How artistic categories space and time have been an object of attention since antiquity. So, Aristotle wrote about the topos, that is, about the place of action - the prototype of artistic space. The most complete concept of artistic space and time was developed in the 20th century. Among the domestic philologists who have made a significant contribution to the solution of this problem are P. A. Florensky, V. V. Vinogradov, V. Ya. Propp, A. Zeitlin, V. B. Shklovsky and others.

The reality created in a work of art is a model real world passed through the author's perception filter. This model is organized according to the same principles as the surrounding reality, and, accordingly, is characterized by its inherent parameters and features, including time and space.

In literary criticism, the spatio-temporal organization is called the chronotope. This concept as a formal content category of literature was first used in the works of M.M. Bakhtin, who gave a detailed description of it and described several main types of chronotope.

The essence of the chronotope lies in "the fusion of spatial and temporal signs in a meaningful and concrete whole." Space and time in the artistic world constitute an inseparable whole and thus determine the difference this world from some other. They are not only interconnected, but also have the ability to set signs of each other. In other words, signs of time are revealed in space, and space is comprehended and measured by time. So, with a predominantly horizontal division, time is fundamentally linear, it is biographical, historical and each time subjective. With the vertical division of space, time tends to be cyclical; it is an indicator of an active dialogue between a person and the Universe.

As pointed out by M.M. Bakhtin, chronotope plays essential role in the process of creating a work. According to the literary critic, the chronotope is a structural law of the genre, according to which the natural time-space is deformed into the artistic one. “Time here thickens, condenses, becomes artistically visible; space is intensified, drawn into the movement of time, plot, history” [Bakhtin, p. 186]. MM. Bakhtin singled out such main types of chronotope as chronotope Greek novel, chronotope of a chivalric romance, Rabelaisian chronotope, idyllic chronotope. As private chronotopes, M.M. Bakhtin named the following chronotopes: meetings, roads, "castle", "living room-salon", "provincial town", thresholds.

The chronotope also determines the image of a person in the artistic world. This image is always essentially chronotopic, since time and space determine the nature of a person's relationship with the universe as a whole. In a literary text, we also deal with explicit subjectivism, with the author's arbitrariness, which "cuts" new world at your discretion. Therefore, time and space here can undergo all sorts of transformations.

Artistic time and space are exclusively discrete, since literature describes only separate pieces of being [Esin, p.98-99]. At the same time, the volume of the "pieces", both spatial and temporal, is set by the author's intention: it can be a fleeting glance at some detail (the space narrows to one object) or a lengthy description "from a bird's eye view".

Other no less important characteristic chronotope is the possibility of concretization and abstraction. The abstract chronotope has a high degree Conventionally, this is a “universal” space, the time coordinates of which are located “everywhere” or “nowhere”. Such a chronotope does not affect the artistic world of the work in any way, it is not connected with the features of the action. A specific chronotope, on the contrary, "binds" the depicted world to various topographical realities and actively influences the entire structure of the work. It should be noted that a particular chronotope can acquire symbolic meaning: for example, time is mythologized, being divided into such segments as seasons and times of day.

For practical analysis artwork, as A.B. Esin, it is important to at least qualitatively determine the fullness, saturation of space and time, since this indicator often characterizes the style of the work.

Despite the above unity of time and space, their interpenetration is apparent. This point of view was expressed by M.M. Bakhtin and other researchers, in particular M.Yu. Lotman. MM Bakhtin gave the leading role to time, which subdues space, acting as a dependent variable of the genre continuum. M.Yu.Lotman assigned the first place to the spatial organization. According to the scientist, the space in the text is a modeling language, with the help of which any meaning can be expressed. In this interpretation, space acts as one of the universal means building cultural models.

The chronotope, like any other component of the structure of a work of art, is a form of expression of the author's consciousness. At the same time, it acts as a form of objectification of the author's consciousness, as it participates in creating the illusion of reality. artistic world, allows you to "condense" and "objectify" it [Odintsov, p.178]. At the same time, the voice of the author sounds in this case indirectly: through the characteristics of space and time. The expression of the author's position through the spatio-temporal organization of the text is carried out through the connection of the chronotope with such a form of subjectification of the author's consciousness as the narrator.

