Muslim: The Bible has been changed many times, so it cannot be considered authentic Scripture revealed to Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. What evidence do you have that the Bible is reliable and trustworthy?
Years ago, a young Muslim woman asked me, "Has the Bible ever been changed?" I told her, "Of course not." To this she said, "But doesn't she teach that Jesus Christ is the Son of God?" I confirmed: "Teaching again and again." In response, she stated, "Then she had to change."
Any Christian who reads the writings of Muslim authors will be surprised to find that the arguments put forward in them as a refutation of the authenticity of the texts of the Bible are often extremely weak and unconvincing. This happens for one reason only - Muslims do not believe in the complete safety of the Bible, not because they have found adequate evidence that changes were made to its text, but because they must deny its authenticity in order to support their conviction that The Quran is the Word of God. Two conflicting Books cannot both be the Word of God. When Muslims discovered in the early centuries of Islamic history that the Bible was clear and unequivocal about basic Christian doctrines, such as the divinity of Jesus Christ and His atonement, they could no longer approach it objectively. Since then, they have been striving to prove what is really nothing more than a guess - the Bible had to change! main reason Muslim disbelief in the authenticity of the Bible lies in the lack of choice: they cannot believe the Bible if they must be faithful to the Koran.
It is important to know the evidence for the unalterability of biblical texts, especially the fact that there are genuine manuscripts dating back many centuries before the birth of Islam, proving that the Bible we hold in our hands today is the same Bible that the Jews and early Christians considered their only Holy Scripture. .
The three main manuscript lists of the Bible
Until now, there are three main manuscript copies of the Bible in Greek (including the Septuagint (Old Testament) and original text New Testament), several centuries ahead of the appearance of the Koran.
1. Alexandrian list. This volume, written in the 5th century A.D. contains the entire Bible except for a few missing plates from the New Testament (namely, Matt. 1:1-25:6, John 6:50-8:52, and 2 Cor. 4:13-12:6). It does not include anything that is not part of the modern Bible. The manuscript is kept in the London British Museum.
2. Sinai list. This is very ancient manuscript dated to the end of the 4th century. It contains the entire New Testament and much of the Old Testament. For centuries, it was kept in the St. Petersburg Imperial Library and was sold to the British government for one hundred thousand pounds. It is also currently in the British Museum.
3. Vatican list. This is probably the oldest complete manuscript copy of the Bible that has survived. It dates from the 4th century and is kept in the Vatican Library in Rome. The last part of the New Testament (from Heb. 9:14 until the end of Revelation) is written in a different hand than the rest of the manuscript (probably the scribe who started copying the text was unable to complete the work for some reason).
These manuscripts convincingly prove that the only Scripture given to the Church at least two centuries before the birth of Muhammad is the Old and New Testament known to us.
Other evidence for the authenticity of the Bible
There are many other testimonies that prove the authenticity of the Bible, which date back to an era several centuries ahead of the time of the birth of Islam. In discussions with Muslims, the following points should be highlighted.
1. Masoretic texts. Ancient biblical manuscripts belong not only to Christians, but also to Jews, who revere the Old Testament as the only Scripture given to them. These are texts written in Hebrew, the original language of the Old Testament, and are at least a thousand years old. They are known as the Masoretic Texts.
2. The Dead Sea Scrolls. First discovered in caves in the Qumran Desert near the Dead Sea in Israel, these scrolls contain many passages from the Old Testament in Hebrew and date back to the 2nd century BC. e. They include two copies of the Book of the Prophet Isaiah containing prophecies about the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (see: Isaiah 53:1–12), about His immaculate conception(see Isaiah 7:14) and His divinity (see Isaiah 9:6-7).
3. Septuagint. The Septuagint is the title of the first Greek translation of the Old Testament. He corresponded in the 2nd century BC. e. and contains all the main prophecies about the coming of the Messiah, the statement that He is the Son of God (see: Ps. 2:7; 1 Chr. 17:11–14), and some details of His suffering and atoning death (see: Psalm 21:68). The early Church made extensive use of the Septuagint.
