Cultures in Russian lands after invasions and the establishment of Horde domination as a whole did not undergo such serious destructive changes, similar to those that occurred in the socio-political sphere. However, as a result of the Tatar raids, material and cultural values were severely damaged. A sharp increase in the disunity of the Russian lands from the middle of the 13th century made itself felt, which negatively affected the development of all-Russian cultural processes. Immediately after the establishment of the Horde dominion in Rus', the formations are temporarily stopped.
construction of stone buildings. The art of a number of artistic crafts was lost (production of products with niello and grain, with cloisonne enamel, etc.). The production of handwritten books has been reduced. The horizons of the chroniclers are significantly narrowed, they almost lose interest in the events taking place in other principalities.
At the same time, the most important genre of literature in the 13th century, which received dynamic development, was oral folk art: epics, songs, legends, military stories. They reflected the ideas of Russian people about their past and about the world around them.
In the XIV century. understanding Mongolian A number of tales are dedicated to the conquest: about the battle on Kalka, about the ruin of Ryazan, about the invasion of Batu, the legend about Evpatiy Kolovrat, and also about the defender of Smolensk, the young Smolensk Mercury, who saved the city at the behest of the Virgin from Batu's army.
In North-Eastern Rus', which during the XIV - early XV centuries. gradually moved towards the restoration of state unity, favorable conditions were created for a cultural upsurge enriched by the growth national identity. Powerful push the development of patriotic feelings of the Russian people was given by the Battle of Kulikovo. The brilliant victory of the Russian soldiers on the Kulikovo field is dedicated to a whole series of outstanding works literature: chronicle story, military story. Another work from the anti-Horde cycle is the historical song about Shchelkan Dudentievich, which tells about the uprising in Tver in 1327, about the destruction of Moscow by Tokhtamysh in 1382, about invasions to Rus' Tamerlane and Khan Edigei.
The idea of national liberation and patriotism is also reflected in the works devoted to the protection northwestern borders of the Russian Land: "The Life of Dovmont" and Alexander Nevsky>.
A number of hagiographic works are dedicated to the princes who died in the Horde. This and. The princes appear in these works as defenders of the Orthodox faith and their Fatherland.
Gradually from the second half of the XIII century. chronicle writing is gradually being restored in the Russian lands. Its main centers were the Principality of Galicia-Volyn, Novgorod, Rostov the Great, Ryazan, a little later (from about 1250) - Vladimir, and from the end of the 13th century - Tver. From the second half of the XIV century.
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the compilation of annals and handwritten books is experiencing a significant rise. The leading place is gradually occupied by the Moscow chronicle tradition, and Simonov, Andronikov and other monasteries become its centers. It has come down to us as part of the Trinity Chronicle of the beginning of the 15th century. and is, in contrast to local annalistic records, the first collection of an all-Russian character since the time of Ancient Rus'.
Along with the development of literature, writing develops. An indicator of the degree of literacy among all segments of the population are found in the XX century. during excavations in Novgorod, birch bark letters. Gradually, with the development of bookishness, the nature of writing changes, business documentation expands. In the XIV century. comes to replace - more fluent and free writing. And from the end of the XIV century. the development of cursive writing begins, the very name of which speaks of the principle of writing. Expensive parchment is gradually being replaced by cheaper material - paper.
At the end of the XIII-XIV centuries. stone construction resumes in Russian lands. Until now, the Church of St. Nicholas on Lipna (1292), the Church of Theodore Stratilat on the Creek (1360) and the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street (1374) have survived to this day. Several civil buildings of the 14th - early 15th centuries have also been preserved in Novgorod. The most interesting building among them is the Faceted Chamber (the name appeared later), created in 1433. It was erected at the direction of the Archbishop of Novgorod Evfimy, an ardent opponent of Moscow, to emphasize the sovereignty of Novgorod.
Under Ivan Kalita, four stone churches were built in the Moscow Kremlin: the Assumption Cathedral (1326), the Church of Ivan Lestvichnik (1329), the Church of the Savior on Bor (1330) and the Archangel Cathedral (1333). Some of them survived separate fragments. The resumption of stone construction in Moscow is associated with the reign of Dmitry Donskoy, during which white-stone fortifications of the Moscow Kremlin were erected (1360s). The monuments of stone architecture of the first quarter of the 15th century that have come down to us. testify to their new technical quality. An example of this kind of monuments is the Assumption Cathedral in Zvenigorod. In addition to Moscow, stone fortresses are being built around a number of monasteries, as well as in Izborsk, Oreshka, Yama, Koporye and Porkhov.
The powerful rise of Russian culture at the end of the XIV century. found reflection in the development of Russian painting. One of the most early monuments monumental painting are the frescoes of the Cathedral of the Snetogorsk Monastery in Pskov (1313). The largest artist of this period was Theophanes the Greek (c. 1340 - 61
after 1405), Byzantine master. The fresco paintings of Theophan the Greek in the surviving Novgorod churches are distinguished by their extraordinary virtuosity, freedom in dealing with eschatological traditions, original monochrome execution in deep red-brown tones.
Apart from fresco painting Theophanes the Greek is credited with depicting the Assumption on the back of a famous icon from the Cathedral of the Annunciation in Moscow. His brush belongs to a large icon from Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. At the turn of the XIV-XV centuries in Moscow, a Russian national school of icon painting. By this time, the earliest period creativity of the brilliant Russian artist Andrei Rublev.
A huge role in the development of culture in Rus' in this era was played by the great spiritual shepherds Metropolitan Alexy (c. 1310-1378) and hegumen Sergius of Radonezh (1314 (or 1319) -1392). The latter, the founder of the Trinity Monastery near Moscow, is the true inspirer of the struggle of the Russian people against the Horde rule.
In Russian history, two and a half centuries gape like a bloody wound Tatar-Mongol yoke . Before the invasion early XIII century Rus' was a flourishing Christian country, with a population of about seven million people, with 400 cities. 50,000 people lived in Kyiv, in cities such as Novgorod, Smolensk, Chernigov - 30,000 each. For comparison, there were 10,000 inhabitants in Paris at that time. And princely strife in Kievan Rus- this is an unconditional internal evil - was quite natural for the early stage of the formation of statehood. After a hundred or two hundred years of peaceful life, a prosperous country could organically acquire a single statehood. The spiritual upsurge of the Russian people could not but evoke the militias of the world's evil: the Tatar-Mongol invasion sweeps away the flourishing Russian civilization from the face of the earth, most cities are burned to the ground, most of their inhabitants are exterminated. “The raids lasted four years (1237-1241). And almost everywhere the Tatars fought to the death. And almost everywhere after their invasion there were conflagrations and piles of bones. The population of Torzhok was completely slaughtered. In Kozelsk, for which the battle was especially fierce (the Tatars later called it the “evil city”), women and children were also annihilated to one. Only 200 houses remained in Kiev, and it was impossible to breathe within the city for months - before that the air was poisoned ... Usually the inhabitants flocked to the fortress, which, if built of stone, was called the Kremlin (from the word flint - hard stone). The Tatars besieged the fortress and took it by storm; the last battle was already fought in the cathedrals, which as a result were full of corpses ... Three years of such battles exhausted the strength and power of the nomads. In addition, the prey was already up to the throat, and they were pulled to the southeast. Western Europe was saved ... Already after the first invasion (1237-1241), the country turned into a desert - all around the ruins, ruin "(I.A. Ilyin).
