LITERATURE AND OTHER ARTS. The relationship of the types of claims is subject to the law of history. variability. In various historical era, the system of types of art significantly changed its structure, although its components remained: art of words, art of images, art of sounds (music), spectacular arts and art of things (architecture and applied arts). ). These five chapters complexes can be found in art. creativity of all times and peoples, starting with primitive society. Their structure, the system of connections, relates them. the predominance of one or another complex - in each era they are new picture. 19th century experience accustomed us to the idea of literary centrism, that is, the dominant position of the art of the word as the most powerful in its effect on minds. In ancient times, the art of the word occupied a relatively more modest place and, moreover, did not act in isolation, but as one of the constituent elements of the synthetic. ensemble. This is explained, apparently, historically. the logic of the development of art-va as a whole, the logic of the artist. development of the world by man - from preim. practical, material-formative, to preim. spiritual.
Every work of art. creativity, ancient or new, is primarily an act spiritual and emotional communication between people. But the generic specificity of the claim is not yet exhausted by this. Each work of art. creativity is at the same time something done, created - new item, a new phenomenon created by man - and something known, discovered by him. And function creation, and function knowledge also always inherent in the artist. activities, and through them the first is manifested - the function of communication. You can only talk about relates. the preponderance of this or that beginning. IN architectural structure the beginning of creation clearly predominates, in lit. essay - the beginning of knowing; however, architecture also contains an element of knowledge, and the essay is not just the result of the study, but some new, formed in itself, structurally significant whole.
In the historical development of art, shifts of the functional center of gravity are observed: one function comes to the fore, while others appear more hidden, less consciously. This inevitably affects the dialectics of the development of types of art. At the same time, one must take into account the relativity and mobility of the boundaries between art and "non-art"; each type of claim, firstly, was included in a certain ideological system, and secondly, it was directly adjacent to the c.-l. kind of "extra-artistic" activities. The art of architecture has always had purely utilitarian construction as its natural "relative"; depict. art - all varieties of visual cognition and visual communication, including writing (the Chinese considered writing to be a kind of painting); spectacular arts - rituals, processions, games, sports; artistic lit-pa is connected with lit-roy by many threads
scientific, philosophical, documentary, critical, etc. In extra-art. activities covertly dormant artist. potency, readiness under certain conditions to get close to the claim or develop into it. In turn, the development of type of claim-va owes much to the development of a related field of activity.
Word, language - is the reality of thought. The development of the art of the word is indisputably connected with the progress of the analytical, theoretical. thinking, although it is, of course, not identical to it.
Owls. aesthetics, based on the primacy of material and labor activity in relation to the spiritual, believe that Ch. historical trend in the development of art. activity - in its transition from sensual-practical. formation to the knowledge and reflection of being. “From a form of social labor, it turns into a form public consciousness, in artistic thinking. Accordingly, art or literature at its early stages is perceived primarily as an activity, the creation of a special thing (work), and only in modern times they began to be perceived primarily as special way knowledge” (“Theory of Literature. Main Problems in Historical Coverage”, [vol. 1], 1962, p. 193).
It follows from this that at the early stages of the art of the word, in comparison with the “real” claims, it is relatively less developed, less adequate to its nature (i.e., the nature of the word). After all, the word works as an instrument of spiritual representation, it does not create anything material, and people of the primitive system were inclined to attribute direct material force to speech, the ability to act on objects in almost the same way as an ax or an arrow. Creator. the side of the verbal claim was understood literally, “materially”, thus illusory.
However, not everything was illusory here: if the word cannot affect the inanimate. nature, if it cannot cause rain or sun, then the direct, in addition to any reflection, action of the word on the will of man and even on his physical. organism is quite possible, which is proven and modern. science. In the earliest stages, the word became "art", as an inspiring, suggestive force. Conspiracies and spells are the oldest "genre" of verbal art; their goal is practical, like any utilitarian action: the spell is designed to subdue the one to whom it is directed, to master his will. Then the affective side of speech was cultivated in the art of the word: the power of suggestibility depends on it. Rhythm, melodiousness, gradations of shouting and whispering were of great importance. Hypnotic the music of speech seemed more important than its semantic content, which in spells was very dark, and in the most ancient labor songs - monotonous, static. Main the value of the word - semantic - is little revealed in the initial forms of verbal creativity: those properties of speech that bring it closer to musical theater come to the fore. action. The word, as an art, existed insofar as it was part of the rite, included in ritual performances with songs and dances. So there was a long-rooted connection between the claims of the word and the claims of the spectacular and musical, the most capable of directly influencing the perceiver, capturing him, subordinating him to his rhythms. Here are the origins of poetry - the word-music, measured speech, undoubtedly more ancient than the art of prose. speech. And in the primitive syncretic. complexes poetry, i.e. the actual artist. word, played a secondary role, subordinated to movement and rhythm.
At a higher stage of the communal-tribal system, the art of the word is isolated as mythological. oral epic - myths, legends, traditions, which together form
epics. This marks the greatest progress self-awareness: narrate. poetry develops as the people begin to think historically about themselves. Ritual representations are, so to speak, elemental being in myth, immersion in it; another thing is telling a myth. A glance appears, as if from the outside, reflection; the life of the people begins to be perceived as history, albeit in a fantastic way. connections. Heroic-mythological. epic - this is the beginning of future historical. Chronicles, and the future artist. prose. They have common roots. The word, as a vessel of knowledge, comes into its own, and it is in this capacity that it becomes independent. lawsuit. But even at the stage of the epic, it is still fused with music and singing: this connection is firmly entrenched in the oral nar. poetry up to the present day. The poet, singer and storyteller are one and the same person in the era of the epic: he is a storyteller, as he performs the stories he heard from the old people (in this sense he is a historian); he is a poet, since he enriches these tales with his own additions and "composes" them in his own way; he is a singer, because he does not pronounce them, but sings, accompanying himself to music. tool. The legends of the Iliad, the runes of the Kalevala, the poems of the Mahabharata - all this was sung to the music. However, in verbal and musical complex, separated from the synthetic. performances, ch. the role already belongs to the story, and the music. sound is, as it were, an element of its form. And the story does not pursue the task of direct, suggestive action, but only mediated action through imagination and reflection. The listeners calmly, in silence, listened to the narrator, slowly telling about the exploits of the heroes.
Otherwise, there was a communication of the word with the image. Here, from the very beginning, apparently, she played means. the role of the communicative and semantic function of the word. Drawings and sculptures were either included in ritual actions - then their connection with the word was carried out within the general framework of this ritual, but, of course, was not as close as the connection of the word with dance and music - or they served as a means of designation and communication. In the latter case, the word, as it were, reincarnated into a drawing and found in it a figurative otherness of its meaning. Ideographic was born. and pictographic writing is a knot that links together a word with an image. It is noteworthy that where writing in hieroglyphs persisted for many centuries (for example, in China), there is a connection and commonality between poetry and painting in all historical places. stages remained the most intimate and organic, despite the fact that hieroglyphs have long lost their pictorial character.
