ivan the Terrible - a bloody tyrant, distinguished by extreme cruelty. The atmosphere of palace intrigues, murders and deceit, combined with mental disorders (such is the point of view of historians) made the king, as is often the case with tyrants, obsessed with persecution mania. Enemies and traitors seemed to him everywhere, and he executed these subjects, and for the most part - imaginary enemies, in the most sophisticated ways.

Ivan the Terrible created a personal army - the so-called guardsmen. They were young people dressed in all black and boundlessly devoted to the king. During the day they chopped off the heads of the king's enemies, terrifying the people, and at night they feasted in close company with Ivan the Terrible. The victims of the guardsmen were primarily boyar families - the descendants of many ancient families. The cruelty of the formidable king knew no bounds. The whole country, covered in blood, lived in constant fear. In a fit of furious anger, the king killed his eldest son with a blow from his staff.

After the death of Ivan IV, his weak-willed and indecisive son Fyodor ascended the throne (reigned 1584-1598). In fact, the country was ruled by Boris Godunov, a boyar, a close adviser to the last Russian tsars from the Rurik dynasty, which ended with the death of Fedor.

Since 1598, Boris Godunov, who ascended the throne at the end of the 16th century, became the official tsar in Rus'. He ruled fairly until 1605 and tried to reform life in Russia, to strengthen statehood. It was a historic chance for Russia to make a decisive breakthrough in its development. But the reformers in Rus' were never loved ...

Invasion of false kings

Various rumors circulated among the people, sometimes the most incredible. Some of them concerned the deceased in infancy from an accident. younger son Ivan the Terrible, Dmitry. The Poles decided to take advantage of this, having long dreamed of capturing part of the Russian lands and expanding their influence in the east. In Poland, a man appeared who pretended to be the miraculously surviving Tsarevich Dmitry. On his way from Poland to Moscow, False Dmitry received jubilation and support from the people, dissatisfied with the rule of Godunov. The so-called Time of Troubles began. The time of anarchy and lawlessness, which was almost worse than the time of the despotism of Ivan the Terrible.

Moscow was flooded by the Poles, who eventually angered the people. Not having sat on the throne for even a year, False Dmitry was overthrown and executed.

The representative of the famous boyar family Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610) was declared king - and immediately a peasant uprising swept the country.

The weak power of the new king gave rise to many contenders for the throne, supported by various forces. Cossack detachments came to Moscow, designed to protect the country's borders, and joined the struggle for power.

Poles, Kazakhs, Swedes - whoever tried to establish their control over Muscovy. The patience of the Russian people, in the end, burst. He was able to rally in the face of external and internal threats. Headman of Nizhny Novgorod Kuzma Minin and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky convened civil uprising. Moved from Novgorod to Moscow. All interventionists were expelled. This time was the final for the period of Russian history known as the "Muscovite State".

Romanovs, to the start!

A new Russian Tsar Michael was elected from the Romanov boyars (1613-1645). So a new dynasty of Russian monarchs was born, and a new period in the history of Russia started. However, we have not yet reached the empire ... After all, it was under Peter I. In the meantime ...

During the reign of Mikhail Romanov and his son - Tsar Alexei (1645-1676) - the Russian people received a peaceful respite. In the last third of the 17th century, Russia achieved political stability, a certain economic prosperity, and even expanded its borders.

In order to survive and take its place in the world, Russia in the 17th century needed urgent modernization. As if obeying the call of history, a man appeared who can be safely called a genius - it was Tsar Peter I (1682-1725). He set the goal of his life to promote Russia to the ranks of the leading European powers.

But let's go back a few years. After the death of her father - Tsar Alexei - the sister Sophia sat on the throne, the main support of which was the detachments of archers. A kind of guard that defended the traditional foundations.

Peter dealt with them very harshly and even chopped off the heads of archers on Red Square near the Moscow Kremlin. In the fight against the conservative boyar opposition, clinging to old traditions, he did not even spare his own son Alexei, sending him to execution. However, Peter was cruel only to those who were an obstacle in the execution of his super-ideas - to put Russia among the leading European countries.

He completely changed life in the country:

• He went to Europe with a large retinue, whom he forced to learn craft, engineering, economics, morals.
• He sent the sons of the nobles to study in Europe.
• He ordered the boyars to shave their beards, dress the ladies in low-cut dresses and hold balls according to the European model. The elite of society - ruling class- completely changed, even outwardly. The social history of Russia during the period of the empire was incredibly rich.
• He himself, however, under a false name, worked for some time as a carpenter in order to master shipbuilding.
• With the help of young merchants, he created a new industry that provides the army with weapons.
• He waged wars with the Swedes, the Turks, again with the Swedes, in order to annex new territories, and most importantly, to provide the country with access to the sea. After all, until now the Russian state did not have its own ports either on the Black or Baltic Seas.

Moreover, on the coast of the Baltic, in wild places where there were only forests and swamps, he built the new capital of the Russian Empire - the city of St. Petersburg, which was Russia's "window to Europe."

Peter occupies a special place in Russian history. He left behind a completely new country. History itself is now divided into 2 periods: pre-Petrine Russia and post-Petrine Russia.

Palace coups

After the death of Peter in 1725, the so-called era of palace coups in the history of Russia begins. The periods of reign of emperors are limited to the time pleasing to the guard.

First, Catherine I Alekseevna, the wife of Peter, became the empress for 2 years (1725-1727). Then power for 3 years (1727-1730) passed to the grandson of Peter - Peter II Alekseevich. And then for 10 years (1730-1740), the guards put Peter's niece, Anna Ioannovna, on the throne. In fact, this period was ruled by her favorite - the cruel Ernst Biron.

After Anna's death, for a short time (1740-1741), the infant Ivan VI Antonovich was declared emperor, under which his mother Anna Leopoldovna, Anna Ioanovna's niece, performed the regency. She was successfully overthrown by the guards and put on the throne by Peter's daughter, Elizabeth (1741-1761), who had no children. After her death, the throne passed to her nephew, Peter III Fedorovich (1761-1702). He married the German princess Sophia August Frederick of Anhalt-Zerbt, who received the name Catherine in Russia. In the end, the guards overthrew Peter III, and put Catherine on the throne.

As a result, 7 rulers changed in Russia in 75 years after Peter the Great.

Golden Age of the Russian Empire

The reign of Catherine II is called the Golden Age. Under her, Russia continued the path marked by Peter - the country fought both in the West and in the South. As a result, a series of Russian-Turkish wars annexed Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region to Russia, opening up access to the warm waters of the Mediterranean Sea.

After several partitions of Poland, Russia included: Lithuania, Belarus, the western regions of Ukraine.

Following the Moscow University, opened under Elizabeth, thanks to Catherine the Great, several educational institutions appeared in the capital St. Petersburg.

Catherine II was liberal-minded. She called her subjects not slaves, but free people. True, the peasant uprising (1773-1775) led by Stepan Pugachev so frightened the empress that she curtailed her liberal projects. In particular, the new code of laws.

Catherine, considering her son Paul (1796-1801) not a very smart young man, during her reign did not even let him come close to the throne. Therefore, having seized power, he began to eradicate any "free-thinking". He introduced strict censorship, forbade Russian citizens to study abroad, and foreigners to freely enter Russia. He broke off diplomatic relations with England and sent 40 regiments Don Cossacks to conquer India. At the same time, they had neither maps nor a plan of action. As a result of a conspiracy in which Paul's son Alexander participated, he was overthrown and killed.

Alexander I (1801-1825) became the new emperor. He began his reign by canceling his father's decrees. Returned innocent victims from exile. In general, he was determined to carry out various liberal reforms. Under him, for the first time, imperial Russia began to wage a defensive war against France.

Not far from Moscow near the village of Borodino (1812) took place famous battle, as a result of which neither side was able to win a decisive victory.

Emperor Nicholas I Pavlovich (1825-1855) struggled intensely with the ideas of change that had penetrated the country. For 30 years of his reign, he created an ideal, absolute monarchy. Authoritarian thinking also affected foreign policy. Starting another Russian-Turkish war, Nicholas faced opposition from the European powers. Bound by allied obligations with Turkey, with the Ottoman Empire, England and France moved their troops into the Black Sea, as a result of which they inflicted a humiliating defeat on Russia. This dragged Russia into another crisis.

Nicholas I is replaced on the throne by his son Alexander II (1855-1881). His reign is associated with the abolition of serfdom in the country (1861). This event became one of the most important social history Russia in the period of the empire. That is why Alexander II went down in history as the "tsar-liberator".

The new monarch actively implemented reforms:

• Judicial.
• Military.
• Zemskaya.

However, for some they seemed too serious, and for others - insufficient. The tsar found himself in the crossfire of conservatives and liberals. In 1881, as a result of an assassination attempt on the banks of the Catherine Canal, he was killed.