4. Vulgate. In the 4th century A.D. e. Roman Catholic Church completely translated the Bible into Latin language, using the Septuagint and ancient Greek manuscripts of the New Testament. This list is known as the Vulgate and contains all the books of the Old and New Testaments as we know them. This translation is approved as the standard text for the Roman Catholic Church.
5. Extracts from the Greek text of the New Testament. There are many passages of the original Greek text of the New Testament that have survived from the 2nd century CE. e. All of these, taken together, constitute the content of the New Testament as we know it. It is very interesting to compare the abundance of these testimonies with the texts of ancient Greek and Roman classical works, many of which were written no earlier than a thousand years after A.D. Truly, there are no other literary works of the same era that would have such a wealth of manuscript evidence as the Greek text of the New Testament.
Most importantly, and this should be emphasized when talking to Muslims, is the absence of a source suggesting that the Bible presents the life and teachings of Jesus Christ in a distorted way. All the apocryphal books rejected by the Church, at least in in general terms, follow the same narrative line as the New Testament manuscripts. Definitely doesn't exist historical evidence, suggesting that Jesus was in fact a prophet of Islam, as the Qur'an makes Him out to be.
In conclusion, it would be nice to ask the Muslims to bring historical facts in support of their claim that the Bible we read is a modified Bible. What was she originally like? What was changed about it that made it the Book we have today? Who made these changes? When was it done? Ask your interlocutor to name real people which he assumes corrupted the Bible, the time it happened, the specific changes made to the original text of the Bible, and you will find that he is not capable of doing so, because such evidence simply does not exist. Always remember that the Muslim vicious attack is based not on the scientific evidence they have, but on assumptions. The Bible, in their mind, had to change, since it contradicts the Koran. Unfortunately, too often Muslims read the Bible not out of a desire to understand its teachings, but solely to find errors in it that justify their prejudice against it.
John Gilchrist "God or Prophet?"
The historical past today is practically systematized. Science knows periods, major events and prominent figures. However, centuries continue to keep secrets. Gaps in knowledge about existence and life previous generations are contained in the secret manuscripts of history, not yet understood and deciphered by scientists. Perhaps their discovery will change the understanding of the universe and time. Today, ten of the most mysterious are distinguished from the most famous specimens.
1. Voynich Manuscript
The 250-page book, found in the 15th century, contains images of plants, space objects and naked women. story plot or individual stories have not been unraveled by historians and other scientists. Although one researcher claims to have deciphered 10 words from the text of an old edition.
Discovered an antique book in 1912 by Wilfid Voynich. Analysis of the content showed that some of the characters have distinctive features real language. Whether Voynich speculated on the find, presenting it as a valuable artifact, or whether this document is a real cultural treasure remains a mystery. The object is in storage at Yale University.
Voynich manuscript
2. Handbook of ritual rites
The history of the ancient manuscript on 20 pages began about 1300 years ago. It is written in the ancient Coptic language of the Egyptian Christians. It contains many magical spells and formulas, including love spells, as well as spells for black jaundice and instructions for conducting exorcism sessions.
The text may have been written by a group of Sethians, an ancient Christian sect led by Seth, who claims to be the third son of Adam and Eve. IN ancient message there is an indication of a certain mysterious figure - Baktiota, whose identity is unknown.
Researchers who translated and analyzed the text of an ancient manuscript book called it conditionally " Directory ritual rites ". It is currently housed at the Macquarie University Museum of Ancient Cultures in Sydney, Australia. The manuscript was handed over in 1981 from private collection Michael Fakelmann. Where he got the text from is not disclosed.
Directory of ritual rites 3. Code of Grolier
The so-called Grolier Code, named after the New York club where the copy was exhibited, presents the writings of the Mayan peoples with ancient hieroglyphs that demonstrate the number system and religious beliefs of the civilization. The content contains a description of observations of the movement of the planet Venus. A collector from Mexico named Josue Saenz claims that he acquired the manuscript from Madoders in the 1960s. Scientists are still arguing about the authenticity of the artifact.