The illustration may refer to lit. prod. different ways; Basically, they make up two fundamentally different groups, and
the first is more in line with pictorial thinking, the second - own. graphic. Examples of the first are illustrations by E. Delacroix - to "Hamlet", to "Faust", Repin - to "Notes of a Madman" by N. Gogol, partly by O. Daumier - to "Don Quixote". The illustrator proceeds from that imaginary visible complex, which, as it seems to him, served as a starting point for the writer as well. He, as it were, makes his way back - from lit. text to feelings. prototype, creating his own depict. means. For example, M. Dobuzhinsky acts differently when illustrating "White Nights" by F. Dostoevsky. He is not so much interested in "what it actually looked like" as "how the writer wrote about it." Image is created. equivalent to most style the writer, his way of thinking, the ways of his imagination. Dobuzhinsky conveys in black and white engraving not Petersburg as such, but the feeling of Petersburg, which emanates from this story - a feeling of emptiness, loneliness, a place where sounds and colors go out, and a silent riot of dreams flares up in silence. He gives fragments - a piece of lattice, a piece of a letter; they flicker as fragments of a dreamer seen in the head flicker. The drawing strives to be, as it were, the otherness of the word. This way of illustrating is increasingly prevalent.
However, the 20th century, starting from the second decade, not only continues the 19th century: there is a reaction to literary centrism and a new rise in material arts. Ultimately, it is due to a new qualitative stage in the development of the Society. The great discoveries of science and the progress of technology play an important role here. It is no less important that this growth in production makes not only real, but historically overdue and inevitable the transition to a new - socialist - way, the beginning of which was laid by the October Revolution. In the depths of the old about-va, conditions are already being formed for the socialist. organization of life, and it involves the emancipation of labor and, consequently, the identification of creativity. start of labor. Here is one of the reasons for the fact that architecture and applied arts are emerging from stagnation and, relying on the achievements of modern. techniques, acquire stylistic forms that meet the aspirations and spirit of the new society. And after them, sculpture and painting - the primordial companions of architecture - begin (so far they are just beginning) to rejoin the "life-building" functions, which have been deprived for so long, although they are just as characteristic of them as artistic and cognitive functions. These searches began in the 1920s. (eg, constructivists) in the young Sov. country, but could not then truly mature and be realized.
The need to restore balance in relations between claims has long been felt. One-sidedness is purely lit. development of art-va began to be painfully felt by the writers themselves. “The soul of the writer involuntarily waited among abstractions, became sad in the laboratory of words,” A. Blok wrote in Art. “Paints and Words”, 1905 (Collected works, vol. 9, p. 56). L. Tolstoy, at the first timid steps of cinema, already foresaw its enormous future, its power in conveying the moving world, and even admitted that cinema could replace literature. Cinematography really in a short time won a sphere of influence unimaginable for others. Mn. major figures and cinema theorists believed that it was intended to overcome the one-sided verbal direction adopted by the art of the 19th century. Rene Clair wrote: “Let's try to look at everything around us. The words have taken on an overblown meaning. We know by heart almost all possible word combinations. We have eyes, but we have not yet learned to see” (“Reflections on Cinematography”, M., 1958, p. 23).
It would seem that cinema, as an art of action, of all traditions. the art is closest to the theater, but as the art of the visible - to painting. However, already at an early time, cinema rebels against its "theatricalization". Screened performances occupy a very modest place. The traditions of painting also do not take any deep roots in the cinema and remain in the sphere of rather external "techniques". In any case, neither theater nor painting can compare with literature in terms of the power of influence on cinema. The point is not only in the huge stream of film adaptations and not only in the fact that the “great mute” quickly learned to speak, thereby rejecting the traditions of pantomime. Itself is specific. the poetics of mature cinema is closer to the poetics of verbal art than to. another. This is evident from the original films more than from adaptations, which rarely reach the level of their lit. original source.
Already S. Eisenstein drew attention to how related the principle of cinematography. mounting structure lit. image. And to this day, film directors and screenwriters again and again "discover" for themselves Pushkin, Tolstoy and other classics, who, it turns out, wrote as if specifically for the cinema! Such observations are valid, but, obviously, the conclusion from them follows not that Pushkin and Tolstoy anticipated the specifics of cinema, but the opposite: the poetics of cinema was formed as the brainchild of literature, as a type of art that absorbed the historical. school lit. figurativeness, her artist. dialectics.
Indeed: mounting "joints" (see. Installation) are very close to nature lit. image, when two heterogeneous representations are connected and something third arises from a special type of connection between them - the image itself. In the famous episode of the execution on the stairs (“Battleship Potemkin”), this is precisely the role played by alternating shots - a staircase, boots, a carriage, broken glasses, “jumping” stone lions. But that's not all. Cinema conveys the movement of life in a discontinuous and yet unified flow. It easily carries out shifts and flights in time and space. It conveys the structure of the ext. life, the mechanism of thinking, the working of memory, the flickering of associations - all that in the theater usually looks ponderous and artificial. Even the "off-screen voice", which has firmly taken root in the poetics of cinema, is another step towards the poetics of literature. All this leads one of the large owls. directors to a completely logical conclusion: “... Cinematography in its development has reached a level at which the laws of literature developed over thousands of years have become, to a certain extent, its laws” ( Romm M., Conversations about cinema, 1964, p. 151).
There is no need, of course, to exaggerate: the cinematography is not an understudy of literature and not its improved variety (if so, it could really supplant the book). He has his own patterns, his own methods. But these patterns and these methods are such that they presuppose the level and quality of the aesthetic. consciousness, brought up by a lit-roy, more than c.-l. another claim.
Cinematography breathes the air of a litre, and there is no harm to its independence in this. Lit-ra ceased to be an instrument drowning out the sounds of an entire orchestra of arts, but she remained the conductor of this orchestra. And she herself "speaks" now not only the language of words, but also the "language" of images, actions, sound, light. The spirit of the word is introduced into all these forms - problematic, analytic, pathos of the study of reality to its innermost depths. We can agree with Armand Lanou: “In our time, there are writers who express themselves with the help of light alone (We can with with good reason consider Eisenstein, René Clair or Fellini precisely as writers)" (see in the journal "Foreign
Literature”, 1962, No. 9, p. 149). Dark fears that lit-pa will be swallowed up and supplanted by cinema or television seem unfounded. 2nd floor 20th century - this is still the era of literature par excellence. Because those tasks are artistic. knowledge, which she decides, remain the most relevant. We have learned a lot about the world outside of us, but we still know ourselves very poorly: this long path of knowledge, on which art everything will belong big role, in fact, just started.
Lit.: Aristotle, On the art of poetry, M., 1957; Leonardo da Vinci, The dispute of the painter with the poet, musician and sculptor, in the book: Leonardo da Vinci, Fav. works, vol. 2, M. - L., 1935 (introductory article by A. Efros); Lessing G. E., Laocoön, or On the Limits of Painting and Poetry, M., 1957; Hegel, The system of arts taken separately, Sobr. soch., vol. 13, M., 1940, vol. 14, M., 1958; Vartanov An., Images of literature in graphics and cinema, M., 1961; Gachev GD, The development of figurative consciousness in literature, in the book: Theory of Literature. Main problems in history. lighting, [book. 1], M., 1962; Palievskiy P. V., Internal structure image, ibid.; "Questions of Literature", 1964, No. 3; Arnheim R., Art and visual perception, Berk., 1954; munro Th., The arts and their enterrelations, N. Y., 1949.
Section 5. Literature among other arts
How and why art originated.
The main properties of art and its types.
Infinity and timelessness of art.
Fantasy and fiction in art.
Understanding beauty in art. The creative process in art.
Humanity of art.
Fiction as an art form.
Literature as the art of the word. Word spoken and unspoken.
Text and subtext in literature.
The external world and human feelings in the art of the word.
"Inexpressible" (V.A. Zhukovsky) in literature.
The creative process in literature.
There is still no clear answer to the question how, when and where art originated. In search of answers to questions about the time and causes of the emergence of art, researchers often point to rock paintings as a prototype of art. There is a judgment that art began when a person began to name the surrounding objects using various images.