The barbarians destroyed most of the flourishing Russian cities to the ground, exterminated a huge number of Russian people, interrupted the flowering of Russian culture - stone construction stopped in Rus' for two centuries, icon painting was simplified, the tradition of high culture of the aristocracy and literacy of the urban population was interrupted. Almost the entire book fund of pre-Mongol Rus was destroyed in the fires: modern scientists believe that only hundredths of a percent of the number of books of that era have come down to us. “The consequences of the Tatar yoke were terrible. First of all, it was an unheard-of mental shock, which folk soul will never be erased - a kind of "psychic trauma", a wound. Devastation, material damage, extermination of the population, lifelong captivity of the driven people, the brutality of the Tatars (captives, for example, had skin cut on their heels and finely chopped horsehair was poured into the wound to prevent escape - the pains were unimaginable, and the martyrs were used on sitting works); further the appearance of the Tatars: small, fierce eyes behind the cheekbones as thick as a fist; a black pigtail on a shaved skull, wild Asian guttural speech and an unbearable smell that emanated from them - partly due to the fact that they did not wash, partly from the mouth, as they ate raw horsemeat, which they heated and softened, laying on their backs horse, under the saddle, so that when riding, in addition, it was also saturated with horse sweat "(I.A. Ilyin).
Bringing unprecedented sacrifices, the Russian people Once again saved Western Europe from devastating invasions: “Russia was assigned a high destiny. Its boundless plains absorbed the power of the Mongols and stopped their invasion at the very edge of Europe; the barbarians did not dare to leave enslaved Rus' in their rear and returned to the steppes of their east. The emerging enlightenment was saved by a torn and dying Russia.(A.S. Pushkin). Few people in the West recognize this historical merit Russia: “Indeed, outstanding monuments of high Western Middle Ages if the militant Christian civilization in Eastern Europe had not softened the blows of the numerous invasions of the less civilized steppe peoples?(D.H. Billington).
The spiritual inoculation of Orthodoxy made it possible for the Russian people to resist, having defended the Christian civilization of Europe with their bloody sacrifice. The earth, boundless spaces played a protective role for the Russian people. The Orthodox faith gave him the strength to survive two centuries of devastating and debilitating yoke. The tormented people, having lost the main achievements of civilization, as well as their ancestral lands, are looking for shelter in the difficult forests of the northeast, making new sacrifices in the development of harsh lands. As a result, the geographical center of Rus' shifted from the warm territories of the middle Dnieper to the dense forests of the upper Volga. The ancient Russian cities of Novgorod, Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov, as well as new cities such as Moscow, replaced the devastated Kyiv as the cultural center of Russian civilization. But it was already a different culture - simplified, more severe. Complex crafts disappeared for a long time, stone construction stopped for almost two centuries, some Byzantine traditions were lost, in particular in icon painting. If Kievan Rus had intense ties with Byzantium and Europe, then cold Zalessky land was too far away from them. The new Russian lands were cut off from the cultural centers of that time from the southeast - by the Tatar-Mongols, from the west - by the crusaders. “Mentions of Rus', so often found in the French literature of the early Middle Ages, inXIVV. completely disappear... Forests are like an evergreen curtain, in the initial period of the formation of culture, protecting consciousness from more and more distant worlds - Byzantium and the urban West "(D.H. Billington). Rus' was experiencing a cultural decline at a time when Western Europe thanks to the Arab invasion, Greek philosophy was rediscovered, universities began to be created. Tatar influence, as well as life among the endless impenetrable forests, strengthened the pagan tendencies in Russian religiosity. On the other hand, the need for collective action to protect life in the harshest conditions, common suffering and the historical memory of the flourishing Kievan era - strengthened the sense of national connection.
The harsh life in the Northeast changed the traditions, character and worldview of the Russian people. “It can be said without exaggeration that the forest-covered plain determined the way of life of the Christian Muscovite state to the same extent as the desert - lifestyle Muslim Arabia. In both these territories it was sometimes difficult to find food and friendship, and the Slavs, like the Semitic peoples, developed a warm tradition of hospitality. The lower layers - the peasants - brought ritual bread and salt to everyone who came to the house, the upper layers - the princes - greeted the guests with magnificent feasts and toasts, which became feature official Russian hospitality. If in the sultry desert life was concentrated around oases and water sources, then in the frozen forest it huddled in dwellings in cleared space with their source of heat. Of the many words that denoted dwelling in Kievan Rus, only the word "hut" - with the meaning "heated building" - became commonly used in the Muscovite state. The permission to sit on a clay stove or near it in a Russian hut was the highest manifestation of peasant hospitality, comparable only to a sip cold water in a desert. The hot public bath also had a semi-religious significance, which to this day is felt in Russian public steam rooms and Finnish saunas and in a sense is analogous to ritual bathing in desert religions ... The feeling of spiritual closeness with natural forces, which existed already in ancient times, especially increased in the forest of Great Russia, which easily became the prey of the flame and in which fire and fertility, the male power of Perun and the mother of cheese, the earth competed for power over the world, where human beings seemed strangely insignificant "(D.H. Billington).
Exorbitant tribute to the Golden Horde and terror in the centuries of the yoke exhausted the strength of the people. Slavery inflicted deep wounds on the worldview, customs, culture and language of the people. “Their domination was the domination of nomadic predators, rampant endless arbitrariness, humiliation, abuse, terror, a state of eternal “divide and conquer!”, Eternal uncertainty and eternal surrender to mercy and disfavor. The law of nomadism operated flawlessly, it read: “Yours is mine”, “Power is higher than right”, “Fire and sword are the basis of social order”, “Torture and death as the last argument”. And for two hundred and fifty years, all this as an internal attitude - the beginning of domination and the establishment of domination, mockery and mockery in defiance of every right and legal consciousness - should have had a bad influence on the chained people. It was a sharp clash between barbarism and young culture, quantity and quality, paganism and Christianity; and the culture was to give way for a long time. In all the old songs, legends, fairy tales of Rus', a cry to the sky is heard, a cry of horror and disgust: disgusting, dirty, unbelieving Tatars began to be called in one word - filthy "(I.A. Ilyin). Such conditions contributed to the rooting of not the best qualities: obsequious, servile, cruel survived, the best people were exterminated in the first place.