Recent studies have shown that the paper on which the Code is written is approximately 800 years old. The illustrations are painted with a blue paint characteristic of Maya, which still cannot be synthesized in the laboratory. This confirms the value historical document. Along with other signs, for example, the content of hieroglyphs and images, such a conclusion speaks of the authenticity of the ancient message.
Grolier Code 4. Copper Scroll
The library of ancient manuscripts is represented by Hebrew text on several sheets. They were discovered in a cave at Qumran in the Judean Desert along with other Dead Sea Scrolls. The text indicates the places of storage of a huge amount of treasures with silver, coins, gold and vessels. The message dates from about 70 AD, that is, the time when the Roman army besieged and destroyed the shrines of Jerusalem. It is believed that this is the oldest manuscript, the contents of which are unknown to science.
Researchers do not get tired of arguing about the reality and mythical nature of the described treasure. To date, the jewels mentioned in the text have not been found either in Israel or in Palestine. If the scroll is authentic, then perhaps the treasures were found in ancient times.
Copper Scroll 5. Popol Vuh
The title of this manuscript translates as " Legal Counsel's Book". It contains mythical story, told by the descendants of the Mayan peoples who settled in Guatemala. According to their legends, the forefathers of all living things, Tepev and Kukumatz, created the Earth from a water void, endowed it with animals and plants. Michael Coe of Yale University told about this in the book Maya, Thames and Hudson, 2011.
The book indicates that the founders of the world experienced difficulties in creating people. At the end, it is described that they got the twin heroes Ahpu and Xbalanque. They traveled a lot and became the masters of the underworld.
The earliest surviving copy of the Popol Vuha dates from 1701. The codex was written in Spanish priest Frasisco Jimenez from the Dominican Republic. A copy is held by the Newberry Library in Chicago.
Popol Vuha manuscript 6. Treatise of the judgments
The codex contains the first Hebrew text indicating the location of treasures from King Solomon's temple. It tells about the fate of the Ark of the Covenant. The scripture indicates that these artifacts " cannot be found until the coming of the Messiah, the son of David...«
The earliest copy dates from 1648. It was made by James Davil, a professor at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland, who studied and translated this ancient manuscript.
In analyzing the content, he relied on traditional methods biblical exegesis (interpretation) to understand where the treasures might be. Under his pen, history took on the appearance of a fantastic adventure, rather than a real guide to finding valuable artifacts.
Treatise of the Courts - an ancient manuscript 7. Gospel of Judas
In 2006 the National geographical society(National Geographic) has published a third-century translation of a text called the Gospel of Judas.
The secrets of an ancient manuscript are revealed in relation to the biblical figure of Judas Iscariot, who, according to the New Testament, betrayed Jesus. The manuscript, written in the Coptic language used by Egyptian Christians, describes Jesus asking Judas for betrayal so that he could be crucified on a cross so that he could ascend to heaven.
However, experts disagree on the translation and interpretation of the text. Aprel DeConick, professor of religion at Rice University in Houston, says the text actually contains an indication that Judas was a "demon". Analysis of the manuscript and comparison of its content with the Gospel confirmed that the text is authentic. The research was carried out by a team led by Joseph Barabe of the McCrone Association in Illinois.
Gospel of Judas 8. Dresden Codex
The age of the artifact is about 800 years. It is composed of 39 illustrated pages with texts. Research, the results of which were published in 2016, indicates that the Codex records the phases of the planet Venus, according to which the ancient Maya performed their rites.
“These people did have complex rituals that were tied strictly to the calendar,” said Gerardo Aldan, a historian at the University of California, Santa Barbara. - Probably they were vigorous activity, the periods of which were associated with the phases of Venus.
The codex was transferred to the Royal Library of Dresden, Germany, in 1730. How he got to Europe is unknown. It is known that many texts belonging to the Maya culture were destroyed by Christian missionaries seeking to eradicate any other mention of another faith.
Dresden List 9. Gospel of Mary Lota
The manuscript is written in Egyptian Coptic and is approximately 1500 years old. The Gospel does not tell about the life of Jesus, but his name is mentioned in 37 predictions.
The text contains a story about the creation of the scripture: " The gospel of Mary, the mother of Jesus Christ, from Gabriel the Archangel, who brought good news from the One who will go ahead and receive according to his heart and be exacted from him.