The largest Russian philologist and culturologist Dmitry Sergeevich Likhachev (1906–1999) is the author interesting theory origin of art. He believes that art appeared as a way to protect a person from a natural fear of the harsh surrounding world: “... it seems to me that what was depicted in the caves was primarily what they were afraid of, which could cause mortal harm. Man… neutralized the world around him in that which was dangerous to him.” The desire to overcome the chaos of reality and confusion in his own soul D.S. Likhachev explains the facts of the construction of early Orthodox churches in open, hazardous areas. It was the temples, which became the first centers of art in Rus', that gave a person protection from his fears, and then a “lingering song” came to the rescue, and “churches inhabited this desert world.” “The terrible sea, the terrible waves, had to be frightened in turn,” and “the shipbuilders bent the nose of the boat high up and carved a monster on it.” Art, according to Likhachev, also helped to overcome the fear of "death, obscurity, disappearance." Therefore, man sought to preserve the objects of material culture. “History was also frightening in its changeability, which he struggled with historical traditions, songs, and at the time of acquiring writings - chronicles and historical writings… with laughter and satire.”
The idea of D.S. is very important. Likhachev that art overcomes not only the fear of the outside world, but also the spiritual discomfort inherent in man, discord with himself. At the same time, art does not take on a lulling, soothing role. Art puts vital important questions, sharply reacts to pain and suffering, makes a person look deeper into life and into himself. According to Likhachev, each era has its own reasons for the development of art. May change artistic ideas, forms of existence, creative attitudes, styles, but art cannot disappear. Each epoch creates its own art, leaving from the previous epochs enduring artistic values that retain their aesthetic significance regardless of socio-historical conditions. The idea of overcoming world chaos with the help of harmonizing art was expressed by A.A. Blok during the October Revolution of 1917
So, art is seen as a way to protect a person, it harmonizes human life, it is able to overcome the chaos of the external world and the inner life of a person. Obviously, art arose by the will of man and for man. Art is a special subject in a person's life, a subject that allows you to fill life spiritually, satisfy precisely the spiritual needs of man and mankind. Art - huge world, which includes music, painting, architecture, theater, cinema, and literature (fiction).
All types of art have common properties. There are quite a lot of them, among them the following can be considered the most important.
Real art is always inscribed in the context of its era, but at the same time it is infinite and timeless.. It is no coincidence that works of art created in different eras, turn out to be connected with each other, persist and “flow” into another era once created images, motifs, themes, plot schemes. For example, the medieval play "Hamlet" by W. Shakespeare finds an unexpected continuation in the poem "Hamlet" by B. Pasternak, which was included in the novel "Doctor Zhivago". Loneliness understood in the Shakespearean sense, the reflection of the poet, excommunicated from the reader - all this was embodied in a poem about the loneliness of the creator-artist:
The hum is quiet. I went out to the stage.
Leaning against the doorframe,
What will happen in my lifetime...
And, finally, a memorable performance (1971) by the Moscow Taganka Theater famous all over the country - "Hamlet" - staged by Yu.P. Lyubimov, when Hamlet appeared on the stage in the prologue - Vysotsky in a tracksuit according to the home fashion of the 1970s with a guitar in his hands and with the song of Vladimir Vysotsky himself to the verses of Boris Pasternak "The rumble has subsided ...".
So art in its various forms (theater, poetry, drama, music) restores the connection of times, which is easily lost due to the whim or ignorance of people (Compare Shakespeare's: “the time is out of joint” - “The connection of times has fallen” - translation by A. Kroneberg; “The connecting thread broke” - translated by B. Pasternak).
The infinity of art, its ability not to lose its relevance explains the vitality classic masterpieces. Thanks to this property of art, mankind will never stop coming to the Louvre for the Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci, will not stop listening to the preludes and fugues of Johann Sebastian Bach, will not get tired of looking for something in common with modernity in the poems of Homer or the Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri.
Another most important feature of art, related to all its types, is associated with the obligatory the artist's imagination. Art is not created simply to reflect or copy reality. A copy in art does not possess attractiveness, author's breath, aesthetic ambitions. In art, creativity is valued, as they say today. Therefore, in a work of art there is always a place fiction, conventions, elements of the game. Contemplating reality, transforming it as required by his own imagination, the artist creates new worlds, which become especially interesting.
Sometimes these conjectures become a kind of foresight, a prediction of what has not yet been, but will certainly be. It is not by chance that flying carpets and tablecloths once invented by folklore became reality in the era of airplanes, spaceships and ... refrigerators. And on the icon of the 16th century, written by an unknown artist, modern astronauts saw paints that exactly repeat the color outer space, - a color that does not exist in wildlife on planet Earth.
This is probably why to his film "Solaris", staged based on fantasy novel Stanislav Lem, film director Andrei Tarkovsky chose "Choral Prelude" by J.S. Bach is a work written in the first third of the 18th century, but at the same time most fully embodying the artistic ideas of a modern director.
Art also has other properties that allow it to remain an eternal category that accompanies a person all his life.
Any creative process(and without it, art does not exist) suggests creative freedom artist. It was precisely this kind of freedom that Pushkin spoke of. It is this kind of freedom that is often restricted by the authorities, seeking to take creativity under their vigilant control. The fate of many writers, artists, composers of the Soviet era can serve as an example of how the restriction of the creative will and freedom of the author leads to sad, tragic results both in fate and in creativity.
In the story "Ours" Sergei Dovlatov cites a fairy tale he invented for his little daughter. The artist was given unlimited opportunities for creativity, the only thing he was forbidden to do was draw a small gray insect. As a result, the artist lost his peace, he simply could not work, because all his thoughts were directed only to a small gray insect.
Another important property of art in all its forms and manifestations is understanding of beauty. The concept of beauty in nature and art is different. In nature, external beauty is valued, in art, internal beauty is no less important, and sometimes even more in demand. Often works of art are built on the contrast between these two expressions of beauty. Note that among the women depicted on the most famous portraits, there are practically no beauties in the original sense of the word. In the faces of Gioconda (Leonardo da Vinci), actress Jeanne Samary (Auguste Renoir), M.N. Yermolova (V.A. Serov) is attracted not by the correctness of facial features, not by the elegance of the costume or the splendor of the hairstyle, but by the inner beauty - the depth of the look, a slight smile, spirituality.
To create a work of art, special qualities of the artist's personality are needed: talent, inspiration, insight. A work of art is the result of special conditions and human creative efforts. These efforts are called creative process, which is also one of the most important properties, related to all types of art.
Among the various properties of art, some of which have been named here, the most important is what should be called human-centricity of art.
Obviously, art is created in the name of a person, for a person, and the main subject of the image presupposes a person. We are well aware that a dog singing along with an opera part or a cat attentively watching a TV version of a ballet performance cannot be fully considered connoisseurs, consumers of art. Here we can only talk about physiological processes. Only a person can create a work of art and perceive it in full.
The subject of the image in a work of art can, of course, be a landscape, a still life, an interior, a doll (Pinocchio, for example), and an animal (Chekhov's Kashtanka). However, all these objects are somehow humanized, they are endowed with the thoughts of a person (Kashtanka), his actions (Pinocchio) or embody human understanding nature and things.
They are inspired by human feelings and emotions, spiritualized by them, embody human ideas about the ideal, about good and evil, about human dreams and suffering.
The purpose of art is to tell a person about another person, about the world of people and about oneself. Therefore, art is directed to outer life human (words, deeds, appearance, biography) and internal (thoughts, feelings, experiences).