“It was one of those national disasters that bring not only material, but moral ruin, for a long time plunging the people into a deadly stupor. An external accidental misfortune threatened to turn into an internal chronic ailment; the panic horror of one generation could develop into popular timidity, into a feature of the national character.(V.O. Klyuchevsky). Some spiritual traditions were lost, and the qualities of character were eradicated - they had to be restored. There will be more robbery and rebellion in Russian life, and less sense of justice than before the invasion. This affected the formation of a sense of ownership and attitude to economic life. “This eternal threat - “whatever you build will turn into ruins”, “everything is yours - only for your time”; this loss of the prospect of honest and strenuous management; this need to always build again on conflagrations and start from scratch - caused irreparable damage to the Russian people. In the course of centuries, people have become accustomed to treating their state as something unreliable (already giving way in advance) and to other people's property as indifferently as to their own, not caring about frugality and economy, a hopeless "maybe" took possession of the soul of the people, as well as and a frivolous and condescending treatment of predatory excesses; hence the lack of a firm, loyal sense of justice in the personal as well as in the public sphere, the frivolous treatment of the rule of law and its elementary laws. Here it is also necessary to take into account the fact that the Russians in their past did not go through the school of Roman law in practice.(I.A. Ilyin).
What they had was largely lost, but they did not have time to find something new. However, “the long Mongol yoke brought up in Russian and positive traits: insight, inexhaustible patience and fortitude, the ability to endure the lowest standard of living and at the same time not lose heart, the art of self-sacrifice and reckless self-giving, a certain independence from the earthly, as well as dependence on it, religious fortitude of the soul, amazing complaisance and flexibility, hereditary courage , a pronounced art of defensive war brought up in generations; led to linguistic enrichment, to the art of riding (for example, among the Cossacks). And politically - the belief that the federal structure of the state in huge country with many nationalities does not fit ... that in a space of 21 million square meters. km from 170 million people, the state on the principles of the federation will disintegrate immediately "(I.A. Ilyin). The Russian worldview with the Tatar-Mongol yoke has somewhat simplified, lost some cultural nuances and subtleties, but has become deeper, tragic, polarized.
The combination of natural strength and Orthodox fortitude allowed the Russian people to survive in the most severe conditions. “An explanation of why the Russians did not fall into deep fatalism and despair in that hopeless timeXIII- XIVcenturies, two pairs of artifacts can serve: ax and icon- in the village, bell and cannon- in the monastery and the city. Each element in these pairs is internally related to the other, demonstrating the close connection between church service and war, beauty and cruelty in the warlike world of Muscovy. In other societies, these objects were also significant, but in Rus' they acquired a special, symbolic meaning, which they retained even in complex forms cultures of the new time ... Conjugation struggle for the material beginning And triumph of the spirit in ancient Rus', two objects are best demonstrated, traditionally hanging side by side on the wall, in the red corner of each peasant hut: an ax and an icon. The ax was the main and indispensable tool in Great Rus': with its help, a person subjugated the forest. The icon, or sacred image, was an omnipresent reminder of the faith that kept the inhabitant of the troubled outskirts and indicated the highest goal his earthly existence"(D.H. Billington).
Christian spirituality which was ineradicable among the people, saved the Russian soul and preserved the people in tragic centuries. In an unbearably terrible life, a Russian man found consolation and salvation in the Orthodox faith. In the hour of death, the people seek Christ the Savior. The revival of man, people, culture and the state in Rus' began in the churching of life. “The Church brought people faith, strength and consolation; The Church helped the Grand Dukes of Moscow with advice, and it must be said that they were positive and far-sighted; Christian faith became the deepest source and center of national existence"(I.A. Ilyin). In the origins of the Great Russian nationality lies a peculiar the formative role of monasticism. “The historical tragedy of the Tatar defeat of Rus' brought unexpected consequences not only to the life of the Russian Church, but also to the building of the very body of national statehood. The territorial base of the southern Kyiv statehood, as it were, became shallow. The masses of the population, fleeing, fled to the northwestern forest expanses, with their ethnic superiority and superiority state culture conquering and assimilating the local Finnish population. Against this background general fact the Tatar occupation naturally weakened, and at the same time legalized this fact of the self-preservation of the Russian tribe, clothed in forms that corresponded to the religious worldview of the Asian conquerors. For those without any restrictions, all professional communities of monks and pilgrims were people who, by their very existence, won the right not to bear the state tax, military and tax. Their public service was a service of prayer books for the state. In these Eastern prayer clothes, both by calculation and by instinct, in a significant percentage of them, the entire Russian population of northeastern Rus' of the Tatar time was clothed. The worldly, agricultural population surrounded the modest hermit-prayer, helped him rebuild the most primitive monastery courtyard, served his physical existence and presented in the face of the Tatar Baskaks (tax collectors) their usual picture of a Buddhist monastery, serviced by the population adjacent to it and liberated for this. from the excessive tax burden of the Asian, theocratic state. The statistically stormy, epic-fabulous growth and reproduction of North Russian monasticism was largely created by this Asian mimicry of the North Russian tribe, by the instinct of self-preservation before the Asian conquerors.(A.V. Kartashev).
With all the atrocities, the pagan Tatar-Mongols were afraid of any religion and clergy, so they issued letters of protection to the Church. “The clergy, spared by the amazing sharpness of the Tatars, alone - for two gloomy centuries - fed the pale sparks of Byzantine education. In the silence of the monasteries, the monks kept their uninterrupted chronicle. Bishops in their messages talked with princes and boyars, consoling hearts in difficult times of temptation and hopelessness.(A.S. Pushkin). Tatar-Mongolian law contributed to the independence of the Church from state power and the inviolability of the property rights of the Church. These complex processes strengthened the religious motive in the awareness of national unity - with a fragmented and defeated statehood, people felt themselves Russian primarily because they considered themselves Orthodox, the Russian land was perceived as united on a religious basis. Monasticism as the most literate estate is becoming the mind of the nation - the carrier not only church culture, but national consciousness And historical memory(Russian chronicles were written in monasteries). Learned monasticism filled the Russian people with a sense of historical destiny, awakened the national will, inspired a pioneering spirit: “We owe our history to the monks, and therefore our enlightenment”(A.S. Pushkin).
Reverend Sergius of Radonezh was the first Russian saint who holistically and completely expressed the Russian national self-consciousness. The elder of the Trinity-Sergius monastery united different traditions Orthodox monasticism. Being a hermit and ascetic, a highly enlightened man, he was a supporter of the active mission of the Church. The monastery of St. Sergius was a spiritual center, the center of economic colonization of vast lands, a fortress, influencing all aspects of the life of Rus'. Saint Sergius was an unconditional authority for the people and authorities; in the lives he was called builder of Rus'.
Sergius of Radonezh played a decisive role in the liberation of Rus' from the Mongol yoke. Prince Dmitry Donskoy timidly avoided a decisive clash with the Tatars, but the blessing of St. Sergius inspired the prince to fight and inspired him to win. The act of religious consciousness turned out to be comprehensive, including the awareness of the historical mission of Rus', so the political will obeyed it.
The key event in the liberation from the Tatar yoke, in national solidarity, in the spiritual revival of the Russian people was the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. From this moment, the Russian national consciousness is formed, the revival of Russian medieval culture begins, the great Muscovite state is being built. “On the Kulikovo field, the defense of Christianity merged with the national cause of Rus' and the political cause of Moscow. In the continuity of this connection, the blessing of St. Sergius is also given to Moscow, the collector of the Russian state.(G.P. Fedotov).