In this regard, we should mention the concept of points of view developed by B.A. Uspensky. Along with other points of view, the researcher identifies spatial and temporal, which can be assigned to the narrator, narrator, character, move from one to another. Thus, the work may contain different kinds chronotope implemented on different levels narration, and accordingly their change can occur [Uspensky, p.98].

Accounting for points of view is important when creating complete picture artistic world of the work. Significant is not only the actual content of the chronotope, but the principle of connecting fragments: a change in scene and time periods. In the interpretation of the work, it is important how mobile the character is, how freely he can move in time and space, and how self-willed and authoritarian the narrator is, who can have absolute omniscience and a position of being outside.

THE CONCEPT OF CHRONOTOPE IN MODERN LITERATURE

THE NOTION OF CHRONOTOPE IN MODERN LITERATURE

Tarakanova Anastasiia Andreevna
Nizhny Novgorod State University named after N. I. Lobachevsky, Arzamas branch
the 5-year student of the historical-philological faculty

In a literary work, artistic space is inseparable from the concept of "time".

Thus, literary critics consider time and space as a reflection of the philosophical, ethical, and other ideas of the artist; they analyze the specifics of artistic time and space in different eras, in different literary trends and genres, study grammatical time in a work of art, consider time and space in their inseparable unity.

These concepts reflect the correlation of events, associative, causal and psychological relationships between them, in the work they create a complex series of events built in the course of the development of the plot. The literary text differs from the usual (everyday) text in that the speaker creates an imaginary world in order to produce a certain effect on the reader.

Time in fiction has certain properties associated with the specifics artistic text, its features and author's intention. Time in the text may have clearly defined or, conversely, blurred boundaries (events, for example, may cover tens of years, a year, several days, a day, an hour, etc.), which may / may not be indicated in the work associated with historical time or time, which the author sets conditionally.

The first property of artistic time is systemic character . This property is manifested in the organization of the fictional reality of the work, its inner peace with the embodiment of the author's concept, his perception of the surrounding reality, with the reflection of his own picture of the world through the characters.

In a work of art, time can be multidimensional. This property of artistic time is connected with the very nature or essence of literary work, having, firstly, the author and assuming the presence of a reader, and secondly, the boundaries: the beginning of the story and its end. In the text, thus, there are two time axes - "the axis of storytelling" and "the axis of the events described." At the same time, the "narrative axis" is one-dimensional, while the "axis of the described events" is multidimensional. The correlation of these "axes" gives rise to the multidimensionality of artistic time and makes possible temporal shifts and multiple temporal points of view in the structure of the text. Often in works of art the sequence of events is disrupted, and big role play the same temporal shifts, violations of the temporal sequence of the narrative, which characterizes the property of multidimensionality that affects the author's division of the text, into semantic segments, episodes, chapters.

The relationship of temporal and spatial relations M.M. Bakhtin outlined chronotope(which literally means “time-space”). MM Bakhtin used this term in literary criticism to express the inseparability of space and time from each other. Time here represents the fourth dimension of space. In the literature, the chronotope has a significant genre meaning. The genre and genre varieties of a work are determined precisely by the chronotope, and in literature the leading principle in the chronotope is time. Bakhtin believes that in the literary chronotope, time certainly dominates space, making it more meaningful and measurable.

Literary chronotopes have, first of all, a plot meaning, they are organized centers the main events described by the author. The chronotope, as the unity of the time and place of the action of the work, not only determines the circumstances and forms of communication, but also in a certain way supports the attitude towards these circumstances accepted in a given culture.

The relationship between space and time is obvious. Yes, in English language there are prepositions expressing both spatial and temporal relations, such as in, at, before, after, by, next, etc.

By my side - space;

By six o'clock - time.

In linguistics, there is an objective image of space and time. If the space is accessible to the direct perception of a person and is described in the language using words, expressions, phrasal verbs etc., used in their direct or figurative meaning, then the time is not available to the direct perception of the senses, so its models can be changeable.