Threats of terrorism forced Alexander III (1881-1894) to settle away from St. Petersburg, in the well-guarded Gatchina Palace. His reign can be described as a victory for conservatism - the reforms stopped, the effect of some liberal laws was limited.

On the eve of the USSR

The change of the 19th and 20th centuries is a transitional time between the main periods in the history of Russia. The Empire will be replaced by the Union... Soon...

Perhaps the most unfortunate Russian tsar was the son of Alexander III - Nicholas II (1894-1917). He was burdened by the fact that he was born an heir. He was frightened by the prospect of becoming emperor.

Society yearned for change, and after the lost war with Japan in the Far East, the first workers' revolt took place, turning into a revolution. The uprising was crushed. The frightened king went to extremes.

Uneducated, poor and hungry for the most part, the country in 1914 enters the war on the side of England and France with Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The soldiers - yesterday's peasants - did not understand what they were fighting for. Plus, the poor equipment of the army, discontent, hunger did their job - they gave rise to an uprising in St. Petersburg.

As a result, the last Russian tsar from the Romanov dynasty abdicates the throne. We can say that from this moment the Soviet period in the history of Russia begins.

A provisional government formed from representatives of different parties came to power. The population, exhausted by the war, adopted revolutionary views. Representatives of extremist and terrorist organizations, who had previously been underground, have returned from abroad.

One of these was the "Marxist Group of Bolshevik Communists", headed by Vladimir Ulyanov (Lenin). They boldly seized power in Petersburg. They occupied, practically without firing a shot, the Winter Palace, where the provisional government was located, and arrested its members.

Civil War

From 1917 to 1920, the country was in the Civil War. As a result, the Bolsheviks won. Since 1920, they begin to build a "society of happiness" - communism - in the country lying in ruins. This ideology will become the main one for the Soviet period in the history of Russia.

Lenin takes a decisive step and introduces a new economic policy (NEP), which allowed the state to change in a couple of years - food, clothing and even luxury goods appeared. This irritated the cardinal Bolsheviks.

After Lenin's death in 1924, Iosif Dzhugashvili, better known under the pseudonym Stalin (1924-1953), seized power more and more decisively. He took control of the secret police of the Cheka. He started a series of high-profile trials against almost all the leaders of the Bolsheviks who led the revolution. Since 1929, he has completely controlled the country. Destroys the kulaks, seizes land and creates collective farms.

The Second Great War fell on the era of Stalin Patriotic War(1941-1945). This is one of the blackest pages of this period in the history of Russia.

As a result of a short struggle for power, after the liquidation of the Minister of State Security Lavrenty Beria, in 1953 the pragmatist Nikita Khrushchev came to power. He was a controversial leader - he proposed to sow fields with corn, at a meeting of the UN Security Council he pounded his shoe on the podium; however, under him the first satellite was launched, and he also made the world's first flight in space cosmonaut Gagarin. The first of the Soviet leaders visited America. Under him, the "Khrushchev thaw" took place, which allowed liberal views in art. He promised to destroy and bury America in the ground, and he, in moments of enlightenment, decided to get rid of the domination of the party nomenklatura. For which he was removed from power by this very nomenklatura in 1964.

The reins of government of the country were taken over by a group of conspirators led by Leonid Brezhnev (1964-1982). The years of his reign are usually called the era of stagnation. The confrontation with the West continued. The Cold War waxed and waned. The economy was focused on the sale of commodities, which led it to a crisis. Brezhnev died in 1982.

The government nominated him to replace the influential former head of the security service, Yuri Andropov (1982-1984), and then, after his death, another elderly leader, Konstantin Chernenko (1984-1985), who also died shortly after.

A younger ruler came to power - Mikhail Gorbachev (1985-1991), who vigorously set to work. He quickly changed the leadership of the party and the state and began to carry out reforms. The so-called course for the restructuring of the social and state life of the country was announced.

Gorbachev's liberal reforms angered conservative circles. In 1991, they decided to make a coup. However, the putsch was defeated, because the conspirators did not have any plan of action to change the life of the country in better side. Nevertheless, the coup actually left the country without a government, which was used by the emboldened heads of the national republics - who separated and gained independence from Russia.

The paradox is that Gorbachev, who returned in triumph to Moscow, remained the president of the disintegrated Union, and Boris Yeltsin (1991-1999) became the new president of Russia.

Our time - New time

Everything that has been happening in our country since 1991 belongs to the period of Russia's recent history.

And now let's get back to Yeltsin... The lack of confrontation with the collapsed republics and conservative political oppositions is attributed to the pluses of his policy. As well as democratic style of government, freedom of speech. However, conservatives opposed it. This led to the armed rebellion in 1993. Nevertheless, the first president managed to cope with the situation without reprisals.

When it seemed that all the bad things were behind, a financial crisis broke out in the country, ending in default - bankruptcy, loss of deposits in banks, shutdown of enterprises ... All this could lead to new revolution. But history has its own plans.

Yeltsin appoints the former officer of the security committee Vladimir Putin (2000-2008, 2012 - today) as his successor. At first, Putin continued Yeltsin's policy, but over time he began to show more and more independence. It was he who settled the conflict in Chechnya.

In 2008, according to the constitution, Putin handed over powers to the newly elected president, Dmitry Medvedev, and took over as prime minister himself. However, in 2012 everything changed again... Today, the post of President of the Russian Federation is occupied by V. V. Putin.

Here they are, to be brief, calm and exciting historical periods in the history of Russia.

Introduction

Folklore of Kievan Rus

Theater of Russian civilization in Kyiv period

Literature of ancient Rus'

Conclusion

Applications

Introduction

During the period of the formation and flourishing of feudalism in Rus' (X - XVII centuries), art was formed on the basis of the achievements of the artistic culture of the East Slavic tribes and the Scythians and Sarmatians who lived on these lands before them. Naturally, the culture of each tribe and region had its own distinctive features and was influenced by neighboring lands and states. The influence of Byzantium was especially noticeable from the moment Russia adopted Christianity (988). Together with Christianity, Rus' adopted the traditions of ancient, primarily Greek, culture.

It is important to note that the Russian art of the Middle Ages was formed in the struggle between two ways - patriarchal and feudal, and two religions - paganism and Christianity. And just as traces of the patriarchal way of life can be traced for a long time in the art of feudal Rus', so paganism reminded of itself in almost all its forms. The process of getting rid of paganism was spontaneous, but still attempts were made to strengthen the new religion, to make it close and accessible to people. It is no coincidence that churches were built on the sites of pagan temples; elements of folk deification of nature penetrated into it, and some saints began to be attributed the role of old gods.

Having adopted Christianity from Byzantium, Rus' naturally adopted certain foundations of the language of culture. But these foundations were reworked and acquired in Rus' their specific, deeply national forms. “We took the Byzantine Gospel and tradition from Byzantium,” wrote A.S. Pushkin. Of course, like any art of the Middle Ages, the art of Ancient Rus' follows a certain canon, traceable in architectural forms, and in iconography - in painting. Even samples were created - "cuts," "originals," facial and sensible (in the first it was shown how to write, in the second it was "interpreted," it was told), but following the canon, and contrary to them, the artist's rich creative personality skillfully manifested itself. Based on the centuries-old traditions of Eastern European art, Russian masters managed to create their own national art, enrich European culture new forms of temples inherent only in Rus', original wall paintings and iconography, which cannot be confused with Byzantine, despite the commonality of iconography and the apparent closeness of the pictorial language.

In pre-Mongolian times, the political and cultural center of the Russian land was Kyiv - "the mother of Russian cities," as its contemporaries called it in antiquity, comparing its beauty and significance with Constantinople. The growth of Kiev's power was facilitated by its geographical position at the crossroads of trade routes from the Scandinavian countries to the south, to Tsargrad, from the west, from Germany, to Khorezm. Under Prince Vladimir and his son Yaroslav, Kievan Rus became a strong state, previously unknown to the Eastern Slavs. The Russian army kept both the Byzantines and the Khazars in fear. The Western Slavs sought friendship with Russia, the German emperors entered into alliances. Russian princes gave their daughters in marriage to foreign sovereigns. Thus, the international position of Kievan Rus was strengthened.

This work reflects the main areas of art of Kievan Rus: folklore, music, theater, architecture, fine arts (icon painting), literature.

For this, the literature of such authors as Barskaya N.A., Lebedeva Yu.L., Muravyov A.V. was used. and others.

Language is primarily a means of communication between people. It connects a person with a social group: and with the immediate environment - a family or a friend, and a wider social group - a clan, a tribe, a nation. In society, the language performs various official functions, serving the Church, the state, and justice. On the stage" literary language» it becomes an instrument of education, science, literature.