Despite the commonality of properties characteristic of all types of art, these types also have fundamental differences. Known Species The arts differ primarily in the very materials used by the artist. The result of the creative process largely depends on what source materials and in what ways a work of art is created. These are also musical sounds that can be extracted using different instruments or using human voice, these are paints that can be applied to canvas or paper, a temple wall or a board, while the artist can use watercolor or oil paints, charcoal or pencil, brush or sanguine. Differences in art materials are important in sculpture, architecture, and plastic arts. Obviously, all arts are different and sometimes incomparable.
In this sense literature among other arts occupies a special place. This is due to the fact that literature is the only art form "built" on unique property human - the ability to speak. The specificity, the essence of literature as an art form is a person who speaks, who owns the word, speech. Literature is called the art of the word, since it is the word that is the main material of literature.
In terms of physiology, the features of literature as an art form can be explained quite simply. The word is the second sign signal system, through it all sensations, all experiences, all human actions are transmitted. With the help of the word, you can show space and time in its entirety. There are no barriers for the word, it conveys the real and the unreal, the movement and the stop, the dynamic and the static. That is, the word is omnipotent. And here, in addition to physiology, one should recall magic, and sorcery, and the hidden possibilities of man.
It turns out that the word can convey not only object world but also the world human feelings, not only the movement of a visible being, but also of invisible trajectories, not only what a person talks about, but also what he is silent about, afraid even to admit to himself some thoughts. In this regard, in a literary text, not only words are significant, but also how these words are interconnected, what context they form. It is also important how the spaces and pauses between words and phrases are located in the text, how the intonation and rhythm of the phrase affect its meaning.
Thus, literature turns out to be not only the art of the word, but also the art of the phrase, paragraph, stanza, line, and even the pauses between them. This is the art not only of a single phrase, but of the whole large text, in which this phrase enters along with others. It turns out that in a literary work, not only what is said is important, but also unspoken word. A word that is not formulated, not written, but meant without being spoken and written down on paper.
In other words, in a literary work coexist on equal terms text and subtext. Text and subtext are equally important for a literary critic, because only by understanding the subtexts, an astute reader is able to evaluate the author's strategies, comprehend the conditions of the literary game, realize irony and other forms of satire, distinguish between the steps of lyrical intonation, and much more that a work of art can be filled with. .
Just as the spoken and unspoken word are equal in a literary work, within the framework of one work the text and subtext are equivalent. The ability to read and understand the subtexts inherent in the work is characteristic only of a prepared reader.
The point is that in literary work of art not only words and expressions are important, allowing to carry out an act of communication necessary for all other types of speech (scientific, journalistic, colloquial, text of an e-mail, Internet blog, etc.), but also an aesthetic act that is very important for the author of a work. The presented text is intended not only and not so much to convey the amount of relevant information, but to convey the “volume” and nature of mood, emotions, feelings.
That is why the literary and artistic text successfully uses both the direct meanings of words, and figurative ones, and words that acquire new meanings in new contexts, and a variety of means. artistic expressiveness. The word, as you know, has the ability to take on a new or additional meaning. This property is actively used in the literature. Since the word is ambiguous, the literary text is also ambiguous to such a degree of depth as the reader can reach, therefore, we can talk about inexhaustibility of a literary text.
In the era of antiquity, it was believed that poets were messengers of the gods, which being flows through the word and disappears through the word and is reborn. The noise of the wind and the whispering of herbs come to a person through silence, and from a person through a word.
German scientist-philosopher Martin Heidegger already in the XX century. was convinced that the language is rooted in silence, in silence, people contemplate reality, seek to hide their ideas about it, and only then utter the first word. Many modern scholars believe that before the utterance (discourse) there was silence, listening. Only then does a verbal statement occur.
Understanding the meaning of subtexts in a work of art is helped by the ability to focus on different ways organization of verbal expression. For an attentive reader, monologues, dialogues, the pace and order of speech, a pause, exclamations and questions, the significance of the statement expressed by dots, the verbal equivalent of the psychological state of the author and characters are important, various forms silence and silence, sound associations. All this and more creates artistic imagery literary work.
Writers have repeatedly sought to emphasize the features of art close to literature, but still different from it. When N.A. Zabolotsky writes:
Love painting, poets,
She alone is given
Souls of changeable signs
Transfer to canvas...
he seems to convince the reader of the superiority of painting over other forms of art. Meanwhile, in this poem, and in many others, Zabolotsky managed to embody both “signs of a changing soul” and other subtle phenomena and signs. Just unlike other types of art, literature is able to penetrate as much as possible into the inner world of the characters, into their psychological status, and even give the psychological state of the character in large-scale dynamics.
Curiously, subtext exists only in verbal arts- Literature and those forms of art that arose on its basis - cinema and theater. In the art of the word, the subtext arises "at the junction" of words or from the words themselves.
One of the first Russian poets who thought about the purpose of poetic art was V.A. Zhukovsky. In his famous poem "the inexpressible", the poet speaks of two types of phenomena that determine human life. It is above all the outer world with its beauty and brightness -
What is visible to the eyes is this flame of clouds,
Flying across the quiet sky
This trembling of the shining waters,
These pictures of the shores
In the fire of a magnificent sunset -
These are such bright features -
They are easily caught by the winged thought,
And there are words for their brilliant beauty...
The sky, clouds, pond, shore, the beauty of a bright sunset - all this, of course, pleasantly strikes our imagination. A person sees this, admiring the beauty of the surrounding world, and, which is essential for Zhukovsky's thought, finds the right words to designate this range of phenomena.
Another type of no longer phenomena, but rather internal states that determine our existence to no lesser extent, is associated with the infinite world of the human soul:
... But what is merged with this brilliant beauty -
This is so vague, exciting us,
This listener with one soul
enticing voice,
This is a distant aspiration,
This past hello
(Like a sudden breath of air
From the meadow of the motherland, where there was once a flower,
Holy youth, where hope lived),
This whispered memory
About sweet joyful and mournful antiquity,
This holy thing descending from on high,
This presence of the creator in creation -
What is their language?.. Woe the soul flies,
All the immensity in a single breath is crowded
And only silence speaks clearly.
What are these states? what makes a person a person is his feelings and thoughts, namely: the movements of the soul, memories of the past, love for native side, a prayer aspiring to God, a feeling of spirituality of everything that enters into human life. Note that this whole circle mental states Zhukovsky refers to the field of "Inexpressible", to that which is not customary to discuss aloud (in vain) with others, which is the subject of deeply personal, intimate experiences. "What is their language?" the poet asks rhetorically. There is no language for them, no word, they inexpressible, - such is the answer.
Now let's reread the "inexpressible" again and understand that the phenomena and states that Zhukovsky rightly considers unnameable, he named, He expressed their language of poetic art.
Hence the conclusion: poetry exists in order to express the inexpressible literature exists so that the reader can understand the text with all overtones of meaning including that which is not expressed in words.
A literary work, by virtue of its ambiguity, has such a quality as ambiguity interpretations for every man imagines in his own way the same literary hero. Even if the writer accurately indicates the appearance of the hero and the characteristics of his behavior, each of us perceives him differently.
A literary work has its own specifics in the creative process. Many attempts have been made in order to somehow fix the creative process, to decompose it into components. The scheme of the creative process was presented as a series of successive actions: the writer's observation of surrounding reality, a kind of rational generalization of what he saw, an attempt to "shift" this what he saw into the language artistic images, and then - the transfer of the “transferred” to paper, the long process of finding the right word, auto-editing, and everything else that is commonly called the creative history of the work.