Consequently, each writer comprehends time and space in his own way, giving them own characteristics reflecting the worldview of the author. As a result, the artistic space created by the writer is unique and unlike any other artistic space and time. The connection of a literary text with the categories of space and time is conditioned by the linguistic category of predicativity itself, which is the main characteristic of a sentence as a communicative linguistic unit. Since the phenomena of the surrounding world themselves exist in time and space, the linguistic form of their expression cannot but reflect this property of them. Using the language, it is impossible to form a statement without expressing the temporal correlation of its content with the moment of speech or a certain position in space.

from the Greek chronos - time + topos - place; literally timespace). Space and time are the most severe determinants human being, even more severe than society. Overcoming space and time and mastering them is an existential task that humanity solves in its history, and man - in his life. Man subjectifies space and time, separates, unites them, transforms, exchanges and turns one into another. X. is a living syncretic dimension of space and time in which they are inseparable. X. consciousness is two-faced. This is to the same extent the modernity of space, as it is the "spatiality of time." The secret of combination, change of scale, transformability of forms has long been recognized. A. A. Ukhtomsky gave her a name.

X. - a concept introduced by Ukhtomsky in the context of his physiological research, and then (on the initiative of M. M. Bakhtin) passed into the humanitarian sphere. Ukhtomsky proceeded from the fact that heterochrony is a condition for possible harmony: coordination in time, in speeds, in the rhythms of action, and hence in the timing of the performance of individual elements, forms a functionally defined "center" from spatially separated groups. I remember t. sp. G. Minkowski, that space separately, like time separately, is only a "shadow of reality", while real events flow undivided in space and time, in X. Both in the environment around us and inside our organism, specific facts and dependencies are given to us as orders and connections in space and time between events (Ukhtomsky). This was written in 1940, long before D. O. Hebb came up with the idea of ​​cellular ensembles and their role in the organization of behavior. In 1927, Ukhtomsky praised the work of N. A. Bernshtein and characterized the methods of analysis of movements developed by him as "microscopy X". This is not a microscopy of fixed architectures in space, but a microscopy of movement in a fluid-changing architecture during its activity. Ukhtomsky predicted success Bernstein: the world science that studies living movements and actions still relies on the methods developed by him and the doctrine of the construction of movement.

X. conscious and unconscious life combines all 3 colors of time: past, present, future, unfolding in real and virtual space. According to Bakhtin, "in literary and artistic X., there is a fusion of spatial and temporal signs in a meaningful and concrete whole. Time here thickens, condenses, becomes artistically visible; space is intensified, drawn into the movement of time of the plot of history. Signs of time are revealed in space and space is comprehended, measured by time. This enumeration of series and the merging of signs characterizes the artistic X. X. as a formally content category (to a large extent) and the image of a person in literature; this image is essentially chronotopic. " For psychology, this characteristic is no less important than for art. X. is impossible outside the semantic dimension. If time is the 4th dimension, then meaning is the 5th (or the first?!). Not only in literature, but also in real life a person has states of "absolute temporal intensity", the prototype of which can be. the law of expansion of the number series (G. G. Shpet). In such states less than a year lasts a century" (B. Pasternak). M. K. Mamardashvili came to the idea of ​​a fixed point of intensity. He called it: Punctum Cartesianum, "absolute gap", "instant", "eternal instant", "the world of monstrous actuality". There are also other names: "points on the threshold", "timeless gaping", points of crises, fractures and catastrophes, when a moment in its meaning is equated to a "billion years", i.e. loses its temporal limitation (Bakhtin). X. one more thing - the energy dimension. The most obvious example is the formed simultaneous image, devoid of time coordinates. It has an understatement that causes tension, forcing it to unfold into an action extended in time and space. The energy of the possible unfolding of the image is accumulated during its formation. The initial phase the action is chronos oriented: the rest is overcome explosively and time starts, the next phase is more focused on overcoming space, then a pause is inevitable, which is an active rest - duration, place free choice track. step. The successive action is again folded into a spatial simultaneous image, in which the content takes on the form of a form, which allows the play of forms, their operation and manipulation. It occurs in the scale of activity, action and movement. (N. A. Bernstein, N. D. Gordeeva.)

Of course, the emergence of points of "absolute temporal intensity" is unpredictable, as any event is unpredictable. In human life, they arise when space, time, meaning and energy converge. The Japanese poet Basho wrote that beauty arises when space and time converge. I. Brodsky wrote: "And admixture of geography with time is fate." People say more simply: you need to be in right time V right place. But you can be at such a point and not notice it, miss a moment. It is no coincidence that M. Tsvetaeva exclaimed: "My soul traces the moments," and not the whole life. Not every moment, not every hour is the Hour of the Soul.