Before reaching this final cultural stage, the language undergoes a long process of internal development, being a means of self-expression of individuals and groups during work and leisure. We usually call the products of such self-expression "folklore". Echoes of this ancient poetic tradition were preserved mainly among the peasantry, at least in Russia, and therefore the term "folklore" became almost synonymous with the concept of "folk literature", denoting the literary works of the lower classes. In the ancient period, the situation was different, since the development of creative abilities in the field of literature was based on the cooperation of all social groups. In the Kiev period, after the introduction of Russian Christianity and the appearance of written texts, in literary art formed a kind of dualism. As Roman Jakobson so masterfully puts it:

“For many centuries, Russian written literature almost completely remained the prerogative of the Church: for all its richness and high artistry, the ancient Russian literary heritage almost all consists of the biographies of saints and pious people, religious legends, prayers, sermons, theological discourses and chronicles in the monastic style. However, the ancient Russian people possessed the richest, original, diverse and highly artistic literature, but the only means of its distribution was oral presentation. The idea of ​​using letters for secular poetry was absolutely alien to the Russian tradition, and the expressive means of this poetry were inseparable from the oral heritage and oral tradition.

Home integral part Russian folklore is a song - language and rhythm, word and melody are closely intertwined in it. A Russian proverb quite characteristically says: “You can’t throw out a word from a song.” It was also said that "The Song is a living chronicle of the Russian people." Since time immemorial, Russians have captured in song the entire course of their lives: work and play, joy and sadness, minor incidents and great historical events.

Russian folklore accompanied the Russian people throughout its history, and only at the very Lately the sources of folklore began to dry up under the influence of an industrialized and mechanized civilization. In the villages, especially in the north of Russia, the narrators of ancient epics are still in high esteem.

Not counting the Tale of Igor's Campaign, which, of course, was created not by the "people", but by an individual creator who belonged to the class of the aristocracy, the first written text of the Russian folk poem, a spiritual verse, dates from the fifteenth century. The oldest known manuscript of Russian folk ballads appears to have been created in 1619 for Richard James, an Oxford graduate who served as chaplain to English merchants in Russia. The Englishman thus has the honor of being a pioneer in the study of Russian folklore. James's manuscript contains only six songs.

Most of the known works of Russian folklore, including folk prose such as fairy tales, were recorded in writing or, more recently, in sound form during the eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Thus, there is no formal evidence to date these materials, other than the date of recording, which in most cases is relatively recent.

For some epic songs, the earliest creation date can be determined by context. So, the song about the death of the voivode Skopin-Shuisky, one of those recorded for James, certainly could not have appeared before 1610, the date of the voivode's death. In most cases, however, this method is unreliable. Some epic songs in praise of Prince Vladimir could have been created in his time, but we cannot be sure that we have the original text.

Thus, to try to choose from the general fund of ancient Russian folklore a part that can be confidently attributed to the Kievan period is really the highest degree difficult task. We can be sure that this or that folk song is very ancient, but we are unlikely to be able to prove this in each specific case. Nevertheless, it is obvious that the roots of folklore, including Russian folk art, go deep into history - in many cases much beyond the Kiev period. Consequently, the picture of the civilization of that period will be incomplete if folklore is left out of consideration, and even a hypothetical dating of some songs is better than ignoring the subject.

Obviously, some of the ritual songs that originally accompanied or symbolized the various stages of the agricultural cycle are very ancient. Traces of pagan beliefs, worship of the Sun and Earth, are visible in many of them. This group includes songs performed during the festivities on the occasion of the winter solstice (kolyada), spring equinox (carnival), summer solstice (semik or mermaid) and autumn solstice. After the introduction of Russian Christianity, the former pagan holidays were combined with Christian ones, and the texts of some songs changed accordingly, the old carol songs now played the role of Christmas hymns. In many cases, evidence of the ancient origin of the song, in addition to its content, is an ancient melodic form. In general, there is enough circumstantial evidence that many Russian ritual songs were formed in the Kievan period, if not earlier. An important part of the ritual songs is the cycle of wedding songs, which corresponds to the complex ceremonies that accompanied the ancient wedding ceremony, which is still performed among the peasants. Each action of the rite corresponds to a special song. Some are very cheerful, others are sad and even sad.

Epic songs (old times, epics), which can be dated to the Kievan period, are quite numerous. These poems are usually dedicated to the glorious deeds of the mighty heroes who defended the Russian land from the steppe nomads. In some cases, the enemy of the hero is a Zhidovin (Jew). Of course, this refers to the struggle of the Russians with the Khazars. In many cases, however, the enemy in the variant readings of the surviving texts is a Tatar, which, of course, would be an anachronism for the Kievan period, since the Tatars - as the Mongols were called in Rus' - appeared only in the thirteenth century.

The bogatyrs sung in epic poems are mostly combatants of St. Vladimir. Although they are always ready to protect the prince and his state, they have no servility, they communicate with him in a friendly way, sometimes even scold the prince and his wife. They were not disciplined soldiers, but brutish individualists, and indeed each of them is portrayed as an individual with his own character. The eldest of them is Ilya Muromets, a big powerful man of peasant origin, purposeful and fearless, but without traces of civilization. His main associate is Alyosha Popovich, the son of a priest who relies on his cunning. Dobrynya Nikitich is a boyar, a noble, generous person. Another popular character from the gallery of portraits of heroes - Churilo Plenkovich, before whom not a single girl could resist.

Other epic poems were later added to the Vladimir cycle of epics, including the legend of Volkh Vseslavich, describing the adventures of Prince Vseslav of Polotsk, and the poem about Duke Stepanovich, which was composed in Galicia in the twelfth century and reflects the close ties of this principality with byzantine empire.The famous poem "Sadko", an early version of which, apparently, was also created in the twelfth century, is a typical Novgorod work. Her hero is not a steppe hero, but a merchant-traveler; wealth, not military prowess, gives color to history.

Another Novgorod epic - about Vasily Buslaev - is of a completely different city. Vaska (a diminutive of Vasily) is one of the unbridled fellows of the city-republic; he is always looking for adventure and does not recognize any authorities. A free thinker, he does not revere the church, he is not superstitious, as the poet says: "he does not believe in a dream, not in a choh."

Returning to the “steppe epics”, it should be emphasized that some of them have parallels with Persian and Turkic folklore. For example, some episodes of the story about Ilya Muromets remind us of the great Persian epic Shahnameh. Perhaps the Circassians were a link between Russian and Persian poetry, the Circassian influences themselves are also read in separate Russian epic songs. It is noteworthy that the hero of one of the ancient Russian epics is called Svyatogor (“prince of the holy mountains”). Under these mountains, apparently, the Caucasian ridge was meant.

In conclusion, it is necessary to say a few words about the Russian fairy tale. /> The fairy tale has been unusually popular among the Russian people throughout the entire history of the country. As an integral part of Russian folklore, it is rich and varied. There are two main genres of fairy tales: magical and satirical. Fairy tales, with their flying carpets, homemade tablecloths, and the like, may have their roots in pagan witchcraft. Their popularity is due to people's dream of things that would make life easier.

Satirical tales give vent to popular dissatisfaction with political and social injustice. Interestingly, some fairy-tale characters, such as Baba Yaga, are mentioned in the annals, which indicates the popularity of fairy tales in the Kievan period.

Music

The study of ancient Russian folklore is just as important for understanding the historical basis of Russian music as it is for an adequate approach to Russian poetry.

Russian song has its own melodic, harmonic and rhythmic features. Some Old Russian songs are composed in the so-called pentatonic scale, for the shortest interval in which a “tone” or “full interval” is adopted. As Prince N.S. Trubetskoy, a similar sound range is found in the folk music of the Turkic tribes of the Volga and Kama basins - the Bashkirs, Siberian Tatars, Turks of Central Asia, as well as among the natives of Siam, Burma and Indochina.

In this sense, the music of at least one group of ancient Russian folk songs can be called Eurasian rather than European. In Ukraine, the pentatonic scale is found only in a small number of very ancient songs, among other Slavs its use is even more rare. On the other hand, it is interesting to note that the pentatonic scale was also preserved in the Celtic folk song, among the Scots, the Irish and in Britain. Other Russian songs seem to follow the traditions of ancient Greek music.

It can be added that the Russian folk song is predominantly diatonic, elements of chromaticism are very rare. Most Russian songs are polyphonic. Each party is independent and beautiful in its own way, but all serve the whole. The song begins with a singer who sings the theme. Other singers modulate and embellish it, creating an original counterpoint. In this respect, Russian folk song differs markedly from the folk songs of the Eastern peoples, most of which sing in unison.

The rhythm of a Russian song is partly determined by the nature of the living language, but also largely depends on the artistic intuition of the creator and performer. Typical time signatures are 5/4 and 7/4.