Textual experts who study creative history literary work, work only with texts in all their versions and editions. They can see how the work on the text went, how it was reduced or increased, how and when new ones appeared. literary heroes and new artistic details and situations.
Turning to manuscripts and drafts, working in writers' archives, specialists can indicate the prototypes of literary characters, find an explanation for changes in plot and composition, rearrangements of phrases and individual words. Diaries and letters of writers, memoirs of contemporaries help in this work, but most often - research intuition and literary flair.
However, no matter how high class the work of a textual literary critic is marked, it is rare that he manages to penetrate beyond the boundaries of the written text, to identify and comment on the “pre-textual” period of work on the work.
How, in fact, does the writer “observe” life, what exactly does he take from everything he sees into the work, what does he refuse and why does he do it? When and how does the poetic idea of a work mature? When does a person (writer) realize that the time has come to tell readers about what they have seen? How is the process of mental work on a future work measured? Is it minutes, hours or years? Why does it happen that one text is born from the writer immediately, without long searches, and another text is hatched for decades?
The series of questions that follow seems even more complex. Why does one writer work hard and conscientiously, and the reader's memory refuses to retain his name? Another writes easily, having time to get all the pleasures of life, does not care at all about posthumous glory, but she, glory, finds him and keeps his name for centuries? And if it's about talent or even genius, then what is it?
Questions can be multiplied indefinitely, but still not get an answer to the main one: how does the creative process proceed and why do its main stages seem inexplicable and, in fact, do not lend themselves to any registration?
Starting from the ancient era, for many centuries, the image of the Muse created by the artists themselves lives in world poetry. Muses - patrons of the arts and sciences - according to different legends were the daughters of either Uranus and Gaia, or Zeus and Mnemosyne, and their number ranged from three to nine. The Muses loved to bathe in the springs from which the ancient Greeks drew inspiration for poetry and divination, so the Muses became associated with beings that bring (deliver) inspiration.
Since in the ancient tradition it was believed that the muses were cruel and severely punished those who tried to compete with them, any manifestation of mercy and understanding on the part of the muses was perceived as a reward for their labors.
In the literature of modern and recent times, it has become customary to refer not to muses, a to muse. The poet believed that he was patronized by one particular muse, whom he knows and recognizes and which is "responsible" for his creative work. The muse appeared to poets most often in the form beautiful woman, easily and naturally helping to create. Character traits"average" Muse: she comes to the poet secretly, often under the cover of night, she loves the poet, she often gives him some poetic attribute, for example, a "seven-barreled forefinger", she listens to the poet favorably, benevolently, with an unchanging smile. Such a Muse with all her appearance resembles a kind and merciful teacher. It is no coincidence that many poets admitted that they were learning from the Muse: “I diligently listened to the lessons of the virgin of mystery” (A.S. Pushkin).
The creative process different writers proceeds differently. The memoirs capture the eccentricities and whims without which the writers did not sit down to work. Some people kept their feet in a basin of water while writing, some drank coffee in large quantities, some worked only at dawn, others late at night, for one author, a newspaper report about the incident became a creative impulse, the other rethought the well-known folk tale, the third focused solely on his own whimsical fiction. V.V. Mayakovsky, for example, admitted that at first he "stepped" the rhythm of the verse and only then filled the line with words.
The creative process in literature, as well as in other arts, is marked by insight, inspiration, talent and is in many ways a sacred process (otherworldly and mysterious), which does not imply a clear assignment and controllability.
In the disinterested consciousness of the author, two simultaneously existing, opposite, multidirectional and feeding needs paradoxically combine. One of them is a deep inner need in secret - in the secret of free inspiration, birth, gestation, creation of a literary work. The need for secrecy, which develops into a clearly and proudly manifested protest against any manifestations of censorship and control. As A.T. Twardowski:
I myself will find out, I will search
Before all my miscalculations.
I remember them by heart -
Not according to ready-made notes.
I have no use - I myself am big -
In ridiculous self-defense.
Do not stand only above the soul,
Don't breathe over your ear.
And another need in public, in sympathetic attention to one's own poetic word, in empathy, in being read, heard, understood.
Bearing in mind, first of all, their widely known, popular children's poems, which were destined for long life and strong reader's memory, S.Ya. Marshak in the middle of the last century concluded:
My reader of a special kind:
He knows how to walk under the table.
But I'm glad to know that I know
With the reader of the year 2000!
Literature and other arts. Lessing on the limits of painting and poetry.
The differentiation of art forms was carried out on the basis of elementary, external, formal features of works, that is, according to the material.
Hegel rightly asserts that the boundaries between art forms are determined by "forms, methods of artistic objection" (in the word, in visible images, in sounds, etc.). Hegel singled out and characterized 5 so-called types of arts: architecture, sculpture, painting, music, poetry. Along with them, there is dance and pantomime, as well as stage directing - in theater and cinema.
Thus, at the end of the eighteenth century German writer and thinker G. Lessing suggested a different approach. Lessing's classification is based on space-time principle. Lessing proceeded from the fact that art can "deploy" itself either in space or in time. Painting, for example, unfolds in space, and freezes in time (the heroes of the picture freeze at some point in some poses). At the same time, music has no space, it unfolds in time (sound by sound). Literature, according to Lessing, is predominantly a temporary art form, events unfold one after another.
The scientist subtly noted that we are not talking about absolute boundaries. Painting can depict the movement of time, but only through space. The easiest way to prove this is if we turn to contemporary painting. An artist can, for example, paint a portrait of a person in two tenses: half of the face of a young man, and half of his, but an old man. In the same way, literature can depict the landscape, but only thanks to time. The writer will be forced to consistently depict fragments of the landscape, remember Pushkin:
Under blue skies (first fragment)
Magnificent carpets (second),
Shining in the sun (third), snow lies (fourth).
Later, in the reader's mind, these fragments will merge into a single spatial picture.
Lessing not only created his own classification of the arts, he was the first to draw attention to the fact that artistic time and space are significant elements of art. After Lessing, the study of the time-space of the text became one of the most interesting areas of analysis.
In the era of romanticism several original classifications were proposed at once, the creators of which tried to see patterns in the ways of artistic influence. Developing these traditions, modern researchers often use opposition" fine Arts- Expressive Arts.
Fine Arts- those in which the world appears objectively, visibly. Their purpose is depict the world. These are plot painting, novels and stories, sculpture, pantomime.
Expressive Arts- those in which the emphasis is on emotions, on the expression of attitude to the world. Works of the expressive arts are most often difficult to visualize (with the exception of dance, which is entirely attuned to self-expression, but has something of a pantomime). Such are lyric poetry, music, abstract painting, architecture, etc.
LITERATURE AND OTHER ARTS. The relationship of the types of claims is subject to the law of history. variability. In various historical era, the system of types of art significantly changed its structure, although its components remained: art of words, art of images, art of sounds (music), spectacular arts and art of things (architecture and applied arts). ). These five chapters complexes can be found in art. creativity of all times and peoples, starting with primitive society. Their structure, the system of connections, relates them. the predominance of one or another complex - in each era they present a new picture. 19th century experience accustomed us to the idea of literary centrism, that is, the dominant position of the art of the word as the most powerful in its effect on minds. In ancient times, the art of the word occupied a relatively more modest place and, moreover, did not act in isolation, but as one of the constituent elements of the synthetic. ensemble. This is explained, apparently, historically. the logic of the development of art-va as a whole, the logic of the artist. development of the world by man - from preim. practical, material-formative, to preim. spiritual.