The message of antiquity is kept at Harvard University. It was deciphered and the details published in 2014 by Anna Marie Luijengic, professor of religion at Princeton University. In his book " Forbidden Oracles. Gospel of Mary Lota” she says that the gospel is a prediction, an attempt to predict the future. A person looking for an answer could choose one of 37 oracles to find a solution to their problem. How the system worked remains unknown.
The edition was donated to Harvard in 1984.
Gospel of Mary Lote 10. Liber Linteus
Ancient texts found in silk bedspreads Egyptian mummy. They were written in the Etruscan language used in Italy in antiquity. The artifact dates from around 200 BC. The mummy with the robe is in the Zagreb Museum in Croatia.
The meaning of the message of antiquity is not clear. It is presented as a ritual calendar, although there are only six months in it, said Lammert Bouke van der Meer, a professor at the University of Leiden in the book “ Prayers, places and rituals in Etruscan religion(Brill, 2008).
For ancient egypt was characterized by the reuse of materials for wrapping mummies or making death masks. At that time, trade in the Mediterranean was widespread. Nothing unusual in the fact that the fabric came from Italy to Egypt is not seen.
Liber Linteus They probably contained Egyptian magic spells, but the text is written in a language unknown to science. Who knows, maybe any of these ancient manuscripts can turn the prevailing ideas about the universe and history.
Ancient manuscripts prove: Rus' is the birthplace of vampires. At first we worshiped them, and then we simply began to respect them.
After Francis Ford Coppola's film Dracula, based on Bram Stoker's novel, was released in 1992, some unhealthy interest in vampires woke up in society. They began to write books about them, publish encyclopedias, shoot more and more new films. The excitement has not subsided to this day. What is worth only one saga "Twilight" about the love of an earthly girl and a vampire. And housewives are crying over the TV series The Vampire Diaries, which tells about the love of two ghoul brothers for a simple schoolgirl. Vampires have become true heroes of our time, but what time they come from is not known for certain. Dr. came to unexpected conclusions philological sciences, Professor of the Russian State University for the Humanities Mikhail Odessky, when he decided to get to the bottom of the very concept of "vampire". The first mention of these semi-mythical creatures, as the scientist proves, are found precisely in Slavic culture. Does this mean that vampires have Russian roots?
From ghoul to vampire
The first mentions of ghouls are found in ancient Russian manuscripts. And "", written by the Moscow clerk Fedor Kuritsyn, glorified vampirism almost for the whole White light
Perhaps the very first mention in world culture of a certain vampire-like creature is found in the monument of ancient Russian writing - "Afterword" to "Interpretation of prophetic books." It was preserved in manuscripts of the 15th century, but, as follows from the text itself, the original was written in the 11th century. As Professor Mikhail Odessky, who studied the text, notes, the very name of the scribe is curious, first of all - “Az pop Oupir Lihyi”. Translating into modern Russian - Ghoul Dashing. The name is clearly mysterious and far from befitting the ministers of the church, who in those days were scribes. Of course, it is difficult to assume that the monk Ghoul Dashing was a bloodsucker. But where did such a strange name come from? “The name for a monk is quite normal, besides, nicknames were widely used in ancient times,” explains Mikhail Odessky. - They usually did not come from the good qualities of a person, but from negative or funny ones. And therefore, it could well be that the monk was given the name of the Ghoul Dashing, characterizing him as a man of a non-timid ten. True, the word "dashing" in those days also meant various forms of evil, to the point that Satan himself was awarded with such an epithet.
And the Swedish Slavist Anders Sjöberg even offered to discard demonism and argued that the Ghoul Dashing was actually a Swedish rune cutter named Upir Ofeg, who could well have ended up in the retinue of Ingegerd, the daughter of the Swedish king, who became the wife of Yaroslav the Wise. And then it turns out that in transliteration Ghoul is the name of the rune cutter of Epirus, and Dashing is the translation of his nickname...
