Guriev M.
1. Clock today
Initially, mechanical watches were created as a device for measuring time. The first of them, tower clocks, and then their smaller version - interior clocks, were open structures. Since miniature mechanisms were more sensitive to dust, they began to be covered with a case, and the case (body) was decorated. In this form, they have survived to this day. Today, mechanical watches are gradually disappearing from life, being replaced by quartz watches, which are more accurate, cheaper and more convenient. Moreover, watches are less and less common as an independent object, moving to the screens of mobile phones, computers and TVs. Accordingly, the attitude towards them also changes. If in the 17th century a watch was a royal curiosity, in the 18th century it was a luxury item, in the 19th century it was a functional interior decoration, but today it is a banal, many-sided, purely utilitarian and rather cheap part. Everyday life. Such a perception is projected, in general, onto antique watches, so they are expected to have the same accuracy, reliability, and unpretentiousness. Which, of course, is not true. Mechanical watches, and vintage ones in particular, require attention and respect, as well as specific knowledge and skills in handling them. If this is not the case, the clock will stop, and for a long time.
Many young people today simply did not hear the clock ticking and striking. Therefore, the issues of their proper storage, restoration and exposure become even more relevant.
2. Clock as a museum object
The task of an art museum, in our understanding, is to educate people on the best examples human culture. For future generations, the museum preserves and studies its exhibits, for contemporaries - shows and comments on them. The first group of questions is mainly dealt with by the custodians. For them, one of the main tasks is to preserve the object, and first of all from the visitor, who, at times, treats the exhibits barbarously. In this sense, it would be best to simply close the museum. Almost a diametrical position is occupied by employees associated with the reception of visitors. For them, the attraction of museum expositions to the public is paramount, in particular, so that as many objects as possible are shown, including mechanical watches. In this confrontation
there is a significant constructive moment: the need to constantly comprehend and justify the decisions made.
In museums, watches are treated differently, since this is a border object, at the same time a monument of both artistic and technical culture. Participated in the manufacture of watch cases best artists and sculptors of their time, the latest achievements of science and technology were used in the designs of mechanisms. Accordingly, in art museums, the focus is on the external design of watches; V technical museums the emphasis is on the features of the mechanisms; V historical museums watches are considered as witnesses of certain eras or specific events.
The peculiarity of the watch is that it is practically the only type museum exhibit, which has a complex and highly organized internal structure, moves and sounds independently. And a living being, including a person, tends to notice movement out of the corner of his eye, and turn around at the sound. This is how the first impulse of movement towards the object is formed, which is especially strong in the case of musical and animated clocks (when the Peacock clock is wound up, the audience instantly gathers around the cage with the clock). That is, a working, ticking, ringing clock increases the attractiveness of the museum. Especially for children. And children are our future. If a museum is not interesting for a child today, he will not bring his children here tomorrow - that's all! The chain will be interrupted, why and for whom then to store and study all this?
Working clocks bring life to museum interiors, give them a new dimension, a sound accent, and are in constant, sometimes unconscious, dialogue with a person. They are a bridge connecting with the previous owners of this house: we hear the same sounds. If the clock is stopped, this is a sign of trouble: someone in the house has died. In addition, a stopped watch, with lost decorative elements, alien hands, broken dials, gives rise to a feeling of props, an underlying falsehood of what is happening: there should not be broken watches in the royal collection!
3. Restoration
There is an opinion that watches will last better if they are not wound. Yes, the operation of the watch leads to wear and tear. Friction pairs wear out (axle pins and support holes in the boards, descent pallets, combat pins), the mainsprings and pendulum suspensions break. But restorers have long since learned to fix these breakdowns without any damage to the watch. At the same time, a high-quality mechanism with proper maintenance can work for decades without major repairs. And the harm, much greater than continuous operation, is caused by a careless attitude towards them, illiterate maintenance, unprofessional restoration.
Features of our history are reflected in the state of clocks in museums. There are incorrect assembly of cases, loss or replacement of entire mechanisms, broken enamel dials, missing decorative elements of cases, pendulums, bells, hands, glasses and caps, winding keys. That is, the field of activity of the restorer is almost boundless. But professional restoration is expensive and difficult to access. Therefore, some amateur is often invited, who, for a nominal fee, or even simply “out of love for art”, actually cripple a thing. After all, even if he is a watchmaker, this is not enough: a watchmaker-repairman restores only the function. The form and originality of details, the artistic image of watches are secondary for him. With such a repair, information is skipped (for example, inscriptions on springs and boards), original parts are lost. The watchmaker is not to blame, he was taught that way. And the keeper is not to blame, because cannot fully appreciate the quality of the work. And the result is disastrous.
That is, the fears of the curators are justified - as with any kind of museum exhibit, unprofessional restoration spoils the thing.
The features of clock restoration in a museum are determined, on the one hand, by the specifics of the clock as a museum exhibit, and on the other hand, by general ideas about the goals and objectives of the museum, and the resulting goals and objectives of restoration. What should be considered the goal of restoring such an object as a mechanical clock, what are the criteria for evaluating the results of a restorer's work? Let's turn to definitions.
Restoration (from late Latin restauratio - restoration), restoration, restoration of something in its original (or close to original) form (architectural monuments, works of art, sound recordings, film and photo documents, manuscripts, etc.).
2001 "Great Russian Encyclopedia"
Restoration is an activity undertaken to make a destroyed or damaged object intelligible, sacrificing minimally its aesthetic and historical integrity.
Code of Ethics for the ICOM Conservation Committee
Given the above, as the goal of watch restoration, and the main criterion for evaluating its results, it is proposed increasing the level of preservation and artistic value exhibit. To do this, the restoration process should include:
1. a comprehensive historical and technical study of the exhibit,
2. obligatory preservation of original parts and details,
3. conservation work, that is, a set of measures aimed at stopping the destruction of the exhibit,
4. possibly more complete, scientifically substantiated replacement of losses,
5. clear marking of newly manufactured parts,
6. fixing the state change in the relevant documents,
7. drawing up a detailed description of the exhibit and the work done,
8. issuance of recommendations for maintenance and exposure. Separately - about the buildings. Watch cases are, as a rule, prefabricated, multi-element structures. Individual details are lost over time. And if we work in an art museum and want to convey to the viewer the artistic image of the object, and not the sad evidence of a careless attitude towards it, it makes sense to try to make a complete reconstruction of the losses. The simplest tasks are also possible here, for example, making a missing leg by copying a preserved one; more complex ones are also possible when it comes to recreating lost elements according to stylistic analogues. The latter option is more time-consuming, complex and vulnerable to criticism, but still a museum should not be a cemetery! And an object with losses (we do not list lost legs, onlays, finials, etc. on the label) deceives the viewer more than a restored one and provided with a corresponding label. That is, the restoration increases the level of reliability and artistic value of the exhibit, increases its attractiveness as an object of permanent and temporary exhibitions, its commercial value. The exhibit is given more attention, respect and care, so it is better preserved.
It should be remembered that any touch to the subject is already an interference. That is, the requirements for compliance with the principles of restoration (the reversibility of restoration intervention, the validity of replenishment of losses, the full documentation of the changes made) should be meaningful and not drive the restorer into a corner.
Professional restoration implies a differentiated approach to each object. The measure of intervention is determined individually, after a comprehensive study of the exhibit, and is agreed with the curator and the restoration commission. The range can be wide - from purely conservation measures aimed at fixing the current state of the object and preventing its further destruction, to reconstructing a large amount of losses and, in special cases, making complete copies. The issue of setting the watch to move is decided individually: in the general case, this does not make sense for wrist and pocket watches.
Watches have always been a high-tech product, in the manufacture of which dozens of different specialists could participate: artists, engineers, technologists, artisans. The same specialists are needed for restoration. In order for the appearance of the newly manufactured parts to match the original ones, the restorer must work according to the technologies corresponding to the author's ones. He must combine the knowledge of an art critic and the qualifications of a watchmaker, understand the design features of mechanisms and the design of watch cases. different countries and epochs. Obviously, such a set of requirements is excessive for one person (in practice, this means that the one who takes up this work alone will either do the part in which he is competent, or cheat). The practical way out is to work in a friendly team, the collective knowledge of which covers all issues, using cooperation.
With cooperation and supply - separate problems. In connection with the reduction in the production of mechanical watches, the assortment is reduced and the quality of spare parts and materials is falling. It is difficult to get non-standard watch springs, bells, glasses for dials. Serious firms with a good production base and experienced staff are not profitable small museum orders. Small firms are not always able to provide decent quality, and are reluctant to enter into contracts for one-time orders. Practically the only way out is personal contacts, enthusiasts, cash payment with the direct executor.
An independent issue is personnel training. Earlier, for example, in England of the eighteenth century, the training of a watchmaker took 7 years, and then for another two years he went as an apprentice. This again indicates a large amount of knowledge and practical experience required to master the profession. Modern foreign watchmaking schools (there are none in Russia) provide good professional training, but for a restorer this can only serve as a technical base. A further education, apparently, can take the form of an internship in a serious restoration workshop. At the same time, the trainee should receive the appropriate historical and artistic knowledge and technological skills, but most importantly, he should develop a respectful attitude towards the object and the ability to work with documents (“get used to” the clock). The only institution that trains watch restorers is West Dean College in England (which also recommends, upon completion, an internship in a restoration shop).
There are few Russian watches in museums, mainly the works of watchmakers from France, England, Germany. The more important contacts with foreign colleagues - they know their watches better. Modern means of communication (such as Email), which allow the transmission of both text, and image, and sound, can contribute to effective interaction (for this, as well as for reading special literature and magazines, and publishing your articles, you need to know foreign languages). The emergence of a single international organization capable of organizing such cooperation, creating a single and accessible database on watches, would allow raising watch restoration to a qualitatively new level - an international watch restoration center. The task of such a center is to create an opportunity to get acquainted with analogues of watches being restored where they are stored, as well as to improve the restoration methodology by establishing contacts between watch schools, restoration workshops, combining the knowledge and experience of specialists from different countries.