Every work of art. creativity, ancient or new, is primarily an act spiritual and emotional communication between people. But the generic specificity of the claim is not yet exhausted by this. Each work of art. creativity is at the same time something done, created - a new object, a new phenomenon created by man - and something known, discovered by him. And function creation, and function knowledge also always inherent in the artist. activities, and through them the first is manifested - the function of communication. You can only talk about relates. the preponderance of this or that beginning. In an architectural structure, the beginning of creation clearly predominates, in lit. essay - the beginning of knowing; however, architecture also contains an element of knowledge, and the essay is not just the result of the study, but some new, formed in itself, structurally significant whole.
In the historical development of art, shifts of the functional center of gravity are observed: one function comes to the fore, while others appear more hidden, less consciously. This inevitably affects the dialectics of the development of types of art. At the same time, one must take into account the relativity and mobility of the boundaries between art and "non-art"; each type of claim, firstly, was included in a certain ideological system, and secondly, it was directly adjacent to the c.-l. kind of "extra-artistic" activities. The art of architecture has always had purely utilitarian construction as its natural "relative"; depict. art - all varieties of visual cognition and visual communication, including writing (the Chinese considered writing to be a kind of painting); spectacular arts - rituals, processions, games, sports; artistic lit-pa is connected with lit-roy by many threads
scientific, philosophical, documentary, critical, etc. In extra-art. activities covertly dormant artist. potency, readiness under certain conditions to get close to the claim or develop into it. In turn, the development of type of claim-va owes much to the development of a related field of activity.
Word, language - is the reality of thought. The development of the art of the word is indisputably connected with the progress of the analytical, theoretical. thinking, although it is, of course, not identical to it.
Owls. aesthetics, based on the primacy of material and labor activity in relation to the spiritual, believe that Ch. historical trend in the development of art. activity - in its transition from sensual-practical. formation to the knowledge and reflection of being. “From a form of social labor, it turns into a form of social consciousness, into artistic thinking. Accordingly, art or literature at its early stages is perceived primarily as an activity, the creation of a special thing (work), and only in modern times they began to be perceived primarily as a special way of knowing "(" Theory of Literature. Main Problems in Historical Coverage ", [ vol. 1], 1962, p. 193).
It follows from this that at the early stages of the art of the word, in comparison with the “real” claims, it is relatively less developed, less adequate to its nature (i.e., the nature of the word). After all, the word works as an instrument of spiritual representation, it does not create anything material, and people of the primitive system were inclined to attribute direct material force to speech, the ability to act on objects in almost the same way as an ax or an arrow. Creator. the side of the verbal claim was understood literally, “materially”, thus illusory.
However, not everything was illusory here: if the word cannot affect the inanimate. nature, if it cannot cause rain or sun, then the direct, in addition to any reflection, action of the word on the will of man and even on his physical. organism is quite possible, which is proven and modern. science. In the earliest stages, the word became "art", as an inspiring, suggestive force. Conspiracies and spells are the oldest "genre" of verbal art; their goal is practical, like any utilitarian action: the spell is designed to subdue the one to whom it is directed, to master his will. Then the affective side of speech was cultivated in the art of the word: the power of suggestibility depends on it. Rhythm, melodiousness, gradations of shouting and whispering were of great importance. Hypnotic the music of speech seemed more important than its semantic content, which in spells was very dark, and in the most ancient labor songs - monotonous, static. Main the value of the word - semantic - is little revealed in the initial forms of verbal creativity: those properties of speech that bring it closer to musical theater come to the fore. action. The word, as an art, existed insofar as it was part of the rite, included in ritual performances with songs and dances. So there was a long-rooted connection between the claims of the word and the claims of the spectacular and musical, the most capable of directly influencing the perceiver, capturing him, subordinating him to his rhythms. Here are the origins of poetry - the word-music, measured speech, undoubtedly more ancient than the art of prose. speech. And in the primitive syncretic. complexes poetry, i.e. the actual artist. word, played a secondary role, subordinated to movement and rhythm.
At a higher stage of the communal-tribal system, the art of the word is isolated as mythological. oral epic - myths, legends, traditions, which together form
epics. This marks the greatest progress self-awareness: narrate. poetry develops as the people begin to think historically about themselves. Ritual representations are, so to speak, elemental being in myth, immersion in it; another thing is telling a myth. A glance appears, as if from the outside, reflection; the life of the people begins to be perceived as history, albeit in a fantastic way. connections. Heroic-mythological. epic - this is the beginning of future historical. Chronicles, and the future artist. prose. They have common roots. The word, as a vessel of knowledge, comes into its own, and it is in this capacity that it becomes independent. lawsuit. But even at the stage of the epic, it is still fused with music and singing: this connection is firmly entrenched in the oral nar. poetry up to the present day. The poet, singer and storyteller are one and the same person in the era of the epic: he is a storyteller, as he performs the stories he heard from the old people (in this sense he is a historian); he is a poet, since he enriches these tales with his own additions and "composes" them in his own way; he is a singer, because he does not pronounce them, but sings, accompanying himself to music. tool. The legends of the Iliad, the runes of the Kalevala, the poems of the Mahabharata - all this was sung to the music. However, in verbal and musical complex, separated from the synthetic. performances, ch. the role already belongs to the story, and the music. sound is, as it were, an element of its form. And the story does not pursue the task of direct, suggestive action, but only mediated action through imagination and reflection. The listeners calmly, in silence, listened to the narrator, slowly telling about the exploits of the heroes.
Otherwise, there was a communication of the word with the image. Here, from the very beginning, apparently, she played means. the role of the communicative and semantic function of the word. Drawings and sculptures were either included in ritual actions - then their connection with the word was carried out within the general framework of this ritual, but, of course, was not as close as the connection of the word with dance and music - or they served as a means of designation and communication. In the latter case, the word, as it were, reincarnated into a drawing and found in it a figurative otherness of its meaning. Ideographic was born. and pictographic writing is a knot that links together a word with an image. It is noteworthy that where writing in hieroglyphs persisted for many centuries (for example, in China), there is a connection and commonality between poetry and painting in all historical places. stages remained the most intimate and organic, despite the fact that hieroglyphs have long lost their pictorial character.
The illustration may refer to lit. prod. different ways; Basically, they make up two fundamentally different groups, and
the first is more in line with pictorial thinking, the second - own. graphic. Examples of the first are illustrations by E. Delacroix - to "Hamlet", to "Faust", Repin - to "Notes of a Madman" by N. Gogol, partly by O. Daumier - to "Don Quixote". The illustrator proceeds from that imaginary visible complex, which, as it seems to him, served as a starting point for the writer as well. He, as it were, makes his way back - from lit. text to feelings. prototype, creating his own depict. means. For example, M. Dobuzhinsky acts differently when illustrating "White Nights" by F. Dostoevsky. He is not so much interested in "what it actually looked like" as "how the writer wrote about it." Image is created. equivalent to most style the writer, his way of thinking, the ways of his imagination. Dobuzhinsky conveys in black and white engraving not Petersburg as such, but the feeling of Petersburg, which emanates from this story - a feeling of emptiness, loneliness, a place where sounds and colors go out, and a silent riot of dreams flares up in silence. He gives fragments - a piece of lattice, a piece of a letter; they flicker as fragments of a dreamer seen in the head flicker. The drawing strives to be, as it were, the otherness of the word. This way of illustrating is increasingly prevalent.