In addition to choral singing, Kievan Rus also loved solo singing, especially at princely feasts, where they performed heroic ballads, such as "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". In most cases, the singer himself accompanied himself on the harp. In the Lay there is a poetic description of such a performance: “It was not Boyan who sent ten falcons to a flock of swans, but he laid his skillful fingers on live strings. And those strings, as if themselves, sang glory to the princes.

Apparently there were many professional singers. They moved from one national holiday to another, performing not only in the prince's mansions, but also at city market squares and rural fairs. They were mostly known as buffoons. The buffoons worked in groups, and, as a class, they must be given credit for preserving the traditions of ancient folk art in Russia through the centuries.

In addition to the harp, in ancient Rus' they used other different musical instruments: snuffles, tambourines. The latter were also an indispensable part of military bands, along with boar and trumpets. Undoubtedly, some oriental instruments were well known, such as the marmot (zurna) and domra. In addition to military bands, the princes kept special ensembles for palace feasts and festivities.

With regard to religious music, we know little about pagan rites. Masudi mentions musical melodies that the traveler could hear when approaching certain pagan temples in the land of the Slavs. It is known that the pagan priests of the Baltic Slavs used pipes. Perhaps the pagan ritual also included some kind of singing and music.

After the baptism of Rus', church singing became an essential element of Russian musical culture. In accordance with the Byzantine tradition, the Russian Church avoided instrumental music, except for such church bells. On the other hand, vocal music - and specifically, choral singing - reached a high level early. The Byzantine system of chants served as the basis for Orthodox church singing. This system contains eight tones, four main (“authentic”) and four additional (“plagal”). The system was built for church music by St. John of Damascus (d. 760) on the basis of ancient Greek harmony.

At first, Russian church singing was in unison. His notations have been preserved in a small number of manuscripts, the oldest of which is the Novgorod church book of the eleventh century. It contains the famous notation. In addition to it, in the Rusiv period from the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries, there was another notation system known as kondakar. Unfortunately, it has not yet been fully deciphered, but from what has already been read, it is clear that this is a recording of polyphonic singing.

/>Theater of Russian civilization in the Kievan period

Theater is one of the most important types of modern Russian art, and they even say that Russians have an innate talent for the stage. However, the theater modern sense, appeared in Russia only at the end of the seventeenth century. In the Moscow period - the era of Shakespeare - there was no theater in Russia.

The situation of the Kyiv period is not entirely clear. First of all, we must consider folklore foundations. The ritual of folk holidays, with its dances, rhythmic dialogue, etc., contained a significant element of theatrical art. The same can be said about the wedding ceremony and funeral rites.

The complex cycle of the ancient Russian wedding ceremony was an action in which not only the bride and groom, but also their relatives and friends - all had their own role. The performance consisted of several acts and began with the arrival of the groom's relatives at the house of the bride's father, usually at night, as required by the ancient ritual. The performance took place for several days in the homes of relatives of each side in turn. As already noted, various songs were an essential part of the ceremonies, each day and each scene had its own song.

It is noteworthy that Russian peasants even now, when talking about a wedding, use the verb “play” (play a wedding). The funeral was also performed according to the established ritual, important role in which she belonged to professional mourners. In The Tale of Igor's Campaign, the mourner Karna mourns the fate of all of Rus', tormented by the steppe nomads.

It is against this background of folklore that one should consider the activities of wandering artists - buffoons. It is assumed that most of the buffoons were public actors and musicians, such as jugglers and jesters. However, it should be borne in mind that information about them comes mainly from church sources.

The Russian clergy considered the performances of buffoons to be a manifestation of paganism and unsuccessfully tried to prevent them. In this, the clergy were guided by the decision of the Constantinople Church Council of 692, which condemned all types of theatrical performances. But the Byzantine Church itself abandoned its rigorism during the iconoclasm (eighth century) and went even further in this during the period of the Macedonian dynasty (ninth to eleventh centuries). Byzantine theater, which grew out of Roman pantomime, lasted until the last day of the Empire. By the way, Byzantine pantomime gave birth to Turkish folk theater orta oyunu, Karagyoz and Meddakhov.

Taking into account the close cultural ties of Kievan Rus with Byzantium, it can be assumed that Byzantine artists visited Rus' and introduced the local buffoons to the beginnings of theatrical art. As we shall see, in the frescoes Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, Byzantine actors are depicted against the background of the hippodrome, but the pantomimes were different in content and, in addition to the square performances, more serious performances were played in Constantinople.

Byzantine artists, in some cases, wore masks />, buffoons also had masks. It is with the performances of buffoons that one must associate the appearance of a puppet theater in medieval Rus'. The first known mention of it is in a fifteenth-century manuscript.

In addition to the secular theater in Byzantium, as in Western Europe of the Middle Ages, a religious drama (mystery) developed. In a certain sense, the Byzantine service is itself a spiritual drama, and the complex ceremony in St. Sophia Cathedral was carried out with theatrical effects. It was the theatrical moment of the Byzantine rite that attracted Vladimir's ambassadors to Christianity more than anything else. According to the chronicle, during the service in the St. Sophia Cathedral of Constantinople, they did not know where they were, on earth or in heaven. Later, a similar feeling must have been experienced by the rural inhabitants of Rus', attending services in the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv and other large churches in Russian cities. The wall paintings, mosaics and icons placed throughout the church created the necessary setting for the spiritual drama of the church service, the deep symbolism of which would otherwise not be perceived by the parishioners.

In Byzantium, from the earliest period of its history, special solemn services with complex rituals were developed to celebrate the main church events: Palm Sunday, Easter, the Nativity of the Virgin. Gradually, church processions and mysteries were built around each of these services, and, in the end, the Byzantine religious drama grew out of them. It is significant that on receiving the honor of the Russian princess Olga (957), a religious play was played in the imperial palace.

Thus, we can be sure that even before the official introduction of Christianity in Rus', the Russians were familiar with the theatrical parts of the Byzantine church service. There is no evidence that religious drama as such existed in Russia before the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries, but special services on solemn days and Holy Week were held already in the Kiev period, although perhaps not as magnificently as later.

Architecture and fine arts

Most of the monuments of ancient Russian architecture and painting known to us represent church art. Since the Russian Church was part of the Byzantine one, Russian church art, of course, had to follow the Byzantine canons, at least in the initial period of the spread of Christianity in Rus'. Therefore, it is often said that from the point of view of art history, Kievan Rus was part of Byzantium.

It is impossible to deny the strong Byzantine influence in ancient Russian architecture and painting. But, however, the real process of Russian artistic development was too complex to be described within the framework of the theory of "Byzantinization" of Rus' or any other strict doctrine of this kind. First, our knowledge of ancient Russian art is incomplete. If some church buildings have been preserved, then the monuments secular architecture- no, since most of the dwellings were built of wood and therefore were less durable than church buildings. Moreover, with the exception of a few foundations, buildings from the pre-Christian period have not come down to us, and thus we have no way to trace the connection between pagan and Christian architecture. In addition, the very concept of "Byzantine art" requires interpretation. There were several schools in it and it is necessary to divide, for example, between the architectural style of Constantinople and the Byzantine provinces, such as Thrace and Macedonia, on the one hand, and Anatolia, on the other.

Let's start with the problem of pre-Christian architecture in Rus'. Approximately 1908 in Kyiv, archaeologists discovered an oval foundation of a building, which they considered to be the remains of a pagan temple, although there is no direct evidence for this. On this basis, it was suggested that the pagan temples in Rus' had an oval shape. There is no specific evidence for such a general conclusion. If we consider the parallels of other Slavic countries, we will see that, for example, the temple of Svyatovit on the island of Rugen is square.

Obviously the first christian churches were built for the Russians not by themselves, shortly after their first baptism in 866. Probably one was in Tmutarakan. In 1022, Prince Mstislav Tmutarakansky erected another church there, which served as a model for the cathedral in Chernigov, founded by the same prince. By the time of his death, in 1036, the cathedral was not yet completed, but later it was completed.

Although the Chernihiv Cathedral was rebuilt several times, its original architectural features were preserved. It is organized according to the Byzantine plan - a basilica with five naves; it also shows a certain influence of the architectural style of the Transcaucasian temples.

The first of the luxurious Kiev churches was the so-called “Tithing” church, founded by St. Vladimir and completed in 1039. According to K.J. five separate volumes intended for the construction of a vault, but not twenty-five domes, as some believe.

Even earlier, around 989, Vladimir ordered the construction of a cathedral in Novgorod. From the annals we learn that the first St. Sophia of Novgorod, built of wood, was about thirteen tops. Some archaeologists are ready to see in this term domes, but it seems more plausible that the "tops" can be explained simply as elements of the roof.

According to Conant, one of the architects of this cathedral was apparently from Asia. This style undoubtedly influenced the style of other early Russian churches, in Novgorod and Kiev.