To this day, there are disputes about the role of the Tatar-Mongol yoke in Russian history. So the criticism of the Western European culture by the Eurasians was largely fair, but the Eurasians went to extremes in asserting the Russian specifics: without Tatars there would be no Russia, Tatars “did not stir up national creativity. Great is the happiness of Rus', that at the moment when, due to internal decay, it had to fall, it went to the Tatars and no one else.(P.N. Savitsky). The Eurasianists argued that Tatarism, without violating Russian religiosity, had a positive impact on the life of the Russian people: the Tatars introduced a nationwide postal service and a network of communications in Rus', Rus' entered the financial system of the Mongolian state, borrowed the structure of the administrative apparatus and the military art of the Mongols. “By this time, seething creative work in all areas of religious art, an increased revival is observed in icon painting, and in the field of church music, and in the field of artistic religious literature "(N.S. Trubetskoy). At the same time, Eurasianists ignore the fact that Tatar region that did not stir up national creativity completely destroyed the greatest cultural heritage of the era. Because of sympathy for the Eurasian concepts of L.N. Gumilyov assesses the devastating Mongol invasion as quite harmless: "Leave open the border with a mobile enemy - madness; therefore, the Mongols fought with the Polovtsians until they drove them beyond the Carpathians, for this they made a deep cavalry raid through Rus'» . Such is the "raid" for two centuries. Yes, and what open border- in the direction of China, Iran, Europe, and where are the driven Polovtsians behind the Carpathians? Remains of the Golden Horde, first of all Crimean Khanate, for several more centuries exhausted Russia with periodic “raids”, during which Moscow was repeatedly burned, and the Middle Eastern slave trade markets were filled with Russian captives: “Hypocritical diplomacy, combined with daring raids, allowed the Crimean Tatars and other smaller Tatar communities to maintain a militarily dangerous position in the southern part of European Russia until the endXYIIIcentury", - this is recognized by the director of the US Library of Congress D.H. Billington.
According to the Eurasian concept, the Tatars played an outstanding role in the formation of Russian statehood, the Moscow kingdom revived the Golden Horde in a new guise when the "replacement of the Horde khan by the Moscow tsar with the transfer of the khan's headquarters to Moscow"(N.S. Trubetskoy). The Russian tsars, it turns out, developed the Tatar state system: The Muscovite kingdom arose thanks to Tatar yoke... Compared with the extremely primitive ideas about statehood that prevailed in pre-Mongol specific-veche Rus', the Mongolian, Genghis Khan state idea was a big idea, and its greatness could not but produce on the Russians themselves strong impression "(N.S. Trubetskoy). But the very fact of the military victories of the Mongols does not yet testify to the greatness of their state idea: the great Roman state was destroyed by barbarian tribes that do not have any statehood. And Genghis Khan "great" the state began to crumble after the death of the creator. the thesis about primitiveness Kyiv statehood is refuted by its heyday and military campaigns Kyiv princes. But contrary to historical facts, Eurasians are convinced that the Russian state itself was preserved thanks to the Tatars: “The preservation of Novgorod within Russia ... in many ways- the merit of the Tatars, who taught the Russian cavalry the techniques of the steppe war"(L.N. Gumilyov).
As you know, the Tatars were indifferent to the religions of the conquered countries with a higher culture. In this they are similar to any barbarian conquerors, since paganism and shamanism do not raise any religious issues at all that require intense reflection and upholding. This explains their religious tolerance, for the Mongols who converted to Islam ceased to be religiously tolerant. Nikolai Trubetskoy rightly pointed out that “The religion of the supreme khan, the only religion that mystically substantiates his power, turned out to be an inferior religion in the eyes of the subjects of this khan. Gradually everything higher ranks and most of the rank-and-file representatives of the nomadic ruling element switched from shamanism, either to Buddhism or Islam ... But from the point of view of Buddhism or Islam, the power of the supreme khan turned out to be religiously unfounded”. Which was one of the reasons for the collapse of the Mongol Empire. But, in this case, what is the height of the Mongolian statehood?
For the apology of the state idea of Genghis Khan, the importance of the Mongolian religion had to be exaggerated. In a polemic with Nikolai Trubetskoy, Lev Gumilyov argued that the Mongols professed a certain religion bon, which is also ancient cosmos worship, And theistic system(one excludes the other). Gumilyov is also convinced that the ethics of the Mongolian religion practically does not differ from the ethics of Buddhism. While Buddhism in general anti-theistic. With all this, the Eurasians are forced to recognize the influence of Byzantium on the formation of the Russian state, but in the form of a kind of chimera: “The ideas of Genghis Khan came to life again, but in a completely new, unrecognizable form, having received a Christian-Byzantine justification ... Thus happened the miracle of the transformation of the Mongolian state idea into an Orthodox-Russian state idea”(N.S. Trubetskoy). Indeed, a completely illogical “miracle”: Russian statehood is built on Christian-Byzantine foundations, V absolutely unrecognizable Mongolian form, but, nevertheless, is Mongolian. mongolophilia Eurasianism is the cause of obvious distortions of both Russian and Mongolian history: it turns out that the war of 1812 "was won largely due to Mongolian traditions (guerrilla warfare)"(L.N. Gumilyov).
On the other hand, Eurasians acknowledge that "The foreign yoke was perceived by the religious consciousness as God's punishment for sins"(N.S. Trubetskoy). Which was also a boon for Rus', for such eras testify "about the deep shock of the spiritual life of the nation, they create a spiritual atmosphere favorable for the forging of a new national type, and are the harbingers of the beginning of a new era in the history of the nation"(N.S. Trubetskoy). But evil, which is the punishment of God, does not cease to be evil, while good consists only in resisting it: “It is not evil itself that enriches, it is the spiritual power that is awakened to overcome evil that enriches”(N.A. Berdyaev). All the achievements of Rus' were not due to, but in spite of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, including the experience of various struggles from the Tatars, and unification in the name of common defense.
The thesis about the Tatar origins of Russian statehood is substantiated by Eurasians naturalistically: Russian tsars annexed those lands that previously belonged to the Mongol Empire. Hence and violation of historical logic, and many actual historical stretches Eurasians. Genghis Khan for the first time carried out a great historical mission: “Eurasia is a kind of geographically, ethnologically and economically integral, unified system, the state unification of which was historically necessary ... Over time, this unity began to be broken. The Russian state instinctively strived and strives to recreate this broken unity and therefore is the heir, successor, continuer of the historical cause of Genghis Khan.(N.S. Trubetskoy). But "after that" does not mean "therefore." The development of vast territories by the Russian people was motivated, of course, by a completely different one. Those territories that were a source of continuous mortal danger for Rus' (Kazan kingdom, Astrakhan Khanate, Crimean Khanate) joined, or the Russian Empire included peoples receiving protection Russian state(Georgia, Armenia, territories of Kazakhstan, Finland), or territories that did not have statehood and cultural development were developed (Urals, Siberia). Therefore, Russia never claimed the Mongolian "heritage" in Central Asia, China and in Mongolia itself, the Russian people colonized vast areas that had nothing to do with the Mongol Empire - the North of the Eurasian continent, Alaska, Russian California.