S. Dali in the painting "Persistence of Memory" gave his vision of X. and after 20 years interpreted it: "My flowing watch is not only a fantastic image of the world; these processed cheeses contain the highest formula of space-time. This image was born suddenly, and , I believe, it was then that I wrested from the irrational one of its main secrets, one of its archetypes, for my soft watch life is defined more precisely than any equation: space-time thickens, so that, freezing, it spreads like Camembert, doomed to go rotten and grow champignons of spiritual impulses - sparks that start the engine of the universe. arc stretching", "charging being". The "eidetic energy" of Aristotle is also close. The significance of spiritual energy in human life is more obvious than the origin and nature of spiritual impulses that turn into a life text or into the text of great works of art, scientific discoveries. A. Bely wrote that "foggy Eternity is reflected in the course of time." Only by rising above the flow of time can a person, if not cognize, then at least recognize (Bely's terms) Eternity or fetter time, that is, turn it into space, hold it with the help of thought (Mamardashvili). Taking such a position of observation, looking at him from above, a person finds himself at the top of the light cone, he is visited by revelation, insight, intuition, insight, satori (the Japanese equivalent of insight), etc. He has a new idea of ​​​​the Universe, more precisely, he creates a new universe: the microcosm becomes the macrocosm.

Such descriptions in art and science are innumerable. Psychology is passing them by. There is a deep analogy between the numerous images of a fixed point of intensity where space, time and meaning converge, merge, intersect (i.e. points X.), and modern hypotheses about the origin of the universe. Their essence is that in a certain billionth of a second after big bang a conformal spatio-temporal interval was formed (the interval of Minkowski or X. Ukhtomsky). The interval kept the light cone, which led to the birth of the Universe and its matter. Literally the same thing happens with lightning-fast insight by understanding, causing a stormy surge of spiritual energy, creating its own light cone, giving birth to its own Universe. The latter can contain many worlds that are realized to varying degrees, objectified, expressed outside (see Semiosphere). A special job is mastering them. "I am the creator of my worlds" (Mandelstam). Such indistinguishability of poetic and cosmological metaphors should serve as an example for psychology and encourage it to turn more boldly to art and begin to overcome its excessive objectivism complex, acquired in the era of its formation as natural science. Ukhtomsky reasonably said that the subjective is no less objective than the so-called. objective. (V.P. Zinchenko.)

Literature, like other forms of art, is designed to reflect surrounding reality. Including the life of a person, his thoughts, experiences, actions and events. The category of space and time is an integral component of the construction of the author's picture of the world.

History of the term

The very concept of chronotope comes from the ancient Greek "chronos" (time) and "topos" (place) and denotes the unity of spatial and temporal parameters, aimed at expressing a certain meaning.

For the first time, the psychologist Ukhtomsky began to use this term in connection with his physiological research. The emergence and widespread use of the term chronotope is largely due to the natural science discoveries of the early 20th century, which contributed to a rethinking of the picture of the world as a whole. The spread of the definition of chronotope in literature is the merit of the famous Russian scientist, philosopher, literary critic, philologist and culturologist M. M. Bakhtin.

Bakhtin's concept of chronotope

The main work of M. M. Bakhtin, devoted to the category of time and space, is “Forms of time and chronotope in the novel. Essays on historical poetics”, written in 1937-1938. and published in 1975. The main task For himself, in this work, the author sees the study of the concept of chronotope within the framework of the novel as a genre. Bakhtin based his analysis on the European and, in particular, the ancient novel. In his work, the author shows that the images of a person in literature, placed in certain spatio-temporal conditions, are able to acquire historical meaning. As Bakhtin notes, the chronotope of the novel largely determines the development of the action and the behavior of the characters. In addition, according to Bakhtin, the chronotope is a defining indicator genre affiliation works. That's why this term Bakhtin assigns a key role in understanding narrative forms and their development.

The meaning of the chronotope

Time and space in a literary work are the main components of the artistic image, which contribute to holistic perception artistic reality and organize the composition of the work. It should be noted that when creating a work of art, the author endows space and time in it with subjective characteristics that reflect the author's worldview. Therefore, the space and time of one work of art will never be similar to the space and time of another work, and even more so will not be similar to real space and time. Thus, the chronotope in literature is the interconnection of space-time relations mastered in a particular work of art.

Chronotope Functions

In addition to the genre-forming function that Bakhtin noted, the chronotope also performs the main plot-forming function. In addition, it is the most important formal-content category of the work, i.e. laying the foundations artistic images, the chronotope in literature is a kind of independent image that is perceived at the associative-intuitive level. Organizing the space of the work, the chronotope introduces the reader into it and at the same time builds in the reader's mind between the artistic whole and the surrounding reality.