The two most impressive monuments of Russian architecture of the eleventh century are the St. Sophia Cathedral, built in Kiev in 1037-1100, and the second Novgorod cathedral of the same name, founded in 1045. The Kiev Cathedral has come down to us in poor condition, distorted by fires and rebuilding. Novgorodsky was somewhat better preserved before the German invasion, but was terribly damaged by the Germans before the retreat in 1944.

Apparently, St. Sophia of Kiev in its original form was a majestic cathedral. In plan, it was a square, the inner volume was divided by columns into naves. The cathedral had five apses - all on the east side - and thirteen domes; a huge one in the center and twelve smaller ones around it. The cathedral was magnificently decorated inside with wall paintings, mosaics and icons.

As a whole, St. Sophia of Kiev is an outstanding work of Byzantine style, but it was not a simple copy of any temple that existed then in Byzantium. It is believed that the so-called "New Church" (Nea Ecclesia) in Constantinople, completed in 881, served as the initial model for the creators of Sophia and some other Kyiv churches built under Yaroslav the Wise. However, Kiev St. Sophia is much more complex in its architecture than its prototype. They are also noticeable artistic motives Byzantine provinces (in this case, Anatolia). In addition, the possibility of a certain influence of Novgorod wooden architecture is not ruled out, especially if we take into account the number of domes, which coincides with the number of Novgorod "tops".

The second St. Sophia of Novgorod was erected on the site of the first wooden one, destroyed by fire in 1045. Novgorod St. Sophia is more strict and less luxurious than Kiev, but beautiful in its own way. Its proportions are completely different, the apses are elongated, and although the main volume of the temple is rectangular, it is not square. The cathedral has six domes.

According to A.I. Nekrasov, some of the architectural features of this temple belong to the Romanesque style. During the twelfth century, with the growth of local cultural centers, most of the capitals of the principal principalities were decorated with churches, each of which, if smaller than the Kiev Sophia Cathedral, had its own special style.

It is significant that Romanesque and Transcaucasian (Georgian and Armenian) stylistic influences intertwine in the artistic style of the churches of both western Ukraine (Galicia and Volyn) and eastern Rus' (Suzdal and Ryazan). As recent archaeological research shows, the Ryazan church of the early twelfth century had the shape of the so-called "Armenian cross".

The second half of the twelfth and the beginning of the thirteenth century were the heyday of Suzdal architecture.

/> As we know, at this time the Vladimir-Suzdal principality came to the fore, led by such gifted rulers as Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod III. Both were keen builders. It is known from the chronicles that Andrei invited architects from different countries. Historian V.N. Tatishchev claims that once Emperor Frederick Barbarossa sent Andrei master builders from Germany. Tatishchev does not indicate the source of this message, but his information is usually reliable. We know that the Suzdal princes maintained friendly relations with both Byzantium and the Holy Roman Empire. Perhaps Andrei Bogolyubsky hired some Georgian and Armenian architects, as well as builders from Western Rus' (Galicia).

The presence of such a large number of foreign architects in the fifties and sixties of the twelfth century, apparently, stimulated the artistic activity of local Suzdal masters, and in 1194 the chronicler notes that Vsevolod invited only Russian masters to renovate the cathedrals of Suzdal and Vladimir.

Two outstanding architectural monuments of the reign of Andrei - the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (built in 1158-1161, restored in 1185-1189, rebuilt in 1194) and the amazing miniature Church of the Intercession of the Virgin on the banks of the Nerl River near Bogolyubov (1165 .). During the reign of Vsevolod, the Demetrius Cathedral (1194 - 1197) was erected in Vladimir, famous for the decorative decoration of the outer walls. No less remarkable is St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky, built by the son of Vsevolod Svyatoslav (1230 - 1234). Its facades are also decorated with carvings, even more spectacular than on Dimitrievsky.

Although each of these churches differs in individuality, they all belong to one common architectural style, "Suzdal", which is characterized by a harmonious composition and elegance of lines and decoration. Striking parallels can be traced in architectural and decorative details between Suzdal, Armenian and Georgian churches, Suzdal and Western Romanesque. However, it would hardly be correct to call the Suzdal style and churches Romanesque without reservations, as is often done. According to the fair remark of N.P. Kondakov, Romanesque art itself developed under the influence of Byzantium, and in Byzantine art of the eleventh and twelfth centuries many "Romanesque" elements can be found. The art of some Eastern European countries, such as Western Ukraine, Serbia and Hungary, belongs to this Romano-Byzantine type and, from the point of view of Kondakov, we should turn to Western Ukraine (Galicia and Volhynia) in an attempt to discover the sources of Suzdal art.

In any case, if there are Romanesque elements in the Suzdal churches, they themselves look completely different from the Romanesque churches of Bohemia, Germany and France. In general, it is difficult to deny that by combining various elements of Byzantine, Transcaucasian and Romanesque art, architects - both foreign and Russian, invited by the Suzdal princes, created a new and perfect style in Russian art. K.Conant calls it "truly classical" and "worthy of the Hellenistic spirit, along with a sense of purity and peace, which are always present in the greatest works of art." Subsequently, the Suzdal churches, in turn, served as a model for fifteenth-century Moscow churches built by Italian masters.

In addition to churches, both Andrei and Vsevolod built luxurious palaces for themselves. According to the chronicler, both foreigners and Russians came to Bogolyubovo to admire Andrei's chambers. Nothing remains of this palace on earth, but its foundations, recently uncovered by archaeologists, give some idea of ​​this grandiose architectural ensemble, which included chambers, several towers and a cathedral, all connected by galleries.

While both the church and the princes financed the development of architecture, the church opposed sculpture, considering it pagan art. The prejudice against sculpture in ancient Rus' was so great that not only in church, but also in secular art, there was no place for it. As a result, sculpture in Kievan Rus did not develop independently, and even bas-reliefs were used mainly for decorative purposes. Among the few examples of Russian sculpture of this period, we can mention the marble sarcophagi in St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, one of them - the sarcophagus of Yaroslav the Wise - is richly decorated. Of the stone bas-reliefs of saints, one can name the bas-reliefs of St. George and St. Michael on the wall of the monastery of St. Michael, dating from the twelfth century, although they are rough work, they are not without a certain expressiveness. Stone carving and decorative ornaments on the walls of the Demetrius Cathedral in Vladimir and St. George's Church in Yuryev-Polsky are exceptionally diverse and decorative. In addition to various images of Christ and saints, they contain figures of real and fantastic animals and birds, including centaurs and griffins.

Painting, like architecture, enjoyed the support of the Church, and its development was not artificially limited, as happened with sculpture. On the other hand, there are not as many works of Russian painting of the Kiev period as examples of architecture, so our knowledge about it inevitably suffers from incompleteness.

The first painters who worked in Rus' were the "Greeks", that is, the Byzantines. Most of them probably came from Anatolia. Fortunately, at least part of the wall paintings of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev have been preserved. These frescoes illustrate the life of the Mother of God, Christ, St. George - the patron saint of Yaroslav the Wise.

On the walls of the stairs leading to the choirs, scenes from the life of Constantinople are depicted. Of these, images of drivers and chariots on hippodrome races have come down to us. Circus scenes with acrobats, hunters, musicians and jugglers have also been preserved. In the work on the frescoes of the twelfth century (such as the murals in the churches of two Kiev monasteries - St. Michael and St. Cyril, as well as in the so-called church on Nereditsa near Novgorod), Russian painters, along with the Greeks, certainly took part. It is possible that Armenian artists also worked on Nereditsa. The Church on Nereditsa became one of the most painful losses suffered during the German invasion.

The history of icon painting is similar to the history of fresco painting. At first, icons were either brought ready-made from Byzantium, or painted in Rus' by Greek masters. Later, their own artists were trained. The first to become famous among his contemporaries was a certain Alimpius, mentioned in the "Paterik" Caves Monastery. Byzantine icons exceptional beauty was brought in from time to time throughout the twelfth century. Apparently, it was Yuri Dolgoruky who brought from Constantinople the famous icon of the Mother of God, which his son Andrei placed in the Assumption Cathedral of Vladimir and which, under the name of the icon of the Vladimir Mother of God, became one of the sacred symbols of Ancient Rus'.

Mosaics were used in the decoration of St. Sophia Cathedral and some other churches in Kyiv and Chernigov+48a. The art of enamel became extremely popular - Russian artists of the Kyiv period reached the highest technical level in the manufacture of cloisonné enamel. Hoards such as those found in Ryazan in 1822 and Kyiv in 1889 contain some remarkable gold and enamel jewelry dating back to the twelfth century. The rise of this species applied arts testifies to the artistic maturity of Kievan civilization.