4. Exposure
The specificity of the watch manifests itself in issues related to their exposure. The experience of working in the museum allowed us to form a number of requirements and wishes that should be taken into account when installing on the exposition:
The clock must be installed (hung) on a stable, reliable base. For floor or console clocks, a safety mount to the wall should be provided.
It is desirable to restore the cases that protected the watch from dust and outside interference. Glass caps are usually used: solid ones for small watches, composite ones with a bronze frame and a lockable front door - for large ones. Under the hood there should be a wooden stand with a groove or step for orienting the glass. To prevent the glass cap from scratching the stand, protective paper is glued to its lower edge.
If the clock has a fight or music, it is necessary to provide appropriate holes in the stand for the passage of sound. If necessary, sound amplification is possible.
Lighting, preferably, should be general plus frontal, on the dial and visible moving parts (pendulums, second hands, animation).
If the watch has an interesting back side (for example, engraved platinum), it is desirable to organize a circular view, or put it in front of a mirror (but not close), and organize the lighting accordingly.
A pocket watch is a difficult object to exhibit. By design, they should be considered with different parties. I would like to show the dial, and the back cover, and the mechanism. To do this, the clock can be hung open on a rotating stand, or placed above a mirror (with a gap of 3-4 cm), or in front of a mirror angle (to see from two sides), and show as close as possible (at eye level).
For watches with music or animation, you must use a video recording of their work. It can be accompanied by historical and artistic commentary, showing interesting details of the watch, features of the work that the visitor would not otherwise see.
5. Service
A working watch, like any working mechanism, needs maintenance. This concept includes:
Bypass (usually weekly) and watch winding. In this case, as a rule, a visual control of the state is carried out, the progress, the calendar are corrected, and the transfer to summer (winter) time is carried out;
Preventive repair of the mechanism - once every 3-5 years, depending on the condition (or in case of an emergency, for example, when a spring breaks). The work includes disassembling the mechanism, identifying defects and losses, correcting them, cleaning, assembling, lubricating and putting on the move.
For watches with musical devices, a separate stage is tuning (intonation). The frequency depends on the characteristics of a particular device. For example, for mechanical organs, this can be done twice a year.
6. Storage
If the watch is sent to storage after restoration, the mechanism must be mothballed. This means:
All springs should be completely dissolved;
The pendulum must be fixed. If the watch has a locking device, use it. If the pendulum is removable, remove it and wrap it up and store it together with the winding keys and case keys, if any.
It is advisable to completely cover the watch from dust. In particular, this applies to individual mechanisms, skeleton clocks, clocks with lost glass caps.
It should be noted that today the issue of storing watch movements (located in a case or stored separately) has not been fully resolved: the custodians of various objects of fine art (bronze, porcelain, furniture, etc.) are not specialists in watch mechanics. Taking into account the size and quality of the Hermitage collection of clocks, one comes to the conclusion that it would be expedient to separate watch mechanisms for independent storage. This does not imply their territorial movement, but it allows better solving the issues of storage, restoration and operation. And also to start creating a single catalog - a database of watch movements. As it develops, it can be supplemented with information about cases, dials and watchmakers.
This will help to reveal the potential of the collection of watches in the field of technology history (on the example of watch mechanisms - the prototype of all subsequent mechanisms, up to computers), as part of a universal culture that develops along with artistic culture and supports it. Today, knowledge about the mechanisms gained during the restoration of watches remains with the restorer. But in many watches, the mechanisms are no less interesting than the cases. Hence the idea of an independent watch exhibition, showing the development and diversity of styles, designs and technologies, the role and place of watches in the history of mankind. In this case, there is no need to take the watch from the exposition. But to organize an exhibition, taking into account the specifics of the subject, should be using video recordings, multimedia, computer animation. With a popular but tech-savvy level of presentation, it would attract a new layer of tech-savvy visitors - and that's the bulk of the men.
7. Conclusion
1. The specificity of watches, as a monument of both artistic and technical culture, having a complex multi-component structure, moving and sounding, determines the specifics of the approach to restoration, display and storage.
2. The variety of types of mechanisms, applied technologies, options for designing cases makes it necessary to actively collect information on these issues, establish contacts with the curators of other museums, antique dealers, watchmakers, restorers of various specialties.
3. Working hours, require constant attention and regular competent maintenance, but significantly increase the attractiveness of the museum.
A series of conversations for the Museum of Clocks for senior preschoolers of preschool educational institutions. Abstracts
Alekseeva Elena Leonidovna, educator of the highest qualification category, teacher additional education, Municipal budgetary preschool educational institution Kindergarten No. 5 "Alyonushka" of the city of Armyansk, Republic of CrimeaThe material is intended for educators of senior and preparatory DOW groups, for primary school teachers, as well as for parents who develop children on their own
Target: the formation of ideas about time and about various devices for measuring it.
Tasks:
to acquaint children with the concepts of "time", "orientation in time";
expand children's knowledge about watches, their types, purpose;
develop the mental abilities of children;
enrich the vocabulary of children;
develop an interest in learning.
annotation
Dear colleagues and parents!
I present to your attention a series of conversations intended for my Clock Museum, which is under development.
The watch museum in question is an element of the developing object-spatial environment in preparatory group where I work as an educator. The Clock Museum will collect different kinds watches, old watches, new watches, watches of bizarre shapes and sizes, some of the exhibits have already been made by hand, it is planned to constantly replenish the collection. After all, the museum is needed to collect, store and supplement. The opening of the Museum is expected at the beginning of the new academic year.
Collected in conversations, adapted for senior preschool and primary school age main information about time and types of clocks. I tried not to load the material with abstruse terms, I built the course of the conversation on the principle of accessibility, systematicity, consistency and gradualness.
I would like to immediately protect myself from criticism in the sense that the notes of my conversations are framed as a teacher's monologue. I did not insert physical education minutes in the text of the conversations. Colleagues, we are creators, so I ask you to use this material as the basis for your creativity and boundless unique imagination.
As a visual material for conversations, I used various pictures from search engine Google, which has issued in the form of a separate folder for each conversation. A conversation without a picture (or any other visual aid, mechanism, for example) will not carry sufficient educational meaning.
Thank you for your attention!
Conversation: What is time?
Target: introduce children to the concept of "time", "orientation in time"
Tasks:
expand children's knowledge of time;
develop intellectual skills;
develop the ability to identify the meaning of proverbs and sayings;
enrich the vocabulary of children with new vocabulary;
educate the ability to listen and understand each other.
Conversation flow:
IN explanatory dictionary Ozhegov there are 10 descriptions of the word "Time". What is it? Let's take the following interpretation from the dictionary: "Time is the duration, the duration of something, measured in seconds, minutes, hours."
Today, every person every day, every second deals with time. Time is past, present and future. Such a surprisingly broad concept. We can say that time is our perception of space. With it, we can easily talk about events (or about something else, for example, about our feelings or intentions) that have happened to us, are happening or will happen. With the help of time we orient ourselves in space. For example, it's easier to say "Tomorrow at 7 am I have to go to kindergarten" than "When the sun rises and it's in the sky at that point (pointing), I need to be in kindergarten." What if we have to talk about what happened two weeks ago? What then? 14 times ago the sun went down and my mom bought me a doll? You can get confused.
Time we cannot touch, smell, see, hear. It is abstract (immaterial, non-concrete, vague).
Also, time moves on. And only forward. Some even say that time flows, flows away, runs away. Time cannot be stopped, cannot be turned back. There is even a saying: "You can't turn back time." It moves from the past to the future. And the moment that is happening now, in this second, is the present. Therefore, people at all times tried to take good care of time, appreciated it, and learned how to distribute it correctly. They say: "Hours - stretch, days - go, months - pass, and years - fly." Remember how your moms and dads say: “It seems that our Vanya / our Katya was just born, and already how big he is!”
Do you ever feel like time drags on like rubber? There are times when you don't want to sleep at nap-hour! You lie and think: “Well, when will the teacher raise us?” We can say that time goes by when you are bored or have nothing to do, when we are waiting for someone, right?! Boring day until evening, if there is nothing to do.
And people say: happy hours are not watching." How to understand it? That's right, when we are busy doing what we love, when we go to the zoo with our parents, when we visit our grandmother in the village - time flies by.
It turns out that we have this sense of time since birth. Let me explain: when you were born, you slowly got used to eating at a certain time, washing your face in the morning, swimming in the evenings, and so on. When you went to kindergarten, you got used to the new routine (and the daily routine is nothing more than properly organized or planned time). In the morning, exercises, then breakfast, then classes, then games, and so on. As you get older, you already see in advance what will happen next.
What helps us tell time? Let's list:
1. watch;
2. time of day;
3. days of the week;
4. seasons;
5. months of the year.
So let's sum up the above. Please answer the questions:
1. Can we touch the time? Why?
2. Does time help us? Why is it needed at all?
3. When we were little, did we navigate in time?
4. What is time?
5. Can time crawl? When does this happen?
6. What helps to determine the time?
7. Why do we often say that time is more precious than gold?
8. Should we navigate in time?
Conversation: What is a clock?
Target: development of time concepts and acquaintance with the history of clocks.
Tasks:
to acquaint children with the concept of "clock" and with the history of their occurrence;
cultivate curiosity, careful attitude In time;
broaden their horizons, enrich the vocabulary of children.
Conversation flow:
Last time we met with you. Let's remember what it is? That's right, time is the duration, the duration of something, measured in seconds, minutes, hours.
Today we will get acquainted with the clock as such, with the attribute of time. With the subject that helps us most of all to navigate in space. We cannot imagine our life without watches. They hang on the wall, stand on a shelf, they are on the mobile phone of adults, and on their hands too! What it is? A watch is a device for measuring time.
Why do we need watches? That's right, not to be late, to know when to go to work, to the museum, when your favorite cartoon starts.