Viktor Aksyuchits
V.S. Zhidkov, K.B. Sokolov
The development of Russian culture in the 11th - early 13th centuries is a continuous progressive process, which reached its peak on the eve of the Tatar-Mongol invasion. the highest level: in painting - Novgorod frescoes, in architecture - Vladimir-Suzdal architecture, in literature - chronicles and "The Tale of Igor's Campaign".
However, the idea of national consolidation came too late. Already in 1224, the first information about the Tatars appeared in Rus'. And soon came the terrible events that are among the greatest catastrophes in world history. The grandson of Genghis Khan, the Mongol Khan Batu (Batu, 1208-1255), who began his campaign in Eastern and Central Europe, invaded northeastern Rus' in the winter of 1237-1238. And in the autumn-winter of 1240, he completed the conquest of southern Rus'. Within a few years, Russian land was destroyed, plundered, burned. For two and a half centuries (from 1237 to 1462), a heavy yoke of conquerors was established, which, according to the apt remark of K. Marx, “not only crushed, it insulted and withered the very soul of the people.<...>In view of the fact that the number of Tatars was small compared to the huge size of the conquests, they sought, surrounding themselves with a halo of horror, to increase their forces and reduce, through massacres, the population that could raise an uprising in their rear. As a result of such tactics, the Russian land was the saddest sight. “The state of Rus' was terrible,” wrote historian N. Polevoy. - ... In some places, dwellings were even abandoned forever, "because of the stink" of the air. Kyiv, Chernigov, Vladimir, Moscow, Tver, Kursk, Ryazan, Murom, Yaroslavl, Rostov, Suzdal, Galich were piles of ashes ... Whole families of princes were exterminated; entire populations disappeared, ruined by death and slavery.
A new psychological state of the people arose, which could be called “national depression”: “Despondency was widespread. The princes, together with the people, lost heart; they looked at life as the mercy of a conqueror, saw in unconditional obedience the only way to save it, and at the first call of Batu, they came one after another to the Horde to humbly beat with their foreheads. All this was in full agreement with the teaching of the Orthodox Church - to consider earthly life as a kind of preparation for eternal life, which can be earned only by meekly enduring all sorts of injustice and oppression, submitting to any authority, even if it is a foreign one.
“The mood was complex and vague: horror before unheard of disasters, sorrow for the ruin of cities and shrines, for the death of the population; consciousness of impotence, which made the weak rejoice in the "Tatar honor", but next to it in more courageous minds is a feeling of bitter resentment and humiliation. And here is a description of this period given by V. Klyuchevsky: “The 13th and 14th centuries were at times of general decline in Rus', a time of narrow feelings and petty interests, petty, insignificant characters. In the midst of external and internal disasters, people became timid and cowardly, fell into despondency, left lofty thoughts and aspirations... People locked themselves in the circle of their private interests and went out from there only to take advantage at the expense of others”8.
This national mood gave rise to a fairly extensive literature - "Tatar" episodes of the chronicle, legends about various events Tatar invasion, partly also included in the annals by special articles - from the time of Batu, then Mamai, Tokhtamysh, Tamerlane. The era of Tatar domination gave rise to folk epic with a new epic character - "Tatar dog". One of the literary monuments - “The Legend of the Invasion of Edigey” - describes the situation in this way: “It was sad to watch how wonderful churches, built over the centuries and giving beauty and grandeur to the city with their exalted position, disappeared in an instant in a flame ... If anywhere if at least one Tatar appears, then many of our people do not dare to resist him, and if there are two or three, then many Russians, leaving their wives and children, take to flight. So, execute us. The Lord humbled our pride."
Extremely cruel to all who resisted them, the Mongols demanded only one thing - complete, unquestioning and servile worship. However, the Great Mongol State was not at all a religious system, but only a cultural and political one. Therefore, it imposed on the conquered peoples only civil-political laws (“Genghis Yassa”), and not religious ones. The Horde was characterized by wide religious tolerance, moreover, patronage of all religions. Demanding obedience and tribute, considering it quite natural to live at the expense of the conquered peoples, the Mongols did not intend to encroach either on their faith or on their culture. They not only allowed all non-Christians to freely practice religious rites, but also treated with a certain respect for all religions in general. That is why the Orthodox Church in Russia retained complete freedom of activity and received full support from the khan's authorities, which was confirmed by the special labels (letters of grant) of the khans 10. As a result, a significant part of the Russian Orthodox clergy went over to the camp of the Tatar saints. typical figure such a Russian priest of the 13th century, ready for any compromises with conscience and church laws, can be seen in the Rostov Bishop Ignatius, who was later canonized 11.
The monasteries also found themselves in a favorable position - they were protected from extortions and ruins. Their number began to increase, but especially rapid growth began from the middle of the XIV century, when a strong desire arose in Rus' for monastic life. The hermits fled to wild places, others joined them, and so a monastery arose. The surrounding people flocked there to worship, creating a settlement around the monastery. From such monasteries, individual hermits retired to even wilder places, founded new monasteries there and also attracted the population. These processes continued until the entire wild, impregnable north with its impenetrable forests and swamps to the very Arctic Sea was not dotted with monasteries.
But not only the church collaborated with the conquerors. The Russian princes also actively tried to use the Tatars for their own selfish purposes. For example, resorting to their help in the internecine struggle with their relatives. And if at first such behavior was condemned, then over time, cooperation with the Tatars and, in particular, complicity in their wars, begins to be praised as a kind of daring, a profitable expedition 12.
Tatar dominion left its stamp on the character of the Russian princes: the consciousness of constant danger brought to the highest degree their incredulity and caution. Their way of life has also changed dramatically. With the advent of the Tatars, the princes and their entourage began to lock their wives in towers, hide their treasures in churches and monasteries. N. Karamzin wrote about this period: “Forgetting the pride of the people, we learned the low tricks of slavery, replacing strength in the weak; deceiving the Tatars, they deceived each other more; buying money from the violence of the barbarians, they became more greedy and insensitive to insults, to shame, subject to the arrogance of foreign tyrants. From the time of Vasily Yaroslavich to John Kalita (the most unfortunate period!) Our fatherland looked more like a dark forest than a state: strength seemed right; who could, robbed; not only strangers, but also their own; there was no security either on the road or at home; debts have become a common plague of property.”13 He was echoed by A. Herzen, who later wrote: “The persecuted, ruined, always intimidated people developed traits of cunning and obsequiousness, inherent in all the oppressed: society lost heart” 14.