There is a version that the word "ghoul" had a swearing connotation. The “Message to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery” by Ivan the Terrible has been preserved. Known for his “subtle” sense of humor and who loved to scoff at his subjects, the sovereign this time complained about the depravity of the boyars’ morals, who took tonsure and visited the monastery: “But this one doesn’t even know clothes, not only residence. Or a demon for the son of John Sheremetev? Or a fool for and stubborn Khabarov? The infernal context is interesting here. "Upir" appears next to the "demonic son."
In a certain context, ancient literary monuments can indeed testify to the infernal, otherworldly meaning of the word "ghoul". Hence the assumption arises that the ghouls were worshiped as deities. And then the nickname of the scribe Ghoul Dashing is only an indication of his chosenness, proximity to higher powers. Here, for example, in the "Word of St. Gregory" (a list of the second half of the 15th - early 16th centuries) there are inserts about the history of Slavic paganism. In particular, the following is said: “Before Perun, their god, and before that, they laid the demand for rest and protection.” Again, these "ghouls" are ghouls, to whom, judging by the ancient text, sacrifices were made during pagan worship. About who the ghouls and beregini are, the text does not directly say, as well as about what sacrifices were made to them. It is assumed that positive, good deities or creatures could be coastlines, because the words “shore”, “protect”, “protect” evoked exclusively positive associations before, and today. It can be assumed that, in contrast to them, ghouls were evil creatures. And sacrifices were made to them for one simple reason - in this way people tried to propitiate them. However, there is another version - the ghouls could be the spirits of their ancestors, that is, they could not personify either evil or good.
“The logic is this: a ghoul is a dead man, a dead man is an ancestor, that is, in all likelihood, we are talking about the worship of dead ancestors,” explains Mikhail Odessky. Back in the 19th century, the famous Slavic philologist Izmail Sreznevsky considered the issue of the original in paganism "the dogma of the one, supreme God, the ancestor of all other deities." The researcher spoke about three periods of Russian paganism: the period of adoration of Perun was the last, the period of worship of the "family and women in childbirth" preceding it, and the most ancient - the period of worship of ghouls and coastlines. “Sreznevsky cites many cases of mentioning ghouls in the folk traditions of the Slavs,” says Mikhail Odessky. - This word occurs in different forms: V masculine(upir, upyur, vpir, vampire), in the feminine (upirina, vampera) and almost everywhere in two meanings: either a bat, or a ghost, a werewolf, an evil spirit that sucks blood from people. It is in this second sense that vampires became known throughout the world. And again, our people had a hand in this.
went too far
Around the same time when the word “ghoul” was first encountered in ancient manuscripts, that is, in a list of the 15th century, the notorious now Vlad III Tepes (Dracula) rules in Romania, who later became the prototype of the most famous literary and movie vampire. He left behind a rich epistolary legacy. At that time there was no written Romanian language and Dracula wrote in Latin and Church Slavonic. But, perhaps, one of the most reliable, interesting and informative texts about Tepes - "The Tale of Dracula Governor" - was written, as scientists suggest, by the Moscow embassy clerk Fyodor Kuritsyn, who served at the court of the Hungarian king. For a long time he stayed in the Balkans, and returning to his homeland, he became famous as a heretic. It should be noted that very quickly in Russia the concept of a vampire became associated with a witch or sorcerer, who in turn were associated with the concept of heresy. It was defined as a departure from the dogmas considered important to the church. In the faith of the Russian people, the idea was entrenched that a person will not find peace after death if it occurred at the moment when he was excommunicated from the church. He could be excommunicated for immoral behavior or heresy. Thus, a heretic could become a vampire after death. This fact makes the legendary personality of Fyodor Kuritsyn and makes us take a special look at his "The Tale of Dracula Voivode", written clearly under the influence of heretical views, implicated in folk Slavic traditions. Interestingly, he never calls Vlad Tepes by his real name. The legend begins with the following words: “There was a governor in the Muntian land, a Christian of the Greek faith, his name in Wallachian is Dracula, but in our opinion the Devil.” The nickname Dracula (the ruler himself wrote Dragkulya) is not translated exactly as the deacon Kuritsyn wrote. In Romanian, "devil" is "dracul" (dracul), and "dracula" (draculea) is "son of the devil." However, the nickname is the father of Vlad Voivode Vlad II received not at all because of his connection with evil spirits. Not yet taking the throne, he joined the elite knightly Order of the Dragon at the court of Sigismund I of Luxembourg, founded by the Hungarian king to fight the infidels, mainly the Turks. Having become the ruler, he ordered to depict a dragon on coins. "Dracula" means primarily "dragon". But the author of the legend changed everything in a different way. In any case, it was his manuscript that initiated the perception of Dracula as a man of unprecedented cruelty, the personification of evil. This is how it is presented in modern literature.