How did people live without watches? How did you navigate in time? So you say that instead of an alarm clock, the rooster woke everyone up, the day began with his singing. But what if there is no rooster? But what if I need to go somewhere not in the morning, but in the afternoon? It's worth thinking of something else.
Ancient people were guided in time by the Sun. They watched the world around them. The sun has risen - morning, the sun directly above the head - day, the sun sets - evening. People have even invented sundials. We will get to know them later. Convenient, of course. But is the sun always in the sky? No. When it's raining, it is difficult to determine what part of the day it is. Remember, on cloudy days we often say: “It feels like it’s evening” (when in fact it’s still morning or afternoon). In addition, it was difficult for an ancient person to accurately determine the time as it is determined today. It turns out that navigating by the Sun is also not very inconvenient.
People began to think and wonder what to do, how to invent a device for measuring time. And they came up with a water clock and an hourglass. Sand you have already seen, even someone has them. What is a water clock? Both of them are considered the oldest inventions of man for a more accurate determination of time. That's really when you can say that time is flowing! Water was poured into a tall narrow vessel with a hole near the bottom. Special people assigned to the clock filled the vessel with water at sunrise. When all the water was poured out, they announced it to the inhabitants of the city with loud cries and filled the vessel again. They did this several times a day. And the smaller the vessel, the more accurately it was possible to determine the time. Ancient people used these inventions for thousands of years. But there will always be an inventor who will come up with something new.
This is how they came up with:
fiery clock (a candle of a certain size with divisions applied to it). They were made from different materials (from wax mixed with wood shavings and other burning components), they were covered with tar so that the “clock” would burn for a long time. They appeared in India and China.
oil clock (this is a clay bowl with a wick filled with oil). This liquid watch. People set fire to the wick, it burned, the oil evaporated. Numbers were inscribed on the side of the clay bowl. People watched what the oil level was, so much time means.
Neither one nor the other were unreliable. After all, they had to be watched so as not to go out. But what if strong wind or rain?
Craftsmen came up with the familiar mechanical watch. It is believed that they were invented in Byzantium. Why mechanical? Yes, because they consisted of countless nuts, bolts, cogs, springs, gears, a pendulum, chains, and so on. At first there was one hand, probably it only showed hours. Accordingly, there were 24 divisions. They were improved and improved, because the mechanism also had to be monitored, lubricated parts, sometimes checking their time using a sundial. And centuries later, in every city, a large mechanical clock hung on the main tower or cathedral. People made them both small and large. Mechanical watches have survived to this day.
In addition to mechanical, not so long ago (at the beginning of the last century), people invented electric and electronic watches. Physicists who worked with the electromagnetic field worked here. They were very accurate and the most reliable compared to mechanical ones, which could fail due to one broken spring or due to dust getting inside a complex mechanism.
But during the discovery of atomic energy, people invented the most accurate, very reliable clock - atomic. They run on atomic energy instead of batteries or the electricity of electronic clocks, instead of the mechanism of mechanical clocks. It is believed that atomic energy is inexhaustible. This means that this watch can serve mankind for many millions of years. Of course, we will not have atomic clocks, because they are very bulky and only scientists are watching them. But mechanical and electronic watches are quite affordable and everyone has them.
So what did you learn today?
1. Why did a person begin to think about the invention of a mechanism for determining time?
2. Which watch is the most reliable?
3. How does a water clock work?
4. Why were people near water and oil clocks?
5. Why don't any of us have atomic clocks?
Conversation: Sundial
Target: introducing children to sundial, their history, purpose
Tasks:
to activate the vocabulary of children and fill it with new vocabulary;
cultivate respect for time;
Conversation flow:
We have already got acquainted with time and instruments for measuring it. What are these devices? Correct clock. Today we will talk with you about sundials: who invented them, when, why, whether they have survived to this day, are they big or small, is it convenient to tell time from them.
A sundial is an ancient instrument for measuring time by the sun. They are built on the knowledge of our ancestors about cosmic bodies, in this case about a star. solar system. Ancient Egypt is considered to be the birthplace of sundials, where they worshiped various gods, built temples for them, and served them. One of the main ancient Egyptian gods was the sun god - the god Ra. It was believed that he rules all parts of the world: the firmament, earth, underworld. Ra was associated with a falcon or hawk, on whose head was a bright solar disk. The Egyptians believed that all forms of life were created by his hands, because the Sun is a source of light and heat, without which no living creature can grow and exist. Many bright temples were erected to the god Ra, in which his priests served.
One fine day, the priests watched how once again the god Ra "travels in his boat across the sky." They suddenly noticed how the columns of the temple cast a shadow first in one direction, then in the other, and smoothly, as if in a circle. The priests came up with the idea of creating a sundial, by which they could determine the time when the beloved god Ra sails on a boat in one or another part of the sky.
Let's see what they came up with: in front of the temple, the priests set up a large peg and called it "gnomon". It was a sacred peg, which was decorated with carved patterns and inscriptions. When the sun (the god Ra) appeared in the sky, the shadow from the gnomon moved along a pre-marked circle (some kind of today's dial). Uniformly applied risks measured equal lengths of time. The circle was also decorated with patterns, often images of the Sun, stars and the Moon in different phases. People liked this idea, because it became possible to determine the exact time. Sundial began to be installed in in public places- in the squares, in the baths, in the estates of emperors and so on.
Sundials were of different designs:
Horizontal (located right on the ground, they can be built on sand, and indeed on any horizontal surface);
Vertical (these clocks, respectively, are located on a vertical surface, and their gnomon, as it were, sticks out to the side. Most often they are installed on the walls of towers, tall buildings and structures).
If you say that such a watch cannot be taken with you. I will answer - guys, you can! Craftsmen immediately reacted and came up with a small copy of a sundial - miniature wrist models. Travelers and monks had special staffs with marks, and by placing them at a certain angle to the Sun, they could determine the time.
But, it is worth noting that the installation of a sundial required certain knowledge of astronomy and geography. For each locality, it was necessary to correctly calculate where to put the gnomon, and where to arrange the dial. Without these calculations, sundials would cease to be accurate. This can now be checked by ordinary mechanical or electronic clocks, whether the sundial shows the time correctly, and earlier people did not have such an opportunity.
In addition, the biggest disadvantage of sundials is that they can only work in sunny, clear weather! However, sundials have served humans for millennia. And people were very happy with them.
Let's summarize our conversation:
1. Where did the first sundial appear?
2. Who is the god Ra?
3. How did the idea for a sundial come about?
4. What is a sundial made of?
5. Is it easy to make them yourself?
6. What are sundials?
7. Where was the sundial installed?
8. What are the disadvantages of a sundial?
Conversation: Hourglass
Target: introduce children to the hourglass, its history, purpose
Tasks:
develop cognitive activity and logical thinking;
consolidate knowledge of time and hours;
cultivate respect for time;
develop the ability to analyze, synthesize, compare, generalize;
cultivate the ability to listen to each other.
Conversation flow:
We continue to get acquainted with the types of watches. Today we will learn what an hourglass is.
An hourglass, like any other clock, is, first of all, a device for measuring time. They consist of two transparent glass vessels. In one vessel there is fine sand, which is poured into another vessel through the neck, thereby measuring a certain period of time. It can range from a few seconds to several hours.
It depends on the size of the vessels: small vessels - a small period of time, large vessels - a large period of time, as they can contain a lot of sand. In addition, the size of the neck (the narrowest part of the watch) also matters: the wider the neck - the sand runs faster from one vessel to another, less time is spent, narrower the neck - the sand seeps slowly, so more time is spent.
It is believed that the first hourglass appeared in India and China. They quickly spread around the world because they were easy to use, reliable, they can measure time at any moment of the day or night, since they do not depend on sunlight, weather or wind. But there are also disadvantages - an hourglass measures only a short period of time, they cannot measure a day. Imagine what the vessels should be like and how much sand will be needed so that it flows from one vessel to another for all 24 hours. In addition, the hourglass ceases to be accurate over time: the grains of sand grind down, turn into dust, and pour more quickly.
Making sand for hourglass were engaged the best masters. After all, the accuracy of time depended on it. Craftsmen took sea or river sand, sieved it with a sieve, making it homogeneous, washed and dried in the sun. Another sand was made from crushed eggshells. Such sand had a beautiful creamy hue. Sand was also made from charcoal (a burnt piece of wood), coal in the same way as eggshell, pushed. What color is the sand? That's right, black.
Vessels, or flasks, craftsmen made of glass. At that time glass could already be made. And glass, as you know, is also made from sand. Inside, the vessels must be perfectly smooth so that the sand does not linger or get stuck.
Nowadays, hourglasses are rarely used. Mostly they are placed for decoration. But they can be found, for example, in sanatoriums, when the nurse is counting the time of the procedure. Where did you find the hourglass?
It's time to summarize what we've learned today:
1. What clock did we talk about today?
2. What is an hourglass made of?
3. How did you make the sand?
4. Why should the vessels be smooth?
5. What are the advantages of an hourglass?
6. What are their shortcomings?
7. Where can you find an hourglass now?
Conversation: Water Clock
Target: introduce children to different types of clocks, namely, water clocks, their history, purpose
Tasks:
develop cognitive activity and logical thinking;
contribute to the activation and expansion of the vocabulary of children;
consolidate knowledge of time and hours;
cultivate respect for time;
cultivate the ability to listen to each other.
Conversation flow:
Guys, let's remember what types of watches we already know. Well done! We know what solar is. And remember, we said in passing that there are also water, sand, oil, mechanical, electronic and atomic clocks. Which one do you think we will talk about today? About the water clock.
The name of this watch speaks for itself. They calculate time by what? That's right, water, liquids. We know that ancient people, like you, are very observant. They didn't have all the modern gadgets that we have now. They relied on their own intuition, some knowledge of nature and its forces, on their experience and were not afraid to make mistakes.