However, the 20th century, starting from the second decade, not only continues the 19th century: there is a reaction to literary centrism and a new rise in material arts. Ultimately, it is due to a new qualitative stage in the development of the Society. The great discoveries of science and the progress of technology play an important role here. It is no less important that this growth in production makes not only real, but historically overdue and inevitable the transition to a new - socialist - way, the beginning of which was laid by the October Revolution. In the depths of the old about-va, conditions are already being formed for the socialist. organization of life, and it involves the emancipation of labor and, consequently, the identification of creativity. start of labor. Here is one of the reasons for the fact that architecture and applied arts are emerging from stagnation and, relying on the achievements of modern. techniques, acquire stylistic forms that meet the aspirations and spirit of the new society. And after them, sculpture and painting - the primordial companions of architecture - begin (so far they are just beginning) to rejoin the "life-building" functions, which have been deprived for so long, although they are just as characteristic of them as artistic and cognitive functions. These searches began in the 1920s. (eg, constructivists) in the young Sov. country, but could not then truly mature and be realized.
The need to restore balance in relations between claims has long been felt. One-sidedness is purely lit. development of art-va began to be painfully felt by the writers themselves. “The soul of the writer involuntarily waited among abstractions, became sad in the laboratory of words,” A. Blok wrote in Art. “Paints and Words”, 1905 (Collected works, vol. 9, p. 56). L. Tolstoy, at the first timid steps of cinema, already foresaw its enormous future, its power in conveying the moving world, and even admitted that cinema could replace literature. Cinematography really in a short time won a sphere of influence unimaginable for others. Mn. major figures and theorists of cinema believed that it was called upon to overcome the one-sided verbal direction adopted by the art of the 19th century. Rene Clair wrote: “Let's try to look at everything around us. The words have taken on an overblown meaning. We know by heart almost all possible word combinations. We have eyes, but we have not yet learned to see” (“Reflections on Cinematography”, M., 1958, p. 23).
It would seem that cinema, as an art of action, of all traditions. the art is closest to the theater, but as the art of the visible - to painting. However, already at an early time, cinema rebels against its "theatricalization". Screened performances occupy a very modest place. The traditions of painting also do not take any deep roots in the cinema and remain in the sphere of rather external "techniques". In any case, neither theater nor painting can compare with literature in terms of the power of influence on cinema. The point is not only in the huge stream of film adaptations and not only in the fact that the “great mute” quickly learned to speak, thereby rejecting the traditions of pantomime. Itself is specific. the poetics of mature cinema is closer to the poetics of verbal art than to. another. This is evident from the original films more than from adaptations, which rarely reach the level of their lit. original source.
Already S. Eisenstein drew attention to how related the principle of cinematography. mounting structure lit. image. And to this day, film directors and screenwriters again and again "discover" for themselves Pushkin, Tolstoy and other classics, who, it turns out, wrote as if specifically for the cinema! Such observations are valid, but, obviously, the conclusion from them follows not that Pushkin and Tolstoy anticipated the specifics of cinema, but the opposite: the poetics of cinema was formed as the brainchild of literature, as a type of art that absorbed the historical. school lit. figurativeness, her artist. dialectics.
Indeed: mounting "joints" (see. Installation) are very close to nature lit. image, when two heterogeneous representations are connected and something third arises from a special type of connection between them - the image itself. In the famous episode of the execution on the stairs (“Battleship Potemkin”), this is precisely the role played by alternating shots - a staircase, boots, a carriage, broken glasses, “jumping” stone lions. But that's not all. Cinema conveys the movement of life in a discontinuous and yet unified flow. It easily carries out shifts and flights in time and space. It conveys the structure of the ext. life, the mechanism of thinking, the working of memory, the flickering of associations - all that in the theater usually looks ponderous and artificial. Even the "off-screen voice", which has firmly taken root in the poetics of cinema, is another step towards the poetics of literature. All this leads one of the large owls. directors to a completely logical conclusion: “... Cinematography in its development has reached a level at which the laws of literature developed over thousands of years have become, to a certain extent, its laws” ( Romm M., Conversations about cinema, 1964, p. 151).
There is no need, of course, to exaggerate: the cinematography is not an understudy of literature and not its improved variety (if so, it could really supplant the book). He has his own patterns, his own methods. But these patterns and these methods are such that they presuppose the level and quality of the aesthetic. consciousness, brought up by a lit-roy, more than c.-l. another claim.
Cinematography breathes the air of a litre, and there is no harm to its independence in this. Lit-ra ceased to be an instrument drowning out the sounds of an entire orchestra of arts, but she remained the conductor of this orchestra. And she herself "speaks" now not only the language of words, but also the "language" of images, actions, sound, light. The spirit of the word is introduced into all these forms - problematic, analytic, pathos of the study of reality to its innermost depths. We can agree with Armand Lanoux: “In our time there are writers who express themselves with the help of light alone (We can justifiably consider Eisenstein, René Clair or Fellini precisely as writers)" (see in the journal "Foreign
Literature”, 1962, No. 9, p. 149). Dark fears that lit-pa will be swallowed up and supplanted by cinema or television seem unfounded. 2nd floor 20th century - this is still the era of literature par excellence. Because those tasks are artistic. knowledge, which she decides, remain the most relevant. We have learned a lot about the world outside of us, but we still know ourselves very poorly: this long path of knowledge, on which art will play an ever greater role, in fact only begun.
Lit.: Aristotle, On the art of poetry, M., 1957; Leonardo da Vinci, The dispute of the painter with the poet, musician and sculptor, in the book: Leonardo da Vinci, Fav. works, vol. 2, M. - L., 1935 (introductory article by A. Efros); Lessing G. E., Laocoön, or On the Limits of Painting and Poetry, M., 1957; Hegel, The system of arts taken separately, Sobr. soch., vol. 13, M., 1940, vol. 14, M., 1958; Vartanov An., Images of literature in graphics and cinema, M., 1961; Gachev GD, The development of figurative consciousness in literature, in the book: Theory of Literature. Main problems in history. lighting, [book. 1], M., 1962; Palievskiy P. V., The internal structure of the image, ibid.; "Questions of Literature", 1964, No. 3; Arnheim R., Art and visual perception, Berk., 1954; munro Th., The arts and their enterrelations, N. Y., 1949.
1. Living integrity. A scientist breaks up an object, studies a person in parts: an anatomist - the structure of the body, a psychologist - mental activity, etc. In literature, a person appears in a living and integral form, as in life. The writer depicts both the external appearance of a person, and his inner life, and his relationship with other people.
2. Publicity. What is depicted in a person is available to everyone. Whatever field of activity the hero belongs to, the writer cannot delve into complex professional or other problems, but reveals the human in him - actions, thoughts, experiences.
3. social significance. What is depicted in a person should be of public interest. In the images of heroes, important social, moral or moral and ethical problems are solved.
4. Subject of Literature unlike painting or sculpture is not visible, it is perceived through the imagination. Based on the read, the reader draws the depicted character and acts as a co-author, which will create a special emotional closeness between the reader and the character.
educational function. Man is not only the subject, but also the goal of literature. Literature is called upon to form the moral image of a person in the light of universal ideals. ABOUT educational value Literature was spoken by many outstanding writers and thinkers. The purpose of literature, according to the Roman poet Horace, is to entertain and teach. Hegel wrote: "Literature was the most universal and universal mentor of the human race and still continues to be it." The words of N. Chernyshevsky became winged: "Literature is a textbook of life." Developing this idea, he wrote: "Poets are people's leaders to a noble concept of life and to a noble way of feeling: by reading their works, ... we ourselves become better, kinder, nobler."
The educational function is manifested in two spheres: political and ideological and moral and ethical.