Researchers have little doubt that it is in the Slavic roots that one of the main reasons for the modern vampire cult lies. “What is the worst thing about the vampire of the same Bram Stoker? - asks Mikhail Odessky. - He is truly terrible not in his castle in Transylvania, but when he invades London. Late XIX century, the heyday of civilization, and suddenly something creepy and dark appears from Eastern Europe. This is horror before an unknown being, before another culture and another society - distant and incomprehensible.
But what is the phenomenon of the ghoul-vampire? Why, of all the mythical creatures that abounded in Slavic legends, only they have survived to this day? Why does no one somehow particularly remember either Perun or the coastline? Perhaps the answer lies in the fact that at some point in history, vampire ghouls "descended from heaven to earth." And people no longer worshiped them, but tried to get along peacefully with them.
Opinions
Alexander Kolesnichenko, Candidate of Philological Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Periodical Press of the Moscow state university stamps named after Ivan Fedorov:
The hypothesis about the Russian origin of the word "vampire" is quite reasonable. Another thing is that we know very little about antiquity and ghouls are mentioned only a few times in the sources. It is likely that in each of these cases the meaning of the word could be different. And for ten centuries, the word could even change its meaning to a diametrically opposite one. This is quite common in the language. But given the geopolitical position of Ancient Rus', there is a possibility that the first vampires in modern meaning of this word appeared among us, and it is safe to say that this creature is - Slavic origin. It is likely that they were revered as deities, because then people worshiped both natural phenomena and idols equally.
Leonid Koloss, literary historian, candidate of philological sciences:
The word "ghoul" may be of Russian origin, but there is no evidence that vampirism as a phenomenon has our roots. Many peoples of the world had similar legends. Yes, our culture has made a significant contribution to the development of the modern vampire cult, but did not become its progenitor. On the example of Russian literature, we observe the process of transformation of the mythical ghoul into a specific "living" vampire. Take, for example, the work of Gogol. In Vie it is mythical creatures, and in his later works, the same " Dead souls”, he describes quite earthly characters in similar tones. Thus, living people are endowed with qualities folk characters. It is precisely this that is now clearly demonstrated by the cinema, which, with new force popularizes legends about vampires. The popularity of vampires can be explained simply: with their help it is convenient to scare people, and people want to be scared.
Copyright Journal "Itogi"
In Germany, they were able to decipher a manuscript written in the 18th century and which at one time served as a guide for sorcerers. It is noteworthy that the library staff at the University of Kassel managed to find out the contents of the manuscript. It is known that more than ten thousand other ancient documents of international importance are also stored in this place.
At first, the employees decided that the text containing the secrets of gaining wealth and love was written in Arabic, since the signs and symbols depicted in the manuscript were made in an oriental manner. But then the hypothesis was proposed that the document was written in German. In addition, the encryption scheme was not very complex - each letter of the alphabet had its own symbol. Thus, in just a week, a 90-page manuscript was deciphered.
The content of the book consisted of descriptions of spells for calling spirits, which were supposed to help gain wealth, love and cure ailments. The manuscript also described in detail the procedure for performing each ritual in order to achieve the desired result. So, the document reported that one of the spells would only work if it was read exactly three hours after midnight. In another spell, it was indicated that in order to achieve the effect, it was necessary to lay stones in a circle, and then invoke the spirit.
In addition, the old text contains many Christian symbols. In particular, in addition to the mention of angels, the name of Christ is also found there. It is noteworthy that it is written in several languages - in Latin, German and Greek. Library staff found it difficult to explain this point, saying that this issue is in the competence of historians of religion.