So, someone says that in Egypt, and someone claims that in ancient Babylon, an earthen vessel leaked from one of the servants of the temple. The crack was very small, and water began to flow out of it drop by drop. The water dripped slowly. And since the minister had nothing to do that night, he began to observe this process. As a result, morning came, and he was called to breakfast. The next night, the attendant took the same leaky vessel, filled it with water, placed it on a stool, and put another vessel on the floor so that the water from the leaky one would not flow onto the floor. And you know what! This man noticed that the water measures a period of time equal to his nightly service in the temple. And so the first water clock, a device for measuring time, appeared.
And then the experiments began: the water clock consisted of two vessels described above, and one large bowl with a hole in the bottom, which was hung up, and water flowed out of it drop by drop, also measuring time. And the Chinese generally came up with something - in a pool filled with water, they put the same round bowl with a hole at the bottom. The leaky bowl, floating in the pool, filled with water through the hole and sank. Not very practical for measuring time, right?!
But the most interesting and most beloved water clock was the clepsydra.
Clepsydra, translated from ancient Greek, means "stealer of water." The first clepsydra was a simple cylindrical vessel with holes at the bottom and lined with dashes indicating a period of time. It turned out that at the beginning (when the vessel was filled to the top) more water flowed out in the same period of time than at the end. You, probably, could also notice this when you filled, for example, water into a bag: at first, the water, wow, how quickly it starts to flow, and when there is a little water left in the bag, it barely flows. This is due to water pressure. Then people thought and thought, and decided to make a clepsydra in the form of a cone narrowed downwards. Then the water clock ceased to "lie". Ancient masters made very beautiful clepsydras. Wood, clay, even marble. Decorated them carvings, flowers, planted birds of paradise on them. Of course, noble people had such water clocks. Special people made sure that new water was poured into the clepsydra in time. That's where the expressions came from: "Time is up" and "Time is fleeting like water."
Centuries passed, and people were no longer satisfied with the water clock. Why, you ask. Yes, because no matter how beautiful and correctly measured the clepsydra was, there was still an error in measuring time, and it increased with each year of its use. The water clock simply "lied". People needed new instruments to measure time. People wanted precision. And what devices were further invented - we will find out with you from the following conversations.
So, it's time to share our impressions of what we learned today:
1. What watch were we talking about today?
2. How did the first water clock appear?
3. What does "clepsydra" mean?
4. What form of clepsydra was the most accurate?
5. Why did people have to make a cone-shaped clepsydra? What did not suit them with a cylindrical one?
6. How to understand the expression "Time is up"?
7. Why did people not like clepsydra?
Conversation: Fire and oil clocks
Target: to acquaint children with different types of clocks, namely, with fire and oil clocks, their history, purpose
Tasks:
develop cognitive activity and logical thinking;
contribute to the activation and expansion of the vocabulary of children;
consolidate knowledge about the clock;
cultivate respect for time;
develop the ability to analyze, synthesize information, compare, generalize;
cultivate the ability to listen to each other.
Conversation flow:
Guys, guess the riddle:
Head on fire
The body melts and burns.
I want to be useful
There is no lamp - I will shine. (Candle)
That's right, it's a candle. And where does the candle come in when we talk about hours? Now you will know everything.
In the Ancient East, namely in China, three thousand years ago, fire, or fire clocks appeared. The Chinese love everything that is connected with the fire element. They came up with a surprisingly simple design: they took a long bowl with sides, put a candle in it, made uniform cuts on the sides, indicating a period of time, pulled threads through the cuts, on the edges of which there were balls (usually metal or ivory). They lit a candle, the candle slowly burned out, the thread melted, broke, the ball fell on a metal plate under the bowl, made a fight, thereby signaling that some time had passed. And so on until the candle burns out. Then the spark plug was changed. And to infinity.
Incense, aromatic oils could be added to this bowl, they could decorate it with all sorts of figurines and figurines. Well, a very beautiful and fragrant invention. And most importantly, useful, because according to it, ancient people could clearly build their daily routine and navigate in time.
Fire clocks were of different designs. Here, for example, is a cylindrical candle clock: this is a stand (a kind of candlestick) with a metal vertical pin with the same divisions along its entire length. A candle (vertically) was placed next to the pin, lit, it burned and indicated the elapsed time. What do you think, comfortable design? Yes, it is convenient, but, in my opinion, the candle burns out quickly. Then people began to invent candles different composition, with different wicks, so that the candle burns as long as possible, because the wax melts very quickly.
This is how the wick clock appeared. A very interesting design: they made a wick (they made it from materials that burn or smolder for a long time, for example, from a mixture of sawdust and tar), twisted it in a spiral in the form of a cone, tied a thread with a familiar ball to each turn of the spiral, hung the spiral on a pin or hook (like a lantern), there was a metal stand under the spiral. They set fire to the wick, it smoldered, the thread broke, fell on a metal stand, made a sound. Same principle as candle clocks. Do you think it's convenient? Quite convenient.
But the craftsmen did not stop. And here, as in the saying: "Pour oil on fire - only add fire." Oil clocks were invented. They can just as safely be called fire. And the third name is lamp clock. took clay pot, filled it with vegetable oil, inserted a wick, set it on fire. There were marks on the pot, the oil burned, burned out, its level showed how much time had passed. Miners took such watches with them - people who worked underground, mined minerals, ore, for example. Oil clocks consisted not only of an oil vessel, they were also made of glass. Practical. By the way, this is a prototype of kerosene burners that your great-grandmothers or even grandmothers used not so long ago. Only a kerosene burner did not measure time, but used it for lighting when there was no electricity.
All fire and oil clocks were good. But that's just unreliable. They were dependent on the wind. Why? That's right, if a strong wind blew (for example, a draft), they went out. It was necessary to constantly watch the candle or the wick. In addition, they “lied” - if there was fresh dry air in the room, the candle burned brightly, the flame played, the clock “burned out” quickly, and if it was damp or there was not enough oxygen, then, accordingly, the candle barely smoldered. Another drawback - candles, wicks and oil had to be taken somewhere, bought. It was necessary to buy them in a timely manner. And a lot of them couldn't afford it. You see, guys, how inventive ancient people were!
Let's summarize:
1. Where was fire watch invented?
2. How did they work?
3. What other fire watch designs do you know?
4. Was the fire clock fast or slow?
5. What did people do to make fire watches serve them as long as possible?
6. What is an oil watch?
7. Who used them?
8. Why are fire watches convenient?
9. What are the disadvantages of fire and oil clocks?
Conversation: Mechanical watch
Target: introduce children to different types of watches, namely, mechanical watches, their history, purpose
Tasks:
To form an idea about the definition of time;
develop cognitive activity and logical thinking;
contribute to the activation and expansion of the vocabulary of children;
consolidate knowledge about the clock;
cultivate respect for time;
develop the ability to analyze, synthesize information, compare, generalize;
cultivate the ability to listen to each other.
Conversation flow:
Mechanical watches. What is it? A watch is, of course, a device for measuring time. What about mechanical ones? That's right, from the word "mechanism" - a device, an internal arrangement of something. Who invented the first mechanical watch is a mystery. Some claim that they are inventive Chinese, others say that they are French. Let's not guess. Why do you think mechanical watches were invented? After all, people have already invented so many watches. Right! At all times, people wanted accuracy. Yes, and so that these very watches do not depend on external forces - from the Sun, from fire, from oil or a candle.
If one of you with your parents or grandparents dismantled the clock, you probably saw that there was a lot of ... what? Toothed wheels. One wheel clings to another, another to a third, and even two or three wheels can immediately cling to one wheel. And they, in turn, move the hands of the clock. Amazing, isn't it?!
The design of the first mechanical watches was simple.
The rope was wound on a shaft (it can be compared with a coil and threads), a weight was tied. A weight on a rope lowered and moved the arrows with the help of gears. The number of teeth on the wheels was calculated so that a full circle of the hour wheel measured one hour of time. When the rope unwound, the weight had to be lifted up. I will also add that the first mechanical watch did not have a minute (and even more so a second) hand. And such clocks were installed on towers, in town halls, chapels. They were huge.
Then people invented the pendulum - an oscillatory system. The pendulum moves back and forth and its movement is unchanged. It was introduced into the clock mechanism. And this helped people measure time even more accurately. After all, the movements of the pendulum are the same, unlike the rope, which could become thinner from constant friction.
Mechanical watches have been refined for five centuries, until they reached us in the form in which we are accustomed to seeing them. Spirals, a dial, a cuckoo, and a fight were added to them. And some watches showed a whole performance when they beat off some hour, for example, 8 pm.
For convenience, people also invented small pocket mechanical watches so that they could take them with them everywhere. Then resourceful craftsmen attach leather straps to them. So there were wrist watch, allowing you to instantly see what time it is. Mechanical watches were decorated with various figures, painted with patterns, made of precious metal. They have become a luxury item, a welcome gift, especially for men.
But the most important thing is their function. Mechanical watches made it possible to determine the time very accurately, with virtually no error, they did not depend on natural factors. For this they have been valued for so long. And they are still appreciated.
It's time to sum up:
1. What is a "mechanism"?
2. Let's remember the design of the first watch? (Story by picture)
3. Who invented the first mechanical watch?
4. What is a pendulum?
5. What is the advantage of a mechanical watch?
Conversation: Electric and electronic watches
Target: introduce children to different types of watches, namely, electric and electronic watches, their history, purpose
Tasks:
To form an idea about the definition of time;
develop cognitive activity and logical thinking;
contribute to the activation and expansion of the vocabulary of children;
consolidate knowledge about the clock;
cultivate respect for time;
develop the ability to analyze, synthesize information, compare, generalize;
cultivate the ability to listen to each other.
Conversation flow:
Today we will talk about electric and electronic watches, which are considered one of the most accurate and most reliable. At the end of the last century, they almost completely ousted mechanical watches from our lives.