“In order to support the internecine strife of the Russian princes and ensure their slavish obedience,” wrote K. Marx, “the Mongols restored the meaning of the title of Grand Duke. The struggle between the Russian princes for this title was, as a modern author writes (Segur. - Note by K. Marx), a vile struggle, a struggle of slaves, whose main weapon was slander and who were always ready to denounce each other to their cruel masters "15. Moreover, the princes often helped the conquerors to suppress the popular uprisings that broke out in Russian cities 16. During the internecine struggle of the Russian princes, a big figure Ivan I Kalita. Cunning, cruel and greedy, he laid the foundations of Moscow's political and economic power. And then he obtained from the Golden Horde the right to collect the Mongol-Tatar tribute in Rus'. “The most unfortunate and saddest era in the history of the long-suffering Russian people” was considered by N. Kostomarov the period of the reign of Dmitry Donskoy (1350-1389). Despite the fact that during his reign, Moscow established its leadership position in the Russian lands, the Tatars were defeated in the battle on the Vozha River (1378) and in the Battle of Kulikovo (1380), during the same period, Moscow land was twice devastated by the Lithuanians, and then suffered an invasion hordes of Tokhtamysh; Ryazan - also suffered twice from the Tatars and the same number from Moscow and was completely ruined; the Tver land was ravaged several times by Muscovites; Smolensk tolerated both Muscovites and Lithuanians; Novgorod - suffered ruin from the Tver and Muscovites. Other disasters joined this - a terrible epidemic that broke out in the middle of the 14th century, as well as droughts that recurred in 1365, 1371 and 1373. And finally, the fires that have become commonplace in Rus'. All these circumstances made eastern Rus' a country sparsely populated and completely impoverished.
In order to save the perishing morality and the decaying picture of the world, part of the clergy, primarily monastics, hurried to the aid of society, condemning the moral decline of the princes and the higher clergy and urging them to leave the corrupt world for the desert. Being at the crossroads between the West and the East, Rus', under the influence of the nomadic conquerors, was increasingly inclined towards the East, which is clearly seen in the activities of the Russian princes. In particular, researchers note Alexander Nevsky's (1221-1263) "compliance" with "Khan, the ability to get along with him, the firm intention to keep Rus' in obedience to the conquerors"17. The main danger for Slavic painting Alexander saw the world not in the East, but in the West. Victories over the Swedes (Battle of the Neva, 1240) and knights Livonian Order(Battle on the Ice, 1242) he secured the western borders of Rus'. In the Mongols, he saw a culturally friendly force that could help him save the Russian picture of the world from a powerful cultural influence more developed Latin West 18.
The conquerors taught cruelty to the conquered people by their example. Demanding tribute, the Tatars led the debtors "to the right", whipped, tortured, executed, in order to get what was required with the help of fear. Gradually, the Tatar methods were borrowed by the Russian princes. Pravezh, whip, torture for several centuries remained the main tool of the authorities. So, Dmitry introduced a public death penalty for criminals. If in Kievan Rus theft was punishable by a fine, then in the XIV century thieves began to hang. Alexander Nevsky cut the noses of criminals, Vasily Dmitrievich cut off his arms and legs, Yuri Smolensky chopped Princess Vyazemskaya to pieces, the guards flayed the skin from Lithuanian captives.
The assimilation of the Tatar experience, morality and culture was facilitated by the fact that “the Tatars themselves, at the time of their victories and domination, adopted Christianity, settled among the Russians, joined the Russian boyars and, finally, the Rusel, introducing, however, into Russian life some sediment of the Tatar elements, so, on the other hand, the Russians took on some features of Tatar customs. The borrowing of a rather large number of Tatar words denoting household items dates back to this time. Rus' also borrowed certain motifs in applied art, in the clothes of the feudal elite. It is also assumed that “after the Polovtsian times there was also a new way of folk-poetic communication, which brought oriental stories into the realm of the Russian epic”20. Marriages between Russian princes and daughters of Tatar rulers became common.
The almost 250-year-old Tatar-Mongol yoke ended with the expulsion of the invaders by the combined forces of the Russian lands. Russian people of the Х1У-ХУ centuries began to look at their future in a new way. A brighter, more optimistic national identity emerged. True, Rus' for a long time experienced the bitterness of the Horde punitive raids and internal turmoil, but gradually the situation changed in the most significant way. The great victory of 1380 led to the fact that the Moscow-Vladimir Grand Duchy took one of the leading places among the states of Eastern Europe. The final destruction of the yoke by Ivan III occurred exactly one hundred years after the battle on the Kulikovo field, when the Horde forces and the forces of the Russian army again converged on the banks of the Ugra River near Kaluga in the fall of 1480. These events were called "standing on the Ugra".
In the 11th-17th centuries, a Russian centralized state formed around Moscow, which included all the lands of northeastern and northwestern Rus'. The example of the Mongol-Tatar statehood (Genghis Khan and his successors), who managed to seize and manage a huge territory for a significant historical period, undoubtedly played a big and positive role in the creation of Russian statehood. “In order to unite the scattered, disunited forces, a power was needed that stood above them, independent of them; she appeared in the person of the Moscow sovereigns. Its restoration was greatly facilitated by the Tatar rule, which, by subjecting the people to an external yoke, accustomed them to obedience ... Hardly without the Tatar yoke, state citizenship could develop in the form of servility. In the West, subject relations were built along the lines of the Roman Empire... In Russia, the eastern despotism served as a model... The dominion of the Tatars... contributed to the establishment of a single, strong, central government... which made Russia what it is”21.
V. Belinsky, who also recognized "the centralization and elevation of princely power to the level of statehood" as a positive consequence of the Tatar influence, at the same time noted "the distortion of the morals of the Russian-Slavic tribe." “Under the Tatar yoke, morals are coarsening,” he wrote, “reclusion of women, hermitage of family life is introduced; The tyranny of the barbarian yoke of the Mongols accustoms the farmer to laziness and forces him to do everything somehow, because he does not know whether tomorrow his hut, his field, his bread, his wife, his daughter will belong to him. Stagnation and immobility, which have since become the main element historical life old Rus', were also a consequence of the Tatar yoke"22.
As N. Karamzin believed, “the shade of barbarism, darkening the horizon of Russia, hid Europe from us at the very time when ... the invention of the compass spread navigation and trade; craftsmen, artists, scientists were encouraged by the government; universities for the higher sciences arose... The nobility was already ashamed of the robberies... Europe did not recognize us: but because it has changed in these 250 years, and we have remained as we were»23. Herzen also believed that “it was precisely at this unfortunate time, which lasted about two centuries, that Russia allowed Europe to overtake itself”24.
The yoke left undoubted and noticeable traces in the character of the people. N. Kostomarov wrote that “in the Russian address there was a mixture of Byzantine pomposity and ceremony with Tatar rudeness”25. Yes, and for the entire Russian culture, the Mongol-Tatar invasion was a terrible disaster - this is an indisputable historical fact. It brought enormous damage to all areas of spiritual life, and the extermination and captivity of artisans undermined the basis of material culture. Russian architecture was especially affected by the invasion. Due to the lack of funds and master builders, stone construction completely stopped for half a century. And even renewed at the end of the 13th century, it lost many of the old methods of building technology. So, for example, in the XIV-XV centuries, Moscow masters again returned to laying walls from hewn stone, although already in the first half of the XIII century, Vladimir-Suzdal architects were able to build from stone and brick, dense limestone and calcareous tuff. The original art of white-stone carving, which adorned the buildings of the 15th-13th centuries, completely disappeared. In the course of numerous raids, a huge number of written monuments perished. Chronicle has declined. According to D.S. Likhachev, it “shrinks, turns pale, becomes laconic, loses those outstanding political ideas and that broad all-Russian horizon that Russian chronicles possessed in the 11th and XII centuries».