There is no doubt that the art of embroidery of Kievan Rus was also highly developed, although very few samples of it have come down to us. Skillful embroiderers were trained both in monasteries and in princely palaces, and the princesses especially patronized this art, the spread of which, however, was by no means limited to the princely chambers. Almost every housewife, both in cities and in villages, was obviously familiar with at least the basics of embroidery, which, therefore, can be considered a type of folk art in the broadest sense of the word. The roots of the art of embroidery go back centuries. It is noteworthy that the main motifs of Russian peasant embroidery date back to the Scythian and Sarmatian periods.

In this regard, a few words must be said about the role of ornament in Russian art. Both "plant" and "animal" styles were popular. The first, apparently, came to Rus' from Byzantium. The latter, as we know, was characteristic of Scythian and Sarmatian art. IN early middle ages it spread throughout Europe. Apparently, the spread of animal ornamentation in medieval Russian art was the result of both the traditions of the Sarmatian period and the influence of Western designs, which in fact were a variant of the same traditions. Apparently, one should also recognize the significant influence on Russian art of the decorative art of the Islamic Middle East. A variety of ornamental forms is characteristic of all manifestations of the Russian artistic spirit, especially in applied arts. It manifests itself in the decoration of manuscripts, embroidery, enamels, woodcarving and so on. It influences not only the art of the upper classes, but also folk art; the same traditions are preserved in Russian peasant art of more modern periods.

Literature of ancient Rus'

Fiction, especially fiction, had not yet emerged as an independent genus in the Middle Ages. The medieval reader was attracted to books not so much for their artistic merit, if they mattered at all, as for the opportunity to extract moral instruction and education from the narrative. The Church, in turn, encouraged the moralistic tendency to use it to spread the Christian worldview, and therefore supported all kinds of didactic poetry and prose of the corresponding direction.

art ancient Rus'

In connection with these circumstances, speaking of Russian literature of the Kievan period, we must consider not only fiction directly, but also transitional types, such as didactic literature, and even religious works, if they are of artistic value.

The Bible in Kievan Rus, as in medieval Europe, was the main source of both religious and aesthetic inspiration. The influence of the Bible in Russia was even more significant than in the West, since Russians could read it in a language close to their native language.

From the point of view of the development of literature, the impact of the Old Testament proved to be stronger than the New. The Russians of that time read the Old Testament, mainly in an abbreviated version (Palea), the compiler of which did not separate the canonical texts from the apocrypha. This, however, made the book even more attractive to the reader. In addition to the Bible, readers had at their disposal translations of various works of religious literature and Byzantine literature in general. From the point of view of the history of literature, church hymns, the lives of saints and didactic legends of various kinds were the most important among the samples of Byzantine religious and semi-religious literature that became available to Russians.

It should be noted that not a single work of Greek literature, either classical or Byzantine, with the exception of the only Byzantine epic poem written in "vulgar" Greek, was translated into Russian in the Middle Ages. Apparently, this is the result of the leading role of the Church, if not directly its censorship.

Could the average Russian of the Kyiv period appreciate Sophocles and Euripides is another question. But he most likely would have enjoyed Homer, as, no doubt, Metropolitan Clement, who read Homer in Greek. An erotic novella of the late Hellenistic and early Byzantine periods would perhaps have resonated, at least with the fate of Russian readers, and we can well imagine the author of Daniil the Sharpener reading Daphnis and Chloe with pleasure, although he stigmatized "devilish women."

Turning now to the apocrypha, it should be pointed out that some of them were born in the East - in Syria, Egypt and even India. Byzantium served as their repository, from where they were subsequently borrowed by Russia and Western Europe. Only with reservations can Christian and pseudo-Christian legends of the apocryphal type be called Byzantine, with the exception of very few. Of the Christian apocrypha, the most popular in Russia, as I said, was the “Walking of the Virgin through Torment”.

An example of non-Christian apocrypha is the "Legend of Solomon Kitovras". This is one of the legends about the construction of Solomon's tower. The stones for the tower had to be hewn without the help of iron tools, and in order to do this work, Solomon tamed a magician named Kitovras (centaur) by cunning. The latter is portrayed as a soothsayer of the future and interpreter of dreams. In the West, the same theme appears in the legend of Merlin and the legend of Solomon and Morolf.

Of the didactic biographical legends, The Tale of Barlaamey Josaph met with the warmest response from some Russian readers. Born in India, she represents a variant of the life of the Buddha. In the eighth century, this legend was reinterpreted in Christian tradition and transcribed in Greek by John of Damascus, according to the generally accepted opinion, which, however, is not reliably substantiated. Its central theme is the futility of earthly life, the hero is a prince who leaves his throne to become a hermit.

The Tale of Akira the Wise, also beloved by Russians, belongs to the same genre of didactic literature. Apparently, her homeland is Babylon of the seventh century BC, the legend was remade to the Byzantine taste at about the same time as the Tale of Barlaam and Josaph. The hero, Akir, is portrayed as a nobleman who was accused of theft by a slanderer - his own nephew. The king orders the execution of Akira, an old friend saves him from this terrible fate. Subsequently, the kingdom is threatened by enemies, and it is Akir who saves everyone with his wisdom; he does not hold a grudge against the king, but punishes his nephew. Moral: Don't dig a hole for someone else, you'll fall into it yourself. Completely different nature of the fictitious biography of Alexander the Great, one of the most popular stories of the late Hellenistic and early medieval periods. The Russian translation of "Alexandria" appears to have appeared in the eleventh or twelfth century; the complete manuscript did not reach us, but parts of the story were included in the ancient Russian compilation of world history, known as the Greco-Roman Chronicles.

Quite apart from the literary Byzantine tradition stands the Greek folk poem Digenis Akritas, an epic about a Byzantine warrior from Anatolia defending Christianity from Islam. The poem was created in the tenth century, in the Russian translation it appeared in the twelfth under the title "Deed of Devgen". The translation is made in a magnificent style, reminiscent of the style of "The Lay of Igor's Campaign"; .

As the Slavic translations show, the original Russian literature largely followed the Byzantine model. However, it would be a mistake to conclude from this that Russian authors did not show their own creative power. On the contrary, some of them reached the very heights of literary art.

Bishop Cyril of Turovsky was one of the most popular authors in the genre of didactic church literature and hymnography. In both his hymns and his teachings, he showed remarkable literary skill, despite his disdain for traditional rhetoric. In the hagiographical genre, the story of the sufferings of St. Boris and Gleb, perhaps the best in terms of literary technique.

But Metropolitan Hilarion rises above everyone not only in the content of his works, but also in their form. In his Discourse on Law and Grace, he showed himself to be one of the truly great masters of the art of rhetoric. The “Word” is magnificent in composition, and every detail in it is a precious stone of high dignity. Hilarion uses a wide variety of means of artistic expression: symbolic parallelism, metaphors, antitheses, rhetorical questions, etc., all this with an excellent sense of proportion. In secular literature, Russians have shown a penchant for the historical genre. "The Tale of Bygone Years" is both a historical scientific work and a collection of historical stories. Each of these stories is intended to be a detailed account of the event described, and many of them, of course, are so. But at the same time, many stories have a high artistic value, and in some, fiction, no doubt, prevails over fact. Among the historical and pseudo-historical messages included in the "Tale", we find, for example: narratives of Oleg's campaign in Byzantium; about Olga's revenge on the Drevlyans for the murder of her husband; the so-called "Korsun legend" about the baptism of Vladimir; the story of the blinding of Prince Vasilko; the story of the disastrous campaign of Prince Igor Novgorod-Seversky against the Polovtsy and many others.

Some of these stories, apparently, are based on various epic poems that were created among princely combatants; others are true statements of fact, such as the story of Vasilko - it is obviously written by a priest who consoled the unfortunate prince after inflicting severe mutilation. Some of the stories, apparently, were recorded by the chronicler from the words of eyewitnesses, other interpretations of the same event could be distributed independently of first. This happened in the case of the campaign of Prince Igor: two entries were included in different variants annals and at the same time was written about it heroic poem, the famous "Word"

The Word is very dynamic; it is based on the glorification of military prowess. However, there are also lyrical episodes in the poem, such as, for example, the passionate infatuation of a captive Russian youth with a Polovtsian princess, which is only hinted at, or the weeping of Igor's wife.

Behind the personal drama of the defeated Igor rises the national tragedy of Russia, which at that time was suffering from princely strife and constant raids by steppe nomads. The portraits of Russian princes mentioned in history are full of life and convincing. The steppe through which the Russians march to their defeat, the life of animals around the moving army, weapons, armor (both Russian and Polovtsian) - everything is described not only with the true spirit of poetry, but also with a wonderful knowledge of details.