It all started a hundred years ago, when electricity appeared, and when this same electricity began to be used for various purposes and needs. The Englishman made experiments with pendulums, electromagnets and conventional mechanical clocks. The pendulum swayed, in contact with special electromagnets, a current was formed, which provided energy for the movement of the arrows. These watches did not require constant winding like mechanical ones. And most importantly, there was no error in time (well, or quite insignificant, the clock “lied” by only 1 second per year). Electric clocks were very popular and respected by professors and scientists.
But in the middle of the last century in France they came up with such watches that we all use - electronic. The pendulum and the electromagnet of the electric clock were replaced by an electric power element - an accumulator or a battery. And the dial familiar to us was squeezed out by an electronic scoreboard, on which electronic numbers shone. In addition, engineers began to invent electronic watches with a calculator, with an alarm clock (now, of course, this does not surprise us, but earlier it was an unheard-of miracle of technology), and even a built-in minicomputer. Gradually, electronic clocks and electronic alarm clocks began to be built into various Appliances and devices that allowed them to be controlled at the onset of a certain time. Electronic watch steel obligatory element devices such as TV, VCR, computer, cell phone, etc., etc. Today we are accustomed to electronic watches and do not even remember that there is something else to tell the time.
Let's summarize:
1. Are electronic and electric watches the same thing?
2. What was the most important thing about electric clocks?
3. What is important in electronic?
4. Where do we meet electronic watches?
5. How did they conquer us?
Conversation: Atomic Clock
Target: introduce children to different types of clocks, namely, atomic clocks, their history, purpose
Tasks:
To form an idea about the definition of time;
develop cognitive activity and logical thinking;
contribute to the activation and expansion of the vocabulary of children;
consolidate knowledge about the clock;
cultivate respect for time;
develop the ability to analyze, synthesize information, compare, generalize;
cultivate the ability to listen to each other.
Conversation flow:
We have already talked about almost the most accurate watches - electronic ones. But why are they "almost" accurate? Yes, because there is, well, the most accurate clock - this is an atomic clock. An atom is the smallest particle that exists on earth. Everything in the world consists of it. People not so long ago learned to use the energy of the atom. Just imagine that we are playing the game “At the bear in the forest”, you are running away from the bear, what is happening? Everyone runs without looking back! How much energy do you have? A lot of! Likewise, nuclear energy is a powerful energy. And and inexhaustible. It can serve humanity for millions of years. But subject to proper and peaceful use.
So, back to our clock. What an atomic clock consists of - I can’t tell, it’s very complicated. Only nuclear physicists can tell us this secret. If one of you becomes a nuclear physicist in the future, please come to the kindergarten and tell the kids about the most accurate clock in the world!
The first atomic clocks were too bulky and were not widely used. But the scientists did not sleep; with the help of experiments, they created watches based on cesium atoms. This is such a chemical element. Immediately after the creation of the atomic clock, people all over the Earth decided to switch to the atomic time standard.
The time has come for the discovery of the great mysteries of mankind. I'll tell you a secret that in the world there is a Laboratory of time keepers. What do you think they do in it? Keep time? Right. Why keep it? Is it going somewhere? Another secret will have to be revealed: our planet Earth, as you know, rotates around its axis and around the Sun. The rotation of the Earth is slowing down and the magnitude of this slowdown is not constant. The Earth is currently spinning at a rate of about 2 milliseconds per 100 years. This greatly complicates the work of astronomers and time keepers, who make some special calculations, led only by them, and these calculations may turn out to be incorrect even due to a slight error in time.
Today, not without the help of atomic clocks, Coordinated Universal Time is used as a time scale. It is formed by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures by combining data from the timekeeping laboratories of various countries, as well as data from the International Earth Rotation Service.
Here we say that atomic time is so precise. Why don't we still use it in everyday life? This is because the energy of the atom is not yet used for domestic purposes, the technology for obtaining it is already very complicated. And it is very expensive. Plus, as I said, atomic clocks are huge.
So far, scientists from different countries have something to work on. And I think that in the near future we will be able to use atomic clocks in the same way as any mechanical and electronic ones.
So, let's see how easily you remember the information from our conversation:
1. What gives an atom?
2. What are they - the first atomic clock?
3. Who invented the atomic clock?
4. Is the mechanism of atomic clock complicated?
5. Does anyone keep track of the time in the world?
6. Why do you need to keep track of time?
7. Why do we still not have atomic clocks at home?
(I used pictures from the Google search engine)
The Hermitage and Rodina magazine continue their joint project, in which we introduce readers to little-known rarities from the storerooms of Russia's main museum.
Clock with a figure of a rhinoceros. On a gilded rocaille pedestal, a patinated figure of a rhinoceros is approved, carrying an hour drum on its back, entwined with a garland and crowned with a figure of a Chinese man with an umbrella in his hand. Signature on the dial: Thiout Laine a "Paris. Above the number XII: R. A. Bronze; casting, embossing; patination, gilding. France. Paris. Third quarter of the 19th century. 68 x 43 x 18. Inv. No. Epr-4804 Receipt: in 1925 from the Museum of the Revolution, kept in the Winter Palace until 1920. Photo: Nikolai Naumenkov/TASS
Thanks to the work of restorers, all the clocks on display in the Hermitage are in good condition. They are regularly wound up, and the hands indicate the real time. A watch with a figure of a rhinoceros is an exception, and although their mechanism is in good order, the time on the dial is unchanged - two hours ten minutes after midnight.
Next to the clock there is a memorial marble plaque with the inscription:
"In this room, on the night of October 25-26 (November 7-8), 1917, the Red Guards, soldiers and sailors, who stormed the Winter Palace, arrested the counter-revolutionary bourgeois Provisional Government." This historic moment and immortalized by the clock hands with the figure of a rhinoceros: on the night of October 25-26, after a long wander around the Winter Palace plunged into complete darkness, a dozen armed revolutionaries, led by Vladimir Antonov-Ovseenko, guided by the sounds of speech, reached the Small Dining Room, where thirteen members of the Provisional government. Antonov declared the Provisional Government deposed; its members were arrested and taken to the Peter and Paul Fortress.
A new time has begun. But the clock with the figure of a rhinoceros was no longer able to count it ...
Antoine Thieu the Elder or...
This watch is a very characteristic example of the Rococo style with its craving for the exotic, which manifested itself in the choice of an outlandish animal for central figure, and appeal to Chinese motifs - the art of chinoiserie. The dial bears the name of the famous master Antoine Thiout the Elder (1692-1767), the author of almost the first fundamental work on the theory and practice of watchmaking: this treatise was published in Paris under the patronage of the Royal Academy of Sciences in 1741.
In the catalog of the exhibition "Western European Clocks of the 16th-19th Centuries from the Hermitage Collection", held in 1971, the clock with the figure of a rhinoceros is dated to the middle of the 18th century. Note that until that time, the woodcut "Rhinoceros", performed by Albrecht Dürer in 1515, was considered the most reliable image of a rhinoceros; the degree of its reliability can be judged by the fact that on his board the great engraver provided the rhinoceros with an additional horn on the back of the neck. The same is true of the rhinoceros that adorns the clock with the music box, made by the Parisian master Jacques Gerome Gudin around 1745.
The Hermitage rhinoceros does not have a curious horn on the scruff of the neck. This circumstance seems to provide some starting point for dating: the first acquaintance of Europeans with a live rhinoceros took place in 1749, when it was presented to the Parisian public and the royal court at Versailles.
This suggests that the Hermitage clock was made no earlier than 1749 and no later than 1767, when A. Tiu the Elder died...
However, such a conclusion would be premature.
How the rhinoceros rejuvenated
A clock with a figure of a rhinoceros stands on the fireplace in the Small (White) Dining Room Winter Palace, adjacent to the Malachite Hall. They were erected in this place during the reconstruction undertaken in 1894, when the interior of the Small Dining Room, designed by A.P. Bryullov in the "Pompeian" vein, was destroyed, and the hall received a new design in the spirit of rococo, designed by the architect A.F. Krasovsky.
The most experienced restorer Valentin Molotkov, senior researcher at the Hermitage Laboratory for the Scientific Restoration of Clocks and Musical Mechanisms, is convinced that the clock with the figure of a rhinoceros is not much older than the interior it decorates.
“A detailed study of the case and mechanism of this watch allows us to assert,” Valentin Alekseevich states, “that they were made in the third quarter of the 19th century. it is marked with black paint, while in the XVIII century black enamel was used for this, which had a high relief. Note that the letters "R" and "A" (abbreviated back and forth) appeared on the dials no earlier than the middle of the XIX century. the mechanism was also made earlier than this time, it is enclosed in a case assembled from gilded parts cast according to heterogeneous models, and the metal of these parts has a dense mass characteristic of high-temperature industrial casting. gilded details that articulate with it... In fairness, I note, - adds V. A. Molotkov, - that the names of famous masters were exhibited by their imitators all the time ... "
Curator of the Artistic Bronze Collection of the Department of Western European applied arts Anna Geiko agreed with the restorer's arguments. "The clock with the figure of a rhinoceros is made in the style of historicism, the leading retrospective direction of arts and crafts of the second half of XIX V. The artistic elements used in the composition of the watch are clearly associated with Rococo art, with XVIII century, but performed at a different technical level. Modern technological research makes it possible to radically change the attribution of an object or clarify inventory data, as happened in the case of the mantel clock from the White Dining Room," Anna Gennadievna noted.
So the watch with the figure of a rhinoceros looked younger by more than a century.
"The clock is now ours!"
When the arrest of members of the Provisional Government was recognized by the Bolsheviks as a historical milestone in the collapse of the "old" and the beginning of the construction of "our new" world, a need arose for monuments and epic.
In 1927 Vladimir Mayakovsky created famous poem"Good!", dedicated to the tenth anniversary of the October Revolution. Special symbolic meaning in the poem carries the motive of gaining power over time by revolutionaries:
Some confused son of a bitch
And above him is a Putilovets - more tender than dad:
"You, boy, lay out the stolen watch -
The clock is now ours!"