Writers tend to be active participants political life in their countries, therefore, they embody certain political ideals in their work in order to influence the ideology of readers. Criticism of autocracy and serfdom was one of the main themes of Russian literature of the 19th century. At the end of the 20th century important place took criticism of the totalitarian system ("The Gulag Archipelago" by A. Solzhenitsyn and others).
Advanced, progressive literature focuses readers on universal moral values - truth, kindness, honesty, respect for a person, diligence. Her eternal theme of the struggle between good and evil is decided in favor of good.
aesthetic function. Literature affects not only the mind, but also the aesthetic sense of the reader, giving him aesthetic pleasure. Aesthetic sense is a sense of beauty, a need for beauty inherent in man and distinguishing him from an animal. Man creates according to the laws of beauty and perceives the world consciously or unconsciously through the prism of beauty. In the surrounding world, including in literature and art, the aesthetic feeling is affected by what contains beauty. And the beautiful is that which seems ideal to a person. It should be noted that beauty in life and beauty in art are not the same thing. Beauty in life is determined by moral criteria, and in art and literature - by the truth of the image. Sobakevich in life is an ugly phenomenon, and the image of Sobakevich in N. Gogol's "Dead Souls" delivers aesthetic pleasure with the deep truth of character portrayal.
Due to aesthetic value Insufficient attention is paid to literature at school, we will dwell on this issue in more detail. Each person has an aesthetic sense, but it is developed in different ways. What factors determine its development?
1. social being. N. Chernyshevsky cites a classic example: the ideal of a woman for a peasant and for a master is completely different. The ideal woman for a peasant is physically strong, portly, capable, according to the poet’s elephants, we can stop a galloping horse ”and enter a burning hut. She must work on an equal footing with her husband, give birth to children and more, as children grow up and become parents' helpers in their hard work. For the master ideal woman gentle, refined, well-bred.
2. Level of education and culture. The aesthetic sense is inherent in the very nature of man, however, it is formed and developed under the influence of various factors, among which is familiarization with education and culture. The more educated a person is, the more developed his aesthetic sense, the more phenomena of reality are included in the sphere of his aesthetic perception. So. symphonic music, opera and ballet art require certain training, knowledge specific features each m of them.
3. Individual characteristics personalities. In the aesthetic perception of a person, there is something that is determined by his psycho-physiological characteristics. No wonder there has long been a proverb: "There are no comrades for the taste and color." One person may like major music, another - minor, one poetry of Pushkin, another - Lermontov - all this cannot be explained by any objective reasons.
4. National traditions. Each nation has stable ideas that have developed over the centuries about beauty in rituals, clothing, songs, music, dances, etiquette and much more.
5. Fashion. fashion has a great influence on the aesthetic sense - a set of tastes that prevail in a certain environment and at a certain time. It manifests itself mainly in clothing and toiletry, but art and literature are to some extent subject to it. Certain genres, themes, images are fashionable.
So, many factors influence the formation of an aesthetic feeling. A person's idea of beauty is not immutable: in the process of life it develops and is corrected. Introduction to art contributes to the spiritual development of the individual, the development of aesthetic feelings.
As already mentioned, the aesthetic feeling is affected by those phenomena of art and life in which beauty is embodied. The beautiful is one of the most important categories of the theory of art and literature, which has been interpreted by thinkers in different ways over the centuries. It can be said that the essence of the beautiful as perfect and ideal was recognized by weight, however, in understanding its nature, two opposite points of view were revealed. Some saw the source of beauty in reality, while others - in the mind. In other words, the first believed that beauty exists in real world regardless of its perception by a person, and the latter believed that it is a product of the consciousness of a person who, perceiving objects of reality, transfers his inner world to them. The question of the objective or subjective nature of the beautiful is still being debated by art theorists. Genuinely scientific understanding it boils down to the fact that the beautiful is a unity of the objective and the subjective. The source of subjective aesthetic experience is the objectively existing properties of objects and phenomena of the external world. A person has an inherent idea of beauty, which he discovers in phenomena that have aesthetic significance. Based on the foregoing, beauty can be defined as follows: beauty is the phenomena of life that we perceive as ideal. According to Hegel, it is "that universal which we represent and which we desire." Aesthetic pleasure in literature can be caused by the characters of the heroes, impressive in their truth, bright pictures nature, poems that are capacious in meaning and expressive in form, and everything that resonates in the soul of the reader.
LITERATURE AND OTHER ARTS
Man is the subject of not only literature, but also the subject of other art forms. For centuries, disputes have periodically flared up about which type of art is more important. Leonardo da Vinci preferred painting; enlighteners of the 18th century - to the theater; Lessing, Hegel, Belinsky literature; some modern theorists - film and television. In this regard, it is necessary to compare literature with other types of art in order to make sure that each of them can depict a person.
Architecture able to convey only the general aspirations of people, separate person she is not available. The architectural style reflects the most general fundamentals spiritual life of society in a certain historical era.
Sculpture depicts the appearance of a person, is able to reveal some of his features inner peace, however, conveys the most common, predominantly civil personality traits. So, even an inexperienced viewer, considering the monument to T.G. Shevchenko on Monastyrsky Island in Dnepropetrovsk, by facial expression, posture, clothing and other details of appearance, can determine that Shevchenko is a man of the people, a fighter by character, that the ideals of his life are close new era. At the same time, the concrete realities of life cannot be learned from sculpture.
Painting depicts the living face of a person, capable of penetrating deeper than a sculpture into his inner world. However, it captures only one moment of a person's life. In this deficiency of painting lies also its merit: the artist, as it were, stops beautiful moment life, allows you to re-enjoy it. “... what quickly passes in the realm of nature,” Hegel wrote, “is fixed by art into something permanent: a quickly disappearing smile, a suddenly appearing, cunning, playful fold of lips, a glance, a fleeting ray of light.”
Music deeply reveals the inner state of a person, conveys his subtlest experiences, however, according to Belinsky, saying a lot to the heart, she says little to the mind. “Music is a language, but expressing what consciousness has not yet overcome,” F. Dostoevsky described it in this way.
Theater creates an illusion real life: real people act in it, who in words and deeds reveal themselves and the characteristic phenomena of life. The viewer does not need to strain his imagination, since everything happens as if in its natural form. Accessibility is the most important advantage of the theater. Weak side theater as an art - the lack of means of revealing the inner world of a person. There is no author in it - an omniscient commentator of what is happening in the souls of the characters. To make up for this shortcoming, sometimes the authors of plays resort to artificial methods: “voice from behind the frame”, “remarks to the side”, etc.
Literature, according to V. Belinsky, is the highest kind of art, because it embodies the virtues of all other types of art. It has unlimited possibilities of depicting life in time and space, as well as penetrating deeply into the inner world of a person. Its most important advantage is the depiction of human life in motion and in its complex relationship with the outside world.
Movie relatively the new kind art depicting life through sophisticated video and audio techniques. It seemed to absorb the virtues of painting, theater and the most important quality of literature to show life in development. Some theorists overestimate the superiority of cinema over literature and conclude that cinema will replace it. However, cinema as an art form has its advantages and disadvantages. Just like theater, cinema lacks the means to reveal the inner world of the characters. It is no coincidence that from the very beginning it took as its allies music, which is distinguished by its ability to reveal the inner state of a person. Secondly, cinema is inferior to literature in the fullness of the depiction of life. To be convinced of this, it is enough to recall the film adaptations of famous literary works. Thirdly, literature is the basis of cinematography.
Thus, there is no basis for pessimistic conclusions about the fate fiction. As long as the word exists, the art of the word will also exist.