The old manuscript does not contain the name of a specific author. Apparently, this is due to the fact that he was a member of one of the secret societies. According to scientists, in late XVIII century the greatest interest Freemasons and Rosicrucians manifested to magic, alchemy and treasures. However, according to the content of the manuscript, it is difficult to determine to which of them the author belonged.
Recall that the most famous text in the world is the so-called Voynich manuscript. Famous cryptologists from all over the world are unsuccessfully deciphering it. The name of the document was in honor of the antiquarian who acquired it in 1912.
The manuscript is an image codec written in unknown language. A radiocarbon analysis of some pages of the document was carried out, as a result of which it was established that it was written between 1404 and 1438.
In 2003, a system was developed with which you can create texts similar to the Voynich manuscript. Then scientists came to the conclusion that the old manuscript is just a set of random characters that do not make any sense. However, ten years later, physicists Marcelo Montemurro and Damiana Zanette conducted additional research, eventually providing evidence that the text has a semantic model, therefore it is an encrypted message.
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OR RNB. F.p. I.5. Ostromir Gospel 1056–1057 L. 66v. An initial with a zoomorphic element.
OR RNB. F.p. I.5. Ostromir Gospel 1056–1057 L. 87v. Miniature depicting the Evangelist Luke.
At the end of the tenth century Rus', simultaneously with the establishment of Christianity as the state religion, adopted the Cyrillic script, which by that time was already widespread among the southern Slavs.
The collection of the Old Russian handwritten book of the Russian National Library reflects the history of the Russian handwritten book tradition in the most complete way - from the Ostromirov Gospel of the 11th century to the 11th century. to the late Old Believer manuscripts of the early twentieth century.
The subject of the material is unusually wide. There are also richly decorated liturgical books, and the most important historical monuments- annalistic and chronographic, books for "spiritual" reading and for practical application- herbalists, medical books, treatises on military affairs, various areas of medieval knowledge, and even textbooks for reading texts written in cursive. Of particular interest are four collections containing works of various genres: theological treatises, monuments of instructive eloquence, hagiographic works, story stories, ecclesiastical polemical works, monuments of Russian journalism, syllabic verses.
OR RNB. Erm. 20. Izbornik. 1076
OR RNB. F.p. I.36
"Minea of Dubrovsky" (Service Menaia for July).
The exceptional value of the ancient Russian funds of the National Library of Russia is emphasized by the fact that it is here that the monuments are stored, to which one can rightfully apply the definition of “first” - in the sense of “the oldest extant”). First of all, this is the famous Ostromir Gospel of 1056–1057, the oldest accurately dated Russian handwritten book that has survived. Manuscript created in an era of cultural upsurge and flourishing ancient Russian state For Sophia Cathedral Veliky Novgorod - the main temple of northwestern Rus' - and witnessing the thousand-year path of development of Russian culture, is included in the UNESCO Memory of the World Register.
OR RNB. Soph. 1.
Panteleimon's Gospel (Aprakos complete). Con. XII - beginning. 13th century (?). Novgorod or Novgorod lands. Scribe Maxim Toshinich
If the Ostromir Gospel - liturgical book, then stored in the Russian national library The Izbornik of 1076 is the oldest Russian handwritten book that has come down to our days, exactly dated, that is, a book literary content. It reads many articles of a moral and Christian nature, addressed to the secular part of ancient Russian society, primarily to the princely elite. These are the Stoslovets of Gennady of Constantinople, the Wisdom of Isusov the son of Sirahov, Afanasiev's answers, etc. The collection was compiled in Rus' on the model of the Izbornik of 1073, which is a list from the Bulgarian original.
The key source of all Russian historiography is the Lavrentiev Chronicle of 1377, kept in the Library since 1811, which is the oldest accurately dated Russian chronicle that has survived to this day. The Laurentian Chronicle, a date-forming monument of Russian statehood, is included in the UNESCO Memory of the World Register.
OR RNB. OLDP. F.6.