................................
And in this silence rolled to your heart's content
Bass, strengthened over the yards of the yard:
"Which are temporary? Get off!
Your time is up."
But the idea of the clock as a symbol of the time conquered by the revolution, apparently, became a commonplace long before Mayakovsky. Back in 1920, a clock with a figure of a rhinoceros from the Small (White) dining room of the Winter Palace was turned into the most important monument October events: they were transferred to the Museum of the Revolution, and the arrows were stopped at the conditional moment of the overthrow of the Provisional Government.
In 1925, a Tour Bureau was established in the Hermitage: the Hermitage was to become a stronghold of the Marxist-Leninist ideology in the field of culture and art. In the same year, the clock from the Small Dining Room returned to its place. Later, the marble memorial plaque mentioned above appeared on the mantelpiece next to them, which is still there, although the pathos of the text inscribed on it causes a slight smile today.
P.S."The revolution, like Saturn, devours its children. Be careful, the gods are thirsty," exclaimed, ascending the scaffold, one of the leaders of the Girondins, Pierre Vergneau. In 1930, the author of the poem "Good!" committed suicide. Twenty years after the arrest of the Provisional Government, on October 12, 1937, Vladimir Antonov-Ovseenko was arrested and shot on February 10, 1938.
In ancient mythology, Saturn served as the embodiment of Time. In the Small Dining Room of the Winter Palace, Time is represented by a clock with a figure of a rhinoceros, stopped in a presumptuous attempt to separate the past from the future.
The first science of time is astronomy. The results of observations in ancient observatories were used to maintain Agriculture and the performance of religious rites. However, with the development of crafts, it became necessary to measure short periods of time. Thus, mankind came to the invention of the clock. The process was long, filled with the hard work of the best minds.
The history of watches goes back many centuries; this is the oldest invention of mankind. From a stick stuck in the ground to an ultra-precise chronometer - a journey of hundreds of generations. If we make a rating of the achievements of human civilization, then in the nomination "great inventions" the clock will be in second place after the wheel.
There was a time when a calendar was enough for people. But crafts appeared, there was a need to fix the duration of technological processes. It took hours, the purpose of which is to measure time intervals shorter than a day. To do this, people have used various physical processes. The constructions realizing them were also corresponding.
The history of watches is divided into two major periods. The first is several millennia long, the second is less than one.
1. The history of the clock, called the simplest. This category includes solar, water, fire and sand appliances. The period ends with the study of the mechanical clocks of the pendulum period. These were medieval chimes.
2. New story clock, starting with the invention of the pendulum and balance, which marked the beginning of the development of classical oscillatory chronometry. This period is so far
Sundial
The most ancient ones that have come down to us. Therefore, it is the history of the sundial that opens the parade of great inventions in the field of chronometry. Despite their apparent simplicity, they were distinguished by a wide variety of designs.
It is based on the apparent movement of the Sun throughout the day. The countdown is based on the shadow cast by the axis. Their use is possible only on a sunny day. Ancient Egypt had favorable climatic conditions for this. The greatest distribution on the banks of the Nile received a sundial, which had the form of obelisks. They were installed at the entrance to the temples. A gnomon in the form of a vertical obelisk and a scale marked on the ground - this is what the ancient sundial looked like. The photo below shows one of them. One of the Egyptian obelisks transported to Europe has survived to this day. A gnomon 34 meters high currently stands in one of the squares in Rome.
Conventional sundial had a significant drawback. They knew about him, but put up with him for a long time. IN different seasons, that is, in summer and winter, the duration of the hour was not the same. But in the period when the agrarian system and handicraft relations dominated, there was no need for an accurate measurement of times. Therefore, the sundial successfully existed until the late Middle Ages.
The gnomon was replaced by more progressive designs. Improved sundials, in which this shortcoming was eliminated, had curved scales. In addition to this improvement, various versions were used. So, in Europe, wall and window sundials were common.
Further improvement took place in 1431. It consisted in orienting the shadow arrow parallel to the earth's axis. Such an arrow was called a semiaxis. Now the shadow, rotating around the half-axis, moved uniformly, turning 15° per hour. Such a design made it possible to produce a sundial that was accurate enough for its time. The photo shows one of these devices, preserved in China.
For proper installation, they began to supply the structure with a compass. It became possible to use the clock everywhere. It was possible to make even portable models. Since 1445, the sundial began to be built in the form of a hollow hemisphere, equipped with an arrow, the shadow of which fell on the inner surface.
Looking for an alternative
Although the sundials were convenient and accurate, they had serious objective flaws. They were completely dependent on the weather, and their functioning was limited to the part of the day between sunrise and sunset. In search of an alternative, scientists sought to find other ways to measure time intervals. It was required that they not be associated with the observation of the movement of stars and planets.
The search led to the creation of artificial time standards. For example, it was the interval necessary for the flow or combustion of a certain amount of a substance.
The simplest watches created on this basis have come a long way in the development and improvement of designs, thereby paving the way for the creation of not only mechanical watches, but also automation devices.
Clepsydra
The name “clepsydra” has been attached to the water clock, so there is a misconception that they were first invented in Greece. In reality it was not so. The oldest, very primitive clepsydra was found in the temple of Amun in Phoebe and is kept in the museum of Cairo.
When creating a water clock, it is necessary to ensure a uniform decrease in the water level in the vessel when it flows through the bottom calibrated hole. This was achieved by giving the vessel the shape of a cone, tapering closer to the bottom. It was only in the Middle Ages that a regularity describing the rate of fluid outflow depending on its level and the shape of the container was obtained. Prior to this, the shape of the vessel for the water clock was selected empirically. For example, the Egyptian clepsydra, discussed above, gave a uniform decrease in level. Albeit with some error.
Since clepsydra did not depend on the time of day and weather, it met the requirements of continuous measurement of time to the maximum. In addition, the need for further improvement of the device, the addition of various functions, provided space for designers to fly their imaginations. Thus, clepsydras of Arab origin were works of art combined with high functionality. They were equipped with additional hydraulic and pneumatic mechanisms: an audible timer, a night lighting system.
Not many names of the creators of the water clock have been preserved in history. They were made not only in Europe, but also in China and India. We have received information about a Greek mechanic named Ctesibius of Alexandria, who lived 150 years before new era. In clepsydra, Ctesibius used gears, the theoretical development of which was carried out by Aristotle.
fire watch
This group appeared at the beginning of the 13th century. The first firing clocks were thin candles up to 1 meter high with marks applied to them. Sometimes certain divisions were equipped with metal pins, which, falling on a metal stand when the wax burned around them, made a distinct sound. Such devices served as a prototype of the alarm clock.
With the advent of transparent glass, fire clocks are transformed into icon lamps. A scale was applied on the wall, according to which, as the oil burned out, the time was determined.
Such devices are most widely used in China. Along with the icon lamps, another type of fire clock was common in this country - wick clocks. We can say that it was a dead end branch.
Hourglass
When they were born is not exactly known. We can only say with certainty that they could not have appeared before the invention of glass.
Hourglass are two transparent glass flasks. Through the connecting neck, the contents are poured from the upper flask into the lower one. And in our time, you can still meet the hourglass. The photo depicts one of the models, stylized antique.
Medieval craftsmen in the manufacture of instruments decorated the hourglass with exquisite decor. They were used not only to measure periods of time, but also as interior decoration. In the houses of many nobles and dignitaries one could see luxurious hourglasses. The photo shows one of these models.
Hourglasses came to Europe quite late - at the end of the Middle Ages, but their distribution was rapid. Due to their simplicity, the ability to use at any time, they quickly became very popular.
One of the shortcomings of the hourglass is the rather short amount of time measured without turning it over. Cassettes made up of them did not take root. The distribution of such models was slowed down by their low accuracy, as well as wear during long-term operation. It happened in the following way. The calibrated hole in the diaphragm between the flasks was worn out, increasing in diameter, sand particles, on the contrary, were crushed, decreasing in size. The speed of the expiration increased, the time decreased.
Mechanical watch: the prerequisites for the appearance
The need for a more accurate measurement of periods of time with the development of production and social relations has steadily increased. The best minds have worked to solve this problem.
The invention of the mechanical watch is an epochal event that took place in the Middle Ages, because they are the most complex device created in those years. In turn, this served as an impetus for the further development of science and technology.
The invention of watches and their improvement required more advanced, precise and high-performance technological equipment, new methods of calculation and design. This was the beginning of a new era.
The creation of mechanical watches became possible with the invention of the spindle escapement. This device converted the translational movement of a weight hanging on a rope into an oscillatory movement back and forth of an hour wheel. Continuity is clearly seen here - after all, complex models of clepsydra already had a dial, a gear train, and a battle. It was only necessary to change the driving force: replace the jet of water with a heavy weight that was easier to handle, and add an escapement device and a speed controller.
On this basis, mechanisms for tower clocks were created. Spindle-operated chimes came into use around 1340 and became the pride of many cities and cathedrals.
The rise of classical oscillatory chronometry
The history of watches has preserved for posterity the names of scientists and inventors who made their creation possible. The theoretical basis was the discovery made by Galileo Galilei, who voiced the laws describing the oscillations of the pendulum. He is also the author of the idea of mechanical pendulum clocks.
Galileo's idea was realized in 1658 by the talented Dutchman Christian Huygens. He is also the author of the invention of the balance regulator, which made it possible to create a pocket watch, and then a wrist watch. In 1674, Huygens developed an improved regulator by attaching a spiral spring in the form of a hair to the flywheel.
Another landmark invention belongs to a watchmaker from Nuremberg named Peter Henlein. He invented the mainspring, and in 1500 he created a pocket watch based on it.
At the same time there were changes appearance. At first, one arrow was enough. But as clocks became very accurate, they required a corresponding indication. In 1680, a minute hand was added, and the dial took on the form familiar to us. In the eighteenth century, they began to install a second hand. Initially lateral, and later it became central.