The "Word" is imbued with a pagan worldview. It is difficult to say whether the names of the Slavic deities that he mentions mean anything to the author, or whether he calls them only according to poetic tradition. In any case, the spirit of the poem is non-Christian, in a religious sense, and if the author was a member of the Church, then obviously bad. He probably belonged to the squad of the prince of Chernigov, was well acquainted with Russian folklore and well-read in historical and epic literature, including Flavius' History of the Jewish War and Devgen's Deed.

In the introductory stanzas, the author refers, as an ideal, to the ancient singer Bayan, although he will not follow Bayan's style, but asserts the freedom to write in his own way. This Bayan, apparently, was a contemporary of Prince Mstislav Tmutarakansky, also mentioned in the "Word"; None of his works have survived to this day. The only known manuscript of The Tale of Igor's Campaign was a copy made in Pskov in the 15th century. It was discovered by Musin-Pushkin in 1795, at the same time a copy was made for Empress Catherine II. The Lay was published in 1800, and in 1812 Musin-Pushkin's manuscript perished in the Moscow fire of the Napoleonic invasion. Catherine's copy and the first edition (for which Musin-Pushkin's manuscript was used) are all that have survived from documentary evidence. Since both are full of scribal errors and typographical errors, interpreting the Lay is an extremely difficult task.

However, despite the fact that only one manuscript has survived to 1812 - or at least only one has been discovered - we know that the "Word" was read and admired in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. A passage from it was quoted at the beginning of the thirteenth century in the version of the “Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener”, and at the end of the fourteenth century the “Word” served as a model for the “Zadonshchina”, historical poem celebrating the victory of the Russians over the Mongols in 1380.

"The Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener" is another remarkable work of ancient Russian literature. As in the case of the Lay, the authors are unknown. Judging by the content of the work, he, apparently, was a poor nobleman - perhaps former slave- one of the Suzdal princes. A sharpener in Old Russian means a prisoner, and therefore it has been suggested that the "Prayer" was written by a disgraced servant whom the prince imprisoned. Such an explanation of the circumstances in which the work was written is very vulnerable. "Supplication" is not a biographical document, but a satire. In a pretentious rhetorical style, the author implores the prince to use his (the author's) talents. He presents himself as a persecuted poor man and admits his aversion to military service, but boasts of his intelligence and education, and offers himself to the position of princely adviser. As evidence of his own wisdom, he includes in his prayer a huge number of quotations from the "Bible", "Physiologist", "Bees", "The Tale of Akira the Wise" and so on. His tone is sometimes humble to the point of servility, sometimes arrogant or even revolutionary. At times he craves wealth, then ridicules those who are seduced by beautiful clothes and rich food. He hates the possibility of a princely proposal to marry a rich girl, and, on this occasion, excels in insulting speeches against women. But presenting himself as a misogynist, he also refuses to become a monk and finds words expressive enough to explain his disgust with monasticism; Indeed, in one of the versions of the Prayer, the author's ardent statements against the "black clergy" and the boyars acquire political significance.

In a certain sense, "Prayer" is a document protesting against human stupidity and social inequality, a vivid apology for wisdom. The author was, of course, a well-educated person with a sharp mind.

No less remarkable secular document, although absolutely different in content and tone, is the autobiography of Vladimir Monomakh, which constitutes the main part of his Teachings. Whereas the author of Daniel's Supplication is one of the few scribes of that time, Vladimir Monomakh is a soldier and statesman who simply describes his deeds. But he makes the ethos certain literary talent, which he apparently developed by intensive reading. His autobiography is not only imbued with lofty ideas, but also discovers its taste healthy life with its simple pleasures, as well as admiration for the beauty of nature.

In concluding this section, it should be said that our knowledge of Russian literature of the Kievan period is only fragmentary. So many manuscripts of that time perished (both during the Mongol invasion and afterwards) that we will probably never know what we lost with them. In addition, most of what has come down to us was found in church archives, and the clergy were little concerned about the preservation of works of secular literature - especially with pagan "deviations", such as in the "Word". Perhaps this explains the fact that only a copy of this work has survived.

Apparently, not only the number of works, but also the variety of styles in the literature of the Kievan period was much greater than we are usually ready to admit.

Determining the main content and direction of the historical and cultural process of medieval Russia, we can say with good reason that this culture was rooted in folk art had in it the main nutrient medium of its development. Under the conditions of feudal society, serfdom, and the centuries-old struggle against the devastating invasions of external enemies, the culture of Russia revealed remarkable wealth of the creative forces of the people. These forces also nourished the culture of the people. These forces also nourished the culture of the ruling classes, who used it in a modified form for their own class purposes. The culture of the people is imbued with a bright sense of optimism, it is life-affirming in its spirit. A.M. Gorky noted that "the most profound and vivid, artistic types of heroes were created by folklore, the oral art of the working people" and the fact that the creators of folklore lived hard and painfully - their slave labor was meaningless by the exploiters, and their personal life was powerless and defenseless. "Unlimited selfless love for native land, the beauty of labor and military feat, high moral nobility, firm faith in the victory of good over evil, justice over untruth and deceit, and at the same time deep poetry, inexhaustible humor, apt selection of typical life phenomena, soundness and accuracy of their assessments - all this is characteristic of the works of folk creativity of the feudal era. To some extent, in different forms these wonderful qualities of folk art made their way not only in the literature of medieval Russia, but also in architecture and painting.

The development of Russian culture in the Middle Ages reflected the peculiarities and contradictions inherent in this era. They were determined, ultimately, by the socio-political and economic processes that took place in Rus'. The feudal mode of production, with its inherent conservatism in the development of productive forces, the dominance of a closed subsistence economy, underdeveloped exchange, traditions to preserve the political system of feudal fragmentation, slowed down the pace of cultural development, the formation of local traditions and characteristics. The development of Russian medieval material and spiritual culture was unquestionably influenced by the Mongol-Tatar invasion and yoke. needs to the point of having to start all over again.”

Undoubtedly, the development of Russian culture was greatly influenced by the dominance of the religious worldview. The church, especially in the early Middle Ages, played a certain role both in the spread of literacy and in the development of architecture and painting. But at the same time, the church jealously guarded its dogmas and was hostile, treated new phenomena in culture, was a brake on the development of sciences, technical knowledge, literature, and art. The church directed all the enormous power of its material power and spiritual influence on the complete and unconditional adherence of the whole culture to the narrow framework of religious-scholastic thinking, it fettered the desire of the human mind to free creativity. From this it becomes clear why the spiritual life at that time proceeded mainly within the framework of a religious and theological shell, why the struggle of class tendencies of different content was, as a rule, clothed in the form of religious disagreements and disputes. The binding influence of the church and in the interaction of Russian culture with the cultures of the West and East. Nevertheless, Russian culture did not develop in isolation from world culture, being enriched by its achievements and contributing to its development.

Having withstood so many difficult historical trials in the Middle Ages, the people created an excellent spiritual and material culture that embodied the high qualities of the people rich in their creative forces.

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Fig. 1 Birch bark letter (Zhiznemir's letter to Mikula). 11th c.

Fig. 2 Plans of St. Sophia Cathedrals: 1 - in Kyiv (1037), 2 - in Novgorod (1045-50), 3 - in Polotsk (1044-66).

Fig. 3 "Hercules (?) fighting a lion." Relief from the Pechersk Monastery in Kyiv. Slate.11th century Kiev-Pechersk Historical and Art Museum-Reserve.

Fig. 4 "Evangelist Mark". Miniature of the Ostromir Gospel. 1056-57. Public Library. M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. Leningrad.

Fig. 5 “St. Nestor and Dmitry. Relief from the facade of the Cathedral of the Mikhailovsky Monastery in Kyiv. Slate.11th century Tretyakov Gallery. Moscow.

Fig. 6 "Mary" from the "Annunciation" (fragment of a fresco from the Cathedral of St. Michael's Monastery in Kyiv). Early 12th century Architectural and historical museum-reserve "Sofia Museum". Kyiv.

Fig.7 Kievan Rus. "Job's Wife" (fragment of a fresco). Nikolo-Dvorishchensky Cathedral in Novgorod.

Fig. 8 Figures of the apostles from the "Eucharist" (mosaic fragment from the Cathedral of St. Michael's Monastery in Kyiv). Early 12th century Architectural and historical museum-reserve "Sofia Museum". Kyiv.

Fig. 9 "The Prophet Solomon" (fragment of a fresco). 1st half of the 12th century. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod.

Fig. 10 Figures of the apostles from the "Eucharist" (mosaic fragment). Mid-11th century. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv.

Fig. 11 "Archideacon Lavrenty" (fragment of a fresco). Mid 11th century Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv.

Fig.12 Church of the Savior on Berestove in Kyiv. Between 1113 and 1125. South facade.

Fig.13 Nikolo-Dvorishchensky Cathedral in Novgorod. Laid down in 1113. East facade.