Kyiv Psalter. 1397
The Old Russian funds also contain the oldest accurately dated illustrated Russian handwritten book that has come down to us. This is the famous Kiev Psalter of 1397. The manuscript contains more than 300 miniatures illustrating the text or interpreting it symbolically. Prior to the Kiev Psalter, Old Russian manuscripts had only “face” miniatures depicting the author of the text (evangelists, Tsar David, etc.), members of the princely family, patron saints of the customer of the manuscript.
OR RNB. F. p. I. 2. Psalter. 14th century
Stylistic sophistication decoration, miniatures, initials turn many monuments of Old Russian writing into original works art. Such is the Frolovskaya Psalter of the 14th century, known to all art critics, decorated with headpieces and initials of the teratological style and interesting ornamentation of initials, including numerous inclusions of human figures.
Unlike countries Western Europe, whose culture developed in cities and universities, in Rus' the most important centers book culture were monasteries in which book-writing workshops worked, were created literary works, rich libraries were formed. The fact that the collections of the oldest Russian book depositories are located here is of particular value to the ancient Russian stocks of the National Library of Russia. First of all, this is the library of the Novgorod Sophia Cathedral, which includes manuscripts created in various book centers northeastern Rus', containing unique lists of monuments ancient Russian literature, for example, the author's list of the Life of St. Sergius of Radonezh by the famous hagiographer Pachomius Logofet. The ancient Panteleimon Gospel with a rare miniature of St. Panteleimon and St. Catherine, the St. Sophia set of the Great Menaia of the Fourth by Metropolitan Macarius, and many other rarities. In the Department of Manuscripts of the National Library of Russia, the libraries of the largest Russian monasteries are preserved in the integrity of their main array: Kirillo-Belozersky Uspensky and Solovetsky Spaso-Preobrazhensky. These collections have brought to our days the most valuable monuments of Russian medieval monastic book culture, such as the manuscripts of the cell library of St. Cyril or the encyclopedic collections of the 15th-century monk-scribe Euphrosynus.
OR RNB. Q p. I. 32.
Blagoveshchensky kondakar. Con. XII - beginning. 13th century
OR RNB. OSRK. F.IV.233
Facial chronicle. Second half of the 16th century Laptev volume.
Old Russian church singing is widely represented in the funds of the Sector. These are more than 1000 notated singing codices of the 12th-20th centuries. (including Old Believers): irmologii, oktoikhs, everyday life, sticherari, triodi, holidays; as well as singing alphabets intended for the practical development of Znamenny singing. One of the five known manuscripts in the world is stored here, distinguished by a special system music notation, – Blagoveshchensk kondakar at the turn of the 12th–13th centuries.
OR RNB. F. XIV. 62.
Collection of Kirsha Danilov. Last quarter XVIII V.
The traditions of ancient Russian singing art were preserved in the Old Believer environment. Due to the large number and fragmentation of the Old Believer communities, liturgical singing in almost every one of them had its own local characteristics. The funds of the Sector contain manuscripts of the 18th – 20th centuries, representing the singing art of different centers of the Old Believers, differing not only in content, but also in artistic design.
A separate group of manuscripts is made up of notolinear codices, which contain both liturgical and secular works of the 17th–19th centuries. They contain panegyric cants and genres of spiritual lyrics. In these manuscripts, anonymous texts coexist with the author's poetry of Simeon Polotsky, V. K. Trediakovsky, A. P. Sumarokov, M. V. Lomonosov. This group also includes the most valuable monument of folk poetry - the Collection of Kirsha Danilov - the first collection of Russian epics and historical songs in Russian folklore, provided with notes.
OR RNB. OSRK. F.IV.482
Journal of N. P. Rezanov's travel from Kamchatka to Japan. 1804–1805
The Sector of Old Russian Funds also stores handwritten books and other handwritten materials XVIII-XIX centuries, not related to the actual old Russian tradition. These are manuscripts of scientific, historical, literary content, essays on military affairs, jurisprudence, other branches of knowledge, personal diaries, maps, plans, travel albums, etc. The Hermitage contains a valuable set of copies made in the 18th century. for Empress Catherine II clerk's copies from ancient Russian handwritten books and documents.