In the seventeenth century, the creation of watches was transferred to the category of art. Exquisitely decorated cases, enameled dials, which by that time were covered with glass - all this turned the mechanisms into a luxury item.
Work on the improvement and complication of instruments continued uninterrupted. Increased running accuracy. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, ruby and sapphire stones began to be used as supports for the balance wheel and gears. This reduced friction, improved accuracy and increased power reserve. Interesting complications appeared - a perpetual calendar, automatic winding, a power reserve indicator.
The impetus for the development of pendulum clocks was the invention of the English watchmaker Clement. Around 1676 he developed the anchor escapement. This device was well suited to pendulum clocks, which had a small amplitude of oscillation.
Quartz watch
Further improvement of instruments for measuring time proceeded like an avalanche. The development of electronics and radio engineering paved the way for the emergence of quartz watches. Their work is based on the piezoelectric effect. It was discovered in 1880, but the quartz clock was not made until 1937. The newly created quartz models differed from classical mechanical ones in amazing accuracy. The era of electronic watches has begun. What is their feature?
Quartz watches have a mechanism consisting of an electronic unit and a so-called stepper motor. How it works? The engine, receiving a signal from the electronic unit, moves the arrows. Instead of the usual dial in a quartz watch, a digital display can be used. We call them electronic. In the West - quartz with digital indication. It doesn't change the essence.
In fact, a quartz watch is a mini computer. Additional functions are added very easily: stopwatch, moon phase indicator, calendar, alarm clock. At the same time, the price of watches, unlike mechanics, does not increase so much. This makes them more accessible.
Quartz watches are very accurate. Their error is ±15 seconds/month. It is enough to correct the instrument readings twice a year.
Wall clock
Digital indication and compactness are the distinguishing features of such mechanisms. widely used as integrated. They can be seen on the dashboard of a car, in a mobile phone, in a microwave and TV.
As an element of the interior, you can often find more popular classic performance, that is, with arrow indication.
Electronic wall clock organically fit into the interior in the style of hi-tech, modern, techno. They attract primarily with their functionality.
According to the type of display, electronic watches are liquid crystal and LED. The latter are more functional, as they have a backlight.
According to the type of power source, electronic clocks (wall and desktop) are divided into mains, powered by 220V, and battery. Devices of the second type are more convenient, since they do not require an outlet nearby.
Cuckoo wall clock
German craftsmen began to make them from the beginning of the eighteenth century. Traditionally Wall Clock with a cuckoo were made of wood. Richly decorated with carvings, made in the form of a birdhouse, they were the decoration of rich mansions.
At one time, inexpensive models were popular in the USSR and in the post-Soviet space. For many years, the Mayak cuckoo wall clock was produced by a plant in the Russian city of Serdobsk. Weights in the form of fir cones, a house decorated with uncomplicated carvings, paper furs of a sound mechanism - this is how they were remembered by the representatives of the older generation.
Now the classic cuckoo wall clock is a rarity. This is due to the high price of quality models. If you do not take into account the quartz crafts of Asian craftsmen made of plastic, fabulous cuckoos cuckoo only in houses true connoisseurs watch exotics. Precise, complex mechanism, leather bellows, exquisite carving on the body - all this requires a large amount of highly skilled manual labor. Only the most reputable manufacturers can produce such models.
alarm clock
These are the most common "walkers" in the interior.
Alarm clock - first additional function, which was implemented in hours. Patented in 1847 by the Frenchman Antoine Redier.
In a classic mechanical desktop alarm clock, the sound is produced by hitting metal plates with a hammer. Electronic models are more melodic.
By design, alarm clocks are divided into small-sized and large-sized, desktop and travel.
Table alarm clocks are made with separate motors for and signal. They run separately.
With the advent of quartz watches, the popularity of mechanical alarm clocks has fallen. There are several reasons for this. with a quartz movement have a number of advantages over classic mechanical devices: they are more accurate, do not require daily winding, they are easy to match to the design of the room. In addition, they are light, not so afraid of bumps and falls.
Wrist mechanical alarm clocks are commonly referred to as "signals". Few companies produce such models. So, collectors know a model called "presidential cricket"
"Cricket" (according to English cricket) - under this name the Swiss company Vulcain produced watches with an alarm function. They are known for being their owners. american presidents With: Harry Truman, Richard Nixon and Lyndon Johnson.
History of watches for children
Time is a complex philosophical category and at the same time a physical quantity that needs to be measured. Man lives in time. Already with kindergarten the training and education program provides for the development of time orientation skills in children.
You can teach a child to use a clock as soon as he has mastered the account. Layouts will help with this. You can combine a cardboard clock with the daily routine by placing all this for greater clarity on a piece of drawing paper. You can organize classes with elements of the game, using puzzles with pictures for this.
History at the age of 6-7 years is studied in thematic classes. The material must be presented in such a way as to arouse interest in the topic. Children in an accessible form are introduced to the history of watches, their types in the past and present. Then the acquired knowledge is consolidated. To do this, they demonstrate the principle of operation of the simplest clocks - solar, water and fire. These activities awaken children's interest in research, develop creative imagination and curiosity. They cultivate respect for time.
At school, in grades 5-7, the history of the invention of watches is studied. It is based on the knowledge gained by the child in the lessons of astronomy, history, geography, physics. In this way, the acquired material is consolidated. Watches, their invention and improvement are considered as part of the history of material culture, the achievements of which are aimed at meeting the needs of society. The topic of the lesson can be formulated as follows: "Inventions that have changed the history of mankind."
In high school, it is advisable to continue the study of watches as an accessory in terms of fashion and interior aesthetics. It is important to introduce children to watch etiquette, to talk about the basic principles of selection. One of the classes can be devoted to time management.
The history of the invention of watches clearly shows the continuity of generations, its study is an effective means of shaping the worldview of a young person.
Storage mode - a set of conditions necessary to ensure the safety of the museum collection. Includes temperature and humidity regime, light regime, measures to protect against air pollutants, biological regime, measures to protect against mechanical damage; protection of funds in extreme situations.
Temperature and humidity conditions . Temperature and humidity are factors that can significantly affect the acceleration of the aging of objects. The strength of this effect depends on the material from which the object is made; the safety of the item at the time of inclusion in the collection; features of the environment from which the object was removed during the acquisition process.
Organic materials (wood, fabric, leather, paper) are hygroscopic, they deteriorate both at high and low humidity: they deform, chemically change, etc. High humidity is dangerous for metals, glass. Temperature is also an important factor in the preservation of items: tint° below + 13° C falls ill with "tin plague", i.e. it undergoes irreversible chemical changes. Products made from waxt° above + 25° C irreversibly deformed.
Temperature and humidity are considered in combination, since they are actually interconnected (remember the pressure formula from school course physics). To resolve the issue of a suitable temperature and humidity regime for a given object, it is necessary to take into account not only the material from which the objects are made, but also their device, combination of materials, structure and safety. For example, storing paintings stretched on a stretcher without crosses and bevels in high humidity conditions is more dangerous than paintings whose stretchers have crosses and bevels, because. the latter are less susceptible to deformation. The presence of cracks, chips enhances the negative effects of temperature and humidity. It is also important to take into account the environment from which the object was taken (this applies to archaeological collections). A sharp change in the environment of existence of metals, wood, glass, colored stone can lead to a sharp aging and destruction of objects. Glass, metal recovered during archaeological work should be stored at low humidity; tree - with increased. In domestic museology, criteria have been developed for the optimal temperature and humidity for different groups materials (Table 3.1).
Table 3.1
Criteria for optimal temperature and humidity for different groups of materials
|
Material (material group) |
temperature (in° WITH) |
Humidity (in %) |
|
Metals |
18 – +20 |
up to 50 |
|
Glass, enamel, ceramics |
12 – +20 |
55–65 |
The end of the table. 3.1
|
ornamental stones |
15 – +18 |
50–55 |
|
Tree |
15 – +18 |
50–60 |
|
Textile |
15 – +18 |
55–65 |
|
Leather, parchment, fur |
16 – +18 |
50–60 |
|
Bone, horn, turtle |
14 – +15 |
55–60 |
|
Paper |
17 – +19 |
50–55 |
|
12 – +18 |
60–70 |
|
|
Black and white photography |
40–50 |
|
|
Color photography |
40–50 |
Compliance with these conditions is possible only with separate storage of items made from different groups of materials. Shared storage uses complex mode. Complex mode indicators: temperature + 18° WITH (± 1 ° C), humidity - 55% (± 5%) .
In foreign museology, somewhat different norms have been adopted. In the work of B. and G.D. Lords "Management in Museum Affairs" for a temperate climate recommended a relative humidity of 50% (± 3%), with an acceptable temperature change during the year (gradual, no more than 0.5° C per month) in winter - 20-21° C, in summer - 21–24° C. It is recognized, however, that maintaining such a regime is most easily achieved in a temperate maritime climate in specially constructed new buildings with modern air conditioning. In a continental climate and in old buildings used as museums, compliance with this standard is recognized as difficult. In this case, the recommended humidity parameters are from 55% in summer to 40% in winter (it is recommended to reduce humidity by 5% every spring and autumn). Separate groups are metal and paper (“non-stitched paper sheets”), which should be stored at a humidity of less than 40%; and objects coming from the tropics and having a high hygroscopicity, for which the humidity parameters can reach 65%. It is noted that according to British standards for storage of unstapled paper, the recommended temperature ranges from 13-18° C at a humidity of 55–65%. The authors point out that recently the requirements in UK museums have become less stringent. This is due to the energy saving policy. .
The museum should have devices that record the temperature and humidity conditions. Their indicators should, in the practice of domestic museology, be filmed twice a day and recorded in a special journal.