Fig.14 St. Michael's Church in Ostra.1098. Apse.

Fig.15 Spaso-Preobrazhensky Cathedral in Chernihiv. Interior. Started before 1036.

Fig.16 Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod.1045-50. East facade.

Fig.17 Spaso-Preobrazhensky Cathedral in Chernihiv. Western façade. Started before 1036.

Fig. 18 "Daughters of Yaroslav the Wise." Fresco in the central nave of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. Mid 11th century

Rice. 19 Old Russian coins of the 11th-12th centuries.

Fig. 20 Cathedral of St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery in Kyiv (circa 1108; not preserved). East facade.

Fig. 21 Gold colt with cloisonne enamel. 11-12 centuries. Historical Museum of the Ukrainian SSR. Kyiv.

Fig. 22 "Musicians and buffoons." Fresco in the southern tower of the Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. Mid 11th century

Fig. 23 Archdeacon Stefan. Mosaic from the Cathedral of St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery in Kyiv. Early 12th century Sofia Museum-Reserve. Kyiv

Fig. 24 Our Lady of Oranta

3. Folklore

Language is primarily a means of communication between people. It connects a person with a social group: with the immediate environment - a family or a friend, and with a wider social group - a clan, a tribe, a nation. In society, the language performs various official functions, serving the Church, the state, and justice. At the stage of "literary language" it becomes an instrument of education, science, and literature.

Before reaching this final cultural stage, language undergoes a long process of internal development, being a means of self-expression. individuals and groups during work and leisure. We usually call the products of such self-expression "folklore". Echoes of this ancient poetic tradition were preserved mainly among the peasantry, at least in Russia, and therefore the term "folklore" became almost synonymous with the concept of "folk literature", denoting the literary works of the lower classes. In the ancient period, the situation was different, since the development of creative abilities in the field of literature was based on the cooperation of all social groups. In the Kiev period, after the introduction of Christianity in Rus' and the appearance of written texts, a kind of dualism was formed in literary art. As Roman Jakobson so masterfully puts it:

"For many centuries, Russian written literature almost completely remained the prerogative of the Church: for all its richness and high artistry, the Old Russian literary heritage almost all consists of biographies of saints and pious people, religious legends, prayers, sermons, theological discourses and chronicles in the monastic style. However, the ancient Russian people possessed the richest, original, diverse and highly artistic literature, but the only means of its dissemination was oral presentation. The idea of ​​using letters for secular poetry was absolutely alien to the Russian tradition, and the expressive means of this poetry were inseparable from the oral heritage and oral tradition.".329

The main component of Russian folklore is the song - language and rhythm, word and melody are closely intertwined in it. A Russian proverb quite characteristically says: “You can’t throw out a word from a song.” It was also said that "The Song is a living chronicle of the Russian people." Since time immemorial, Russians have captured in song the entire course of their lives: work and play, joy and sadness, minor incidents and great historical events.

Russian folklore has accompanied the Russian people throughout its history, and it is only very recently that the sources of folklore have begun to dry up under the influence of an industrialized and mechanized civilization. In the villages, especially in the north of Russia, the narrators of the ancient epics still held in high esteem.330

Not counting the Tale of Igor's Campaign, which, of course, was created not by the "people", but by an individual creator who belonged to the aristocracy class, the first written text of a Russian folk poem, spiritual verse, dates from the fifteenth century.331 The oldest known manuscript of Russian folk ballads appears to have been created in 1619 for Richard James, an Oxford graduate who served as chaplain to English merchants in Russia.332 The Englishman is thus credited with pioneering the study of Russian folklore. James's manuscript contains only six songs.

Most of the works of Russian folklore known to us, including folk prose such as fairy tales, were recorded in writing or, more recently, in audio form during the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries.333 Thus, there is no formal evidence to date these materials, apart from the date of recording, which in most cases is comparatively recent.

For some epic songs, the earliest creation date can be determined by context. Thus, the song about the death of the voivode Skopin-Shuisky, one of those recorded for James, certainly could not have appeared before 1610, the date of the voivode's death. In most cases, however, this method is unreliable. Some epic songs in praise of Prince Vladimir could have been created in his time, but we cannot be sure that we have the original text.

Thus, to try to select from the general fund of ancient Russian folklore a part that can be confidently attributed to the Kievan period is indeed an extremely difficult task. We can be sure that this or that folk song is very ancient, but we are unlikely to be able to prove this in each specific case. Nevertheless, it is clear that the roots of folklore, including Russian folk art, go deep into history - in many cases much further than the Kievan period. Consequently, the picture of the civilization of that period will be incomplete if folklore is left out of consideration, and even a hypothetical dating of some songs is better than ignoring the subject.

It is obvious that some ritual songs, originally accompanying or symbolizing the various stages of the agricultural cycle, are very ancient.334 Traces of pagan beliefs, the worship of the Sun and the Earth, are visible in many of them. This group includes songs performed during the festivities on the occasion of the winter solstice ( carols), spring equinox ( Maslenitsa), summer solstice ( semik or mermaid) and the autumn solstice. After the introduction of Christianity in Rus', the former pagan holidays were combined With Christian, and the texts of some songs have changed accordingly, the old carol songs now played the role of Christmas carols. In many cases, the evidence of the ancient origin of the song, in addition to its content, is an ancient melodic form. In general, there is enough circumstantial evidence that many Russian ritual songs were formed in the Kievan period, if not earlier. An important part of the ritual songs is the cycle of wedding songs, which corresponds to the complex ceremonies that accompanied the ancient wedding ceremony, which is still performed among the peasants. Each action of the rite corresponds to a special song. Some are very cheerful, others are sad and even sad.

epic songs ( antiquities,epics), which, according to their content, can be dated to the Kyiv period, are quite numerous.335 These poems are usually dedicated to the glorious deeds of the mighty heroes, defending the Russian land from the steppe nomads. In some cases, the opponent of the hero - Zhidovin(Jew). Of course, this refers to the struggle of the Russians with the Khazars. In many cases, however, the enemy in the discrepancies of the surviving texts is the Tatar, which, of course, would have been an anachronism for the Kievan period, since the Tatars - as the Mongols were called in Rus' - appeared only in the thirteenth century.

The bogatyrs sung in epic poems are mostly warriors of St. Vladimir. Although they are always ready to protect the prince and his state, they have no servility, they communicate with him in a friendly way, sometimes even scold the prince and his wife. They were not disciplined soldiers, but brutish individualists, and indeed each of them is portrayed as an individual with his own character. The eldest of them is Ilya Muromets, a big powerful man of peasant origin, purposeful and fearless, but without traces of civilization. His main associate is Alyosha Popovich, the son of a priest who relies on his cunning. Dobrynya Nikitich is a boyar, a noble, generous person. Another popular character from the gallery of portraits of heroes is Churilo Plenkovich, whom no girl could resist.

Other epic poems were later added to the Vladimir cycle of epics, including the legend of Volkh Vseslavich, describing the adventures of Prince Vseslav of Polotsk, and the poem about Duke Stepanovich, which was composed in Galicia in the twelfth century and reflects the close ties of this principality with the Byzantine Empire. The famous poem "Sadko", an early version of which, apparently, was also created in the twelfth century, is a typical Novgorod work. Her hero is not a steppe hero, but a merchant-traveler; wealth, not military prowess, gives color to history.

Another Novgorod epic - about Vasily Buslaev - is of a completely different kind. Vaska (a diminutive of Vasily) is one of the unbridled fellows of the city-republic; he is always looking for adventure and does not recognize any authorities. A free-thinker, he does not revere the church, he is not superstitious, as the poet says: "he does not believe in dreams or chokh."

Returning to the “steppe epics”, it should be emphasized that some of them have parallels with Persian and Turkic folklore.336 For example, some episodes of the story about Ilya Muromets remind us of the great Persian epic Shahnameh. Perhaps the Circassians were a link between Russian and Persian poetry, the Circassian influences themselves are also read in individual Russian epic songs. It is noteworthy that the hero of one of the ancient Russian epics is called Svyatogor (“prince of the holy mountains”). By these mountains, apparently, the Caucasian ridge was meant.337

In conclusion, it is necessary to say a few words about the Russian fairy tale.338 The fairy tale has been extraordinarily popular among the Russian people throughout the history of the country. As an integral part of Russian folklore, it is rich and varied. There are two main genres of fairy tales: magical and satirical. Fairy tales, with their flying carpets, self-made tablecloths etc., possibly rooted in pagan witchcraft. Their popularity is due to people's dream of things that would make life easier.

Satirical tales give vent to popular dissatisfaction with political and social injustice. It is interesting that some fairy tale characters, such as Baba Yaga, are mentioned in the annals, which indicates the popularity of fairy tales in the Kievan period.339.