Education and literacy was preserved only by a thin layer of the Orthodox clergy, spared by the "amazing sharpness of the Tatars" (A. Pushkin). It alone “for two gloomy centuries nourished the pale sparks of Byzantine education. In the silence of the monasteries, the monks kept their uninterrupted chronicle”26. “The Tatars,” wrote Pushkin, “did not look like the Moors. Having conquered Russia, they gave her neither algebra nor Aristotle. And only from the second half of the 14th century did a new upsurge of Russian culture begin, the formation of the culture of the Great Russian people. It was during this period that she was enriched by such major achievements as the painting of Rublev and Dionisy.
The Russian people, who had been living in conditions of continuous wars for almost two centuries, were tired of the precariousness and unpredictability of their existence and desired a reliable defender. In the picture of the world, as a savior, the image of an authoritarian ruler arose - which by that time already had deep Christian Orthodox and Horde roots - the image of an authoritarian ruler.
Bibliography
4 Marx K. Exposing the diplomatic history of the XVIII century // Questions of history. 1989. No. 4. S. 5-7, 10.
5 Field N. History of the Russian people: In 6 vols. T. 2. M., 1830. S. 111.
6 Ustryalov N. Russian history. SPb., 1849. S. 113-114.
7 Pypin A. History of Russian literature: In 4 volumes. T. 1. St. Petersburg, 1911. P. 196.
8 Klyuchevsky V. O. The course of Russian history. Op. in 8 vols. T. 2. M., 1957. S. 51-62.
9 The legend of the invasion of Edigei // Monuments of literature of ancient Rus'. XIV - the middle of the XV century. Book. 4. M., 1981. S. 253.
10 Vernadsky G. Two exploits of St. Alexander Nevsky // Eurasian Vremennik. Book. 4. Berlin, 1925. S. 319, 326, 327.
11 Tikhomirov M. Russian culture of the 10th-18th centuries. M., 1968. S. 183-184. Part II. Chapter 3
12 Tikhomirov M. Russian culture of the 10th-18th centuries. M., 1968. S. 183-184.
13 Karamzin N. M. History of the Russian state: In 12 volumes. T. 5. St. Petersburg, 1892. S.227-230.
14 Herzen A. I. On the development revolutionary ideas in Russia. Sobr. op. in 30 vols. T. 7. M., 1956. S. 158-160.
15 Marx K. Decree. op. P. 10. .
16 Tikhomirov M. Decree. op. S. 149.
17 Kostomarov N. Essay on domestic life and customs of the Great Russian people in the 16th-17th centuries. SPb., 1860. S. 161-162. 169.
18 Vernadsky G. Decree. op. P. 319. 326, 327. Part II. Chapter 3
19 Pypin A. Decree. op. S. 198.
21 Chicherin B. About the people's representation. M., 1866. S. 360-361.
22 Belinsky V. G. History of Little Russia. Full coll. op. in 13 vols. T. 7. M.. 1955. S.57.
23 Karamzin N. M. Decree. op. pp. 227-230.
24 Herzen A. I. Decree. op. pp. 158-160.
25 Kostomarov Ya. Decree. op. pp. 119, 125-129.
26 Pushkin A.S. About the insignificance of Russian literature. PSS in 16 vols. T. 11. M., 1949, p. 268
At least briefly describe the Golden Horde itself, its formation, state structure, the main stages of its political history and conquests. These points are important for a correct understanding of the nature of the Tatar-Mongol invasion of Rus' and its consequences. The Golden Horde was one of the ancient states of the Middle Ages, whose extensive possessions were located both in Europe and in Asia. Her...
The unity of the Horde rested on a system of cruel terror. After Khan Uzbek, the Horde experienced a period feudal fragmentation. 14th century - Central Asia separated 15th century - Khanate of Kazan and Crimea separated End of 15th century - Astrakhan and Siberian principalities separated 5. Tatar-Mongol invasions to Rus' in the second half of the 13th century. 1252 - The invasion of the Nevruev rati in the North. - Eastern Rus' for ...
→ → Russian culture of the period of the Golden Horde yoke (XIV - XV centuries)The most difficult test for ancient Russian culture was yoke of the Golden Horde. Many Russian cities were burned, plundered, monuments of art, destroyed, artists were killed or taken prisoner. The leading role in the culture of this period was played by church. The Russian people managed to realize their strength and rise to the struggle for independence. The rise of national self-consciousness is largely associated with the activities of one of the most revered Russian saints - Sergius of Radonezh. It was he who inspired the Moscow prince Dmitry (Donskoy) to the Battle of Kulikovo. He laid the foundation of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, many monasteries and temples. Sergius and his students considered their main task spiritual education of the people.
Old Russian cities Novgorod And Pskov they did not know the Mongol-Tatar yoke, but they paid tribute to the Baskaks sent there. The artistic life continued here. Here appeared the story "The Legend of the City of Kitezh", which became a symbol of Russia, a prototype of the earthly paradise. The revival of ancient Russian cities begins in the middle of the XIV century. The need for defense consolidated Russian forces, contributed to the unification of Russian lands, the formation Russian nationality. In this process leading role played Moscow. The fact is that by this time the Byzantine Empire was defeated by the Turks, Constantinople as the center of Christian Orthodoxy fell and was renamed Istanbul. The establishment of Turkish rule in the Balkans was a terrible threat to the Slavs. All this strengthened the importance of Muscovite Rus' as center of Orthodoxy. The first defeat of the Tatars, inflicted by the regiments of Dmitry Donskoy in 1378, and then the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380, was the end of slavery. The rapid unification of the Russian lands begins, which ends at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century under the rule of Moscow.
Trinity "Andrey Rublev"
central link ancient Russian art were iconography And temple architecture . The true masterpiece of this painting is the icon "Trinity" by Andrei Rublev. The names of such masters of icon painting as Alimpiy Pechersky and Daniil Cherny are also known. Their work is comparable to the masters of the Italian Renaissance. Stone churches are being built in Novgorod and Pskov: the Church of St. Nicholas on Lipna, the Church of the Assumption on the Volotovsky Field, the Church of Fyodor Stratilat and others. A local school of painting developed in Novgorod, the formation of which was greatly influenced by the great Byzantine Theophanes the Greek. Being invited to Rus', he took part in the paintings of more than 40 churches. His painting style was original, unique, his icons, images of saints - Christ Pantokrator and others breathe with passion, spiritual energy and inner tension. Theophanes the Greek introduced the Russian masters to Byzantine art and became a huge phenomenon in the artistic life of Moscow. He painted the churches and towers of the Moscow Kremlin, worked together with Andrei Rublev and Prokhor from Gorodets on the murals of the Cathedral of the Annunciation.