The most reliable way to ensure the temperature and humidity regime is air conditioning and insulation of premises from the effects of the external environment (air and waterproofing), because. in almost any type of climate, there are seasonal changes in temperature and humidity. It is especially important to install air conditioners in the halls with expositions, because in these cases without air conditioners it is very difficult to ensure compliance with the temperature and humidity regime when storing museum objects (in the open access): the flow of visitors leads to an increase in humidity and temperature. In the absence of air conditioners, other means are used: ventilation, humidifiers (vessels with an aqueous solution of potassium permanganate) in case of low humidity, adsorbents (silica gel, woolen cloth) in case of high humidity.
Air pollution protection. Dust, gases, soot, soot and other air pollutants - important factors environment affecting the preservation of museum objects. This is especially true for areas with a high density of traffic flows, the presence of industrial facilities, etc.
Sulfur dioxide, soot, soot are formed during combustion. Sulfur dioxide, dissolving in water contained in the air, forms sulfurous acid, and it turns into sulfuric acid as a result of subsequent chemical reactions. The impact of sulfuric acid is one of the most aggressive. A particular danger from this factor is observed in rooms with high humidity.
Soot, soot, dust work as natural adsorbents (attract moisture to themselves) and trap harmful gases that penetrate into the pores and natural damage to wood, fabrics, paper, paint layer, which activates chemical reactions. Dust is also an excellent breeding ground for biological pests.
To protect items from air pollutants, it is also necessary to install air conditioners and filters, carry out mechanical removal of dust, dirt, and keep items in individual packaging (cases, folders, cases, etc.). When installing air conditioners and filters, it is best to use multi-stage air purification systems. Filters are best installed from activated charcoal. The use of electric filters for museums is not recommended, because they ozonize the air, and ozone is harmful to museum collections. The preliminary filter should ensure air purification by 25–30%, the intermediate filter by 40–85%, and the last filter by 90–95%. This set of filters is positioned so that both outdoor and recirculated (internal) air flows pass through it. . Individual packaging of items also contributes to protection against dust: covers, cases, folders.
Light mode . Its main goal is to regulate the access of light and ultraviolet rays to museum objects. Light can cause physical and photochemical changes. The degree of exposure to light on an object depends on the material from which the object is made, whether the object is artificially painted or has a natural color, the light and color fastness of the paints used for coloring, the duration and intensity of exposure to light radiation (Fig. 64).
By light fastness materials are divided into 3 groups:
1) with high light resistance (low light sensitivity): metals, non-colored stone, gypsum, unglazed ceramics, colorless glass, undyed synthetic fabric (or dyed with some synthetic dyes), etc .;
2) with medium light fastness (medium light sensitivity): bone, leather, fur, undyed and unbleached natural fabrics, dyed synthetic fabric, wood, glazed ceramics, enamel, oil and tempera painting, etc.;
3) with low light fastness (high light sensitivity): photography is mainly in color, and among color photographs, especially those made using photographic equipmentPolaroid”, watercolor, pastel, paper, bleached and dyed natural fabric (especially if the dye is natural).
Rice. 64. Pile carpet "Zoology". Author L. Kerimov. Located in the State
Museum of Azerbaijani Carpet and Folk Applied Arts (Baku, Azerbaijan)
The darker the object, the higher its ability to absorb light rays, and, consequently, to be exposed to light. As for dyes, the light fastness standards depend not only on the color, but also on the type of paint: oil, watercolor, gouache, tempera, etc., as well as on impurities (for each manufacturer, as well as for artists who make paints on their own, these impurities). A modern manufacturer, as a rule, indicates these indicators with a * sign (* - low, ** - medium, *** - high light fastness). For dyes whose manufacturer is unknown or whose light fastness data are not known, one can decide this question through expertise.
Items with high lightfastness require only protection from direct sunlight. The level of illumination for them should not exceed 150 lux. This is due to the danger of increased exposure not only to light, but also ultraviolet radiation . Medium-light resistant materials require a special regime: dimming or complete blackout. So, the tree basically requires darkening, therefore it is recommended to wear it in covers. Oil and tempera painting cannot be without light, therefore they are not covered with covers (with a prolonged lack of light, oil and tempera darken). White fur, bone also require lighting, as they turn yellow in the dark. The level of illumination for them should not exceed 75 lux. Highly photosensitive (with low light fastness) items are recommended to be stored in a shaded room in equipment protected from light. The norm of illumination in domestic museology for highly light-sensitive materials is from 50 lux to 75 lux. There are situations when highly light-sensitive objects must be stored in complete isolation from light (in these cases, only closed, stock storage is recommended for the object, and it is better to place a copy in an exposure, especially a long one) (Fig. 65).
Rice. 65. Museumd’
Orsay(Paris, France). exposition hall,
author of the project G. Aulenti
In foreign museology, standards are developed, as a rule, by the museums themselves. For photosensitive objects, low illumination is recommended: 50 lux; for medium light-resistant - 150-200 lux; and highly light-resistant objects are said to withstand illumination up to and including 300 lux. At the same time, it sets contrast ratio norms , which are designed to indicate the difference between the most brightly lit and the least lit surfaces of an object. The contrast ratio is assumed to be 6:1. Norms of ultraviolet radiation vary up to 75 microwatts per lumen (foreign museology is in the process of reducing the allowable level of ultraviolet radiation to 10 microwatts per lumen, which is associated with the introduction of new ultraviolet filters built into fluorescent lamps, as well as new types of film and laminate for window glass and exposition equipment). When storing in the exposure, it is important not only to determine the parameters of light, ultraviolet radiation, the norms of the contrast ratio, but also the duration of exposure. Photosensitive objects are advised to be removed from exposure from time to time in order to reduce the total number of hours during which they are exposed to these factors. For photosensitive exhibits, the illumination parameters are determined at 60,000–120,000 lux-hours per year .
biological regime provides protection against biological pests: mold, fungi, insects, rodents. Fungus, mold, insect larvae multiply intensively in case of violation of the temperature and humidity regime, dusting of objects. The danger comes from new arrivals, as well. they may be contaminated, and, therefore, before being placed in the funds, the item must not only be properly decorated, but also checked for its safety for other items.
For example, mold reproduces at a humidity of 70-75% or more and a temperature of +20 - +25° C. It attacks inorganic materials such as ceramics. To prevent mold, it is required to observe the temperature and humidity conditions and treat the equipment with a 2% alcohol solution of formaldehyde.
Insects such as grinders, woodworms, leather beetles, moths, pretenders, sugar silverfish, houseflies and their larvae damage, first of all, organic materials (paper, wood, watercolor (natural honey is used in good watercolor), leather, parchment, etc. .d.). To prevent the appearance of these pests, it is also important to observe the temperature and humidity conditions, the air regime. Previously, to combat these pests, they used mainly gas treatment, insecticides, and fumigation of new arrivals. This requires the presence of pest control chambers and special isolators and is still associated with a risk to personnel and possible exposure to poisons on the exhibits themselves. Therefore, in many museums, in accordance with the new technical capabilities, either oxygen-free chambers are being built (where treatment with nitric oxide is carried out), or old pest control chambers are being converted into such chambers. Another non-toxic method was also invented: in a special chamber, objects are heated at 52° C and constant relative humidity of the processed object and the environment .
Protection against mechanical damage - involves special handling of museum objects, which prevents their damage or loss. This is especially important in the direct work of researchers with objects. In this case, they are required to wash and dry their hands without fail in order to eliminate contact with the object of fat and moisture; use unbleached cotton gloves when working with all items, except for those storage units in which fibers can get stuck (they can subsequently serve as moisture absorbents, which is also dangerous). Such items include carved lacquerware, wood carvings, and the like. Fingerprints on metals and paper are removed only if the texture of the object is damaged. The object should be taken by its strong parts: separate sheets of paper diagonally - by the corners, vessels - by the necks (in the narrowest place), but in no case by the handles, spouts, etc. (Fig. 66)
Rice. 66. Items from the collection of modern porcelain Zagorsky
historical and artistic reserve (Sergiev Posad, RF)
Numismatic materials, products made of precious stones and metals are not taken by hand, but only with special tweezers, because. Otherwise, the item may be damaged. Pictures are taken only by the stretcher.
In our opinion, museums should strive to limit "communication" (especially touching with hands)coriginal even for researchers: to recommend the use of electronic catalogs, scanned copies (a phenomenon common in foreign museum practice, but difficult to take root in domestic).
Special requirements apply to museum transport used both for internal movement of objects, and external. Fasteners, depreciation softeners, anti-shock and other coatings and mechanisms should be provided here. When transporting, it is necessary to choose the right packaging, containers for transportation, follow the rules for packing items (see: Storage system). The decision on the possibility of transportation in domestic practice is made by the museum's restoration council.
Protection in emergency (extreme) situations involves the development of measures for fire safety, monitoring of water supply and heating systems, maintaining the museum building in good condition, as well as developing action plans for emergency situations, equipping museum premises with fire-fighting equipment, automatic fire extinguishing systems, fire and burglar alarms; the regime of protection against theft and other encroachments on the property of museums.
On the windows of the basement, on the windows of the 1st floor (sometimes the last, if there is access to the museum building from the roofs of neighboring houses) metal horizontal blinds should be installed. Installation of gratings does not comply with modern fire safety standards, because. interferes with the normal work of firefighters in the event of a fire. Grilles that do not open or open only from the inside will not allow entry into the building through the first floor windows, which is especially dangerous for people and objects inside if collapsed beams, etc. block access through the doors.
It is obligatory to put the building on round-the-clock protection (police, non-departmental, civil or combined). Regulatory documents (in domestic practice - "Instructions for accounting and storage of museum valuables") determine the procedure for the delivery and acceptance of premises by the museum security and financially responsible custodians, the rules for storing keys, ice seals, seals, etc.
Also around the clock is fire supervision, supervision of electrical, plumbing and heating networks.
If the museum stores collections or individual items made of precious stones and metals, weapons, then special rooms are equipped for their storage. In exceptional cases, it is allowed to place such items in storage facilities, but certainly in fireproof cabinets, safes (Fig. 67).
Rice. 67. BraceletsX–
XIcenturies Gold. State Museum
history of Armenia