The concept of chronotope in modern science

Since the chronotope in literature is a central and fundamental concept, the works of many scientists of both the last century and the present are devoted to its study. IN Lately researchers are paying more and more attention to the classification of chronotopes. Thanks to the convergence of recent decades natural, social and humanities approaches to the study of the chronotope have changed significantly. Increasingly, interdisciplinary research methods are used, which allow discovering new facets of a work of art and its author.

The development of semiotic and hermeneutic analysis of the text made it possible to see that the chronotope of a work of art reflects color scheme and the sound tonality of the depicted reality, and also conveys the rhythm of the action and the dynamics of the development of events. These methods help to understand artistic space and time as a sign system containing semantic codes (historical, cultural, religious-mythical, geographical, etc.). Based contemporary research The following forms of chronotope are distinguished in the literature:

• cyclic chronotope;
• linear chronotope;
• chronotope of eternity;
• non-linear chronotope.

It should be noted that some researchers consider separately the category of space and the category of time, while others consider these categories in an inextricable relationship, which, in turn, determines the features of a literary work.

Thus, in the light of modern research, the concept of chronotope is becoming increasingly important as the most constructively stable and well-established category of a literary work.

Space and time in a literary work. Types of artistic time and space. The concept of a chronotope. Functions and types of chronotopes.

Hood literature (in this respect, theater and cinema are similar to it) reproduces life processes that take place in time, i.e. human life associated with a chain of experiences, thoughts, intentions, actions, events.

For the first time, Aristotle connected "space and time" with the meaning of a work of art. Then ideas about these categories were carried out: Likhachev, Bakhtin. Thanks to their work, "space and time" has established itself as the foundation of literary categories. In any thin work, is inevitably reflected real time and space. As a result, a whole system of space-time relations is formed in the work.

artistic time And artistic space - this is the nature of the artistic image, which provides a holistic perception artistic reality and organize the composition.

artistic time And space symbolically. Basic spatial symbols: house (image of a closed space), space (image of an open space), threshold, window, door (border). IN contemporary literature: railway station, airport (places of decisive meetings).

artistic space can be: point, volumetric.

artistic space Dostoevsky's novels are a stage platform. Time in his novels moves very quickly, while in Chekhov time has stopped.

The famous physiologist Ukhtomsky combined two Greek words: chronos- time,topos- place into the concept chronotope– spatio-temporal complex.

MM. Bakhtin in his work “Forms of time and chronotope” in the novel explores chronotope in novels different eras starting from antiquity. He showed that chronotopes different authors and different eras differ from each other.

Bakhtin: term "chronotope". For him, these are two undifferentiated things, a synthesis, a unity.

Chronotope - a significant interconnection of temporal and spatial relations, artistically mastered in literature or in a literary work.

According to Bakhtin, the chronotope is, first of all, an attribute of the novel. It has plot value. Space structure built on opposition: top-bottom, sky-earth, earth-underworld, north-south, left-right, closed-open.

Time structure : day-night, spring-autumn, light-darkness, etc.

Chronotope functions:

Determines the artistic unity of a literary work in its relation to reality;

Organizes the space of the work, leads readers into it;

Can correlate different space and time;

Can build a chain of associations in the mind of the reader and, on this basis, connect works with the idea of ​​the world and expand these ideas.

In addition, both time and space single out the concrete and the abstract. If time is abstract, then space is also abstract, and vice versa.

Types of private chronotopes according to Bakhtin:

chronotope of the road - based on the motive of a chance meeting. The appearance of this motif in the text can cause a plot. Open space.

private salon chronotope - non-random meeting. Closed space.

chronotope of the castle (it is not found in Russian literature). The dominance of the historical, generic past. Limited space.

the chronotope of a provincial town is an eventless time, a closed space, self-sufficient, living its own life. Time is cyclic, but not sacred.

threshold chronotype (crisis consciousness, fracture). There is no biography as such, only moments.

Large chronotope:

Folklore (idyllic). Based on the law of inversion.

Modern chronotope trends:

mythology and symbolization

doubling

character memory access

reinforcing the value of mounting

time itself becomes the hero of the story

time and space are the integral coordinates of the world.