A certain influence on ancient Russian culture had connections with the nomadic East. Russians and nomads not only fought, but also directly traded among themselves. Khazars, Scythians-Sarmatians, cities of the Black Sea, Transcaucasia and Central Asia entered into cultural contacts with Muscovite Rus.
Mongolian influence on Russian culture evaluated by historians in different ways. So, for example, Karamzin believes that Moscow owes its greatness to the khans, and S.M. Solovyov believes that the Tatar-Mongols did not have a significant impact on the Russian internal administration. Of course, the Mongol yoke suspended cultural development countries: traditional ties with Byzantium were severed, a large number of the population were destroyed and taken prisoner, cities were destroyed. But only this Mongol invasion is not limited. Some historians (N.S. Trubetskoy) believe that the Muscovite state arose due to the Tatar yoke. Allegedly, the Mongol yoke brought the Russian people out of being small disparate tribal and urban principalities onto the wide road of statehood (B. Shiryaev). The Mongols, in his opinion, gave the conquered Russian lands the foundations of political culture, centralism, autocracy, serfdom. This led to the creation of a new ethnotype, the psychology of the Russian people. But there was no direct impact of Mongolian law on Russian law. The Mongols did not create any special code for Russia. Yes, and there was no systematic control of Russia by the Mon-Golo-Tatars. The Russian princes remained in power, they paid tribute to the Horde. But the very power of the princes has changed. From time to time, a Baskak was appointed to one or another Russian city for supervision, mainly for the collection of tribute. However, this was not a system; the Baskaks did not have certain functions.
Of course, the Mongol yoke led to loss of democratic governance in Russia. Ceased to exist city meetings, folk veche (with the exception of Novgorod and Pskov). But when the Russian vassals received from the khan the right to collect taxes for him themselves, the competence of the Grand Duke of Russia expanded. She grew even more Dmitry Donskoy, who became in fact a single and autonomous ruler. During the Mongol period, the great Russian prince became a stronger ruler than his predecessors. Thus, the Mongol-Tatar yoke was one of the factors formation of autocracy in Rus'.
Mongol-Tatars fortified in Rus' idea of sovereignty. At the same time, the power Mongol Khan was not limited by anything, was of an absolute, despotic character. And this principle of autocracy began to penetrate deeper and deeper into the political culture of the Russian people. Power, standing at the center of everything, itself gives rise to law, is outside and above law. The king became not a legal concept, but a doctrinal one (power from).
Russian culture borrowed from the Mongols such traits of military prowess as courage, endurance, and the tactics of using cavalry in military affairs. Many Mongolian words related to money and taxation have been preserved in Russian, this was associated with the collection of tribute and various taxes. The Mongols did not have a significant impact on Russian education, because. they didn't have it themselves. The same can be said about Russian architecture and art.
Orthodoxy was an important factor in the preservation of Russian culture in these difficult times. The Mongols were tolerant and did not touch Orthodox churches. The reasons for this lie in the paganism of the Mongols, and the pagans consider all faiths to be the same. The Mongols themselves were extremely superstitious and considered shamans to be people endowed with supernatural properties. In one of the decrees of Genghis Khan there was an indication that all faiths should be tolerated.
What else did the Mongols of ancient Rus' give? Principle of etiquette of diplomatic negotiations. Acquaintance with the Mongol way of conducting diplomacy greatly helped the Russian princes in relations with the Eastern powers, especially with the successors of the Golden Horde. On the whole, the importance and significance of the Mongolian influence on Russian culture should not be exaggerated. By itself, Russian culture, having gone to the "steppe", has become a civilizing factor. Many Tatars eventually came to Christianity and became prominent figures in Russian culture, for example, Karamzin, Chaadaev, Bulgakov.
Question:
Culture of Rus' in the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke (XIII-XV centuries).
Answer:
The culture of Rus' during the Mongol-Tatar yoke (XIII-XV centuries)
IN historical and cultural process XIII - XV centuries. two periods are distinguished. The first (from 1240 to the middle of the 14th century) is characterized by a noticeable decline in all areas of culture (due to the Mongol-Tatar conquest and simultaneous expansion by German, Swedish, Danish, Hungarian, Lithuanian and Polish feudal lords). Foreign invasions were especially detrimental to the southern and western lands.
The second period (from the second half of the 14th century) was marked by the rise of national self-consciousness, the revival of Russian culture.
The struggle against the Mongol-Tatars is the main theme of the folklore of the second half of the 13th-15th centuries. Traditional genres (epics, legends) are dedicated to her.
The leading genre of this time is the military story. The idea of all-Russian unity, having arisen in the pre-Mongolian period, intensified in the difficult years of the Mongol-Tatar invasion.
After the Mongol-Tatar devastation, Russian architecture experienced a period of decline and stagnation. Monumental construction stopped for half a century, the cadres of builders were essentially destroyed, and technical continuity was also undermined. Construction is now concentrated in two main areas: in the northwest (Novgorod and Pskov) and in the ancient Vladimir land (Moscow and Tver).
The first stone buildings in the Moscow Kremlin, which have not survived to this day, appeared at the turn of the 13th-14th centuries. (Cathedral Church of the Assumption of the Virgin, 1326).
Artistic centers moved from south to north, to cities that had escaped ruin (Rostov, Yaroslavl, Novgorod and Pskov), where there were many monuments of old art and living bearers of cultural traditions were preserved.
In the XIII century. there was a final crystallization of the Novgorod and Rostov schools of painting, and in the XIV century. - Tver, Pskov, Moscow and Vologda.
14th century - the time of the brilliant flourishing of the monumental painting of Novgorod, the development of which was greatly influenced by the great Byzantine Theophanes the Greek, who came to Rus' in the 70s of the XIV century. The works of F. Grek - frescoes, icons - are distinguished by monumentality, dramatic expressiveness, and a bold pictorial manner. He painted the Church of the Savior on Ilyin, the frescoes of which have come down to us only partially.
In Moscow, Theophan the Greek painted the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin with a chapel of Lazarus, the Arkhangelsk and (together with Elder Prokhor and Andrei Rublev) the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, etc. A number of magnificent icons created in the circle of Theophan have been preserved. The best of them is the "Our Lady of the Don" from the Assumption Cathedral with the "Assumption of the Virgin" on the back.
The first 7 icons of the festive row (“Annunciation”, “Transfiguration”, etc.) from the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral are traditionally associated with the name the greatest artist Ancient Rus' Andrei Rublev (c. 1360/70 - 1427/30) - a monk of the Andronikov Monastery, little reliable information about whose life and work has been preserved. The most perfect work of Rublev is the icon "Trinity", created for the Trinity - Sergius Monastery. The style of the Moscow master, deeply national in its essence, distinguished by its unique individuality, for a long time determined the style not only of the Moscow school of painting, which reached its peak under him, but of the entire Russian artistic culture.
The growth of national self-consciousness, the idea of unity, the tendency to overcome regional tendencies in social thought, literature, art - all this testified to the emergence of an all-Russian (Great Russian) culture.
Culturology
Supereka S.V.
2007
