In Germany, they were able to decipher a manuscript written in the 18th century and which at one time served as a guide for sorcerers. It is noteworthy that the library staff at the University of Kassel managed to find out the contents of the manuscript. It is known that more than ten thousand other ancient documents of international importance are also stored in this place.
At first, the employees decided that the text containing the secrets of gaining wealth and love was written in Arabic, since the signs and symbols depicted in the manuscript were made in an oriental manner. But then the hypothesis was proposed that the document was written in German. In addition, the encryption scheme was not very complex - each letter of the alphabet had its own symbol. Thus, in just a week, a 90-page manuscript was deciphered.
The content of the book consisted of descriptions of spells for calling spirits, which were supposed to help gain wealth, love and cure ailments. The manuscript also described in detail the procedure for performing each ritual, in order to thereby achieve desired result. So, the document reported that one of the spells would only work if it was read exactly three hours after midnight. In another spell, it was indicated that in order to achieve the effect, it was necessary to lay stones in a circle, and then invoke the spirit.
In addition, the old text contains many Christian symbols. In particular, in addition to the mention of angels, the name of Christ is also found there. It is noteworthy that it is written in several languages - in Latin, German and Greek. Library staff found it difficult to explain this point, stating that this question is in the competence of historians of religion.
The old manuscript does not contain the name of a specific author. Apparently, this is due to the fact that he was a member of one of the secret societies. According to scientists, in late XVIII century, the greatest interest in magic, alchemy and treasures was shown by Freemasons and Rosicrucians. However, according to the content of the manuscript, it is difficult to determine to which of them the author belonged.
Recall that the most famous text in the world is the so-called Voynich manuscript. Famous cryptologists from all over the world are unsuccessfully deciphering it. The name of the document was in honor of the antiquarian who acquired it in 1912.
The manuscript is an image codec written in unknown language. A radiocarbon analysis of some pages of the document was carried out, as a result of which it was established that it was written between 1404 and 1438.
In 2003, a system was developed with which you can create texts similar to the Voynich manuscript. Then scientists came to the conclusion that the old manuscript is just a set of random characters that do not make any sense. However, ten years later, physicists Marcelo Montemurro and Damiana Zanette conducted additional research, eventually providing evidence that the text has a semantic model, therefore it is an encrypted message.
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Writing on the territory of Rus' arose much later than it happened on the banks of mediterranean sea. At the time when the calligraphers of Egypt, Rome, Greece perfected their art on papyrus and parchment, the boundless steppes and forests of the Central Russian upland were not yet inhabited. The tribes of hunters and cattle breeders who came here at the beginning of the first millennium of our era also did not need either the alphabet or writing. As a result, the oldest handwritten monuments of Russian history date back to the time when the culture of Western Europe had already reached its peak, experienced a decline due to the arrival of the barbarians, and again rushed to revival. As one would expect, the first books of Rus' turned out to be connected with religious themes.
The oldest Russian handwritten book
The oldest Russian handwritten books that have come down to us date back to the beginning of the 11th century. Although scientists believe that such books could appear in Rus' as early as the 9th century, following the invention of Slavic writing. According to rough estimates by the historian Nikolsky N.K., who devoted his life to compiling a card index of ancient Russian written publications, the number of handwritten books dated to the 11th-18th centuries in our depositories is from 80 to 100 thousand manuscripts. According to academician Likhachev D.S. this count is inaccurate in the sense that it is too modest. Old Russian literacy is truly enormous, and today they talk about it as a separate branch ancient Russian art.
The oldest handwritten book made by an East Slavic scribe in Old Russian, is the church book "Ostromir Gospel", which was published in 1056. This - unique masterpiece ancient Russian book art. The 294 parchment pages are generously illustrated - they are decorated with magnificent images of the evangelists, colorful headpieces and drop caps. The text is written in even lines of Old Slavonic Cyrillic. Byzantine traditions can be traced in the ornaments. Written "Ostromir Gospel" in a single copy.
It is obvious that a whole manuscript workshop participated in its creation. Unfortunately, we know only one of the masters - Deacon Gregory. He probably did most of the work. The postscript to the manuscript says that work on it lasted seven months. In the same colophon, deacon Gregory also reports on the time and circumstances of the writing of an ancient Russian book - the manuscript was commissioned by the Novgorod posadnik Ostromir, who was sent to rule the Novgorod lands by the Kiev prince Izyaslav Yaroslavich in 1054.
The "Ostromir Gospel" of deacon Gregory and his unknown comrades is a most valuable monument of ancient Russian writing, language and fine arts. It is written in a large beautiful charter, and the size of the letters gradually increases towards the end of the book (from 5 to 7 millimeters). The text of the ancient book is written in two columns, 18 lines each, on pages of 20x24 centimeters, decorated with multi-color initial letters, headpieces, images of the evangelists, and in some places vermilion is used. The manuscript consists of 294 sheets of good quality parchment. There are several sheets with sewn cuts and holes (in the places of gadfly bites), which appeared even before the text was written.
Unlike other monuments of the 11th century, the "Ostromir Gospel" shows the correct rendering of reduced vowels by the letters ъ and ь. This phonetic feature was common to Old Church Slavonic and other Slavic languages, so the Russian scribe, by tradition, conveyed it well in writing, although by that time it had already disappeared. Where there were differences between Old Slavonic and Russian features in the 11th century, the scribe unwittingly mixed them up. This makes it possible to identify the "Ostromir Gospel" as one of the first monuments of the Old Church Slavonic language of the Russian edition.
Like any such ancient book, the Ostromir Gospel has its own fascinating history. Until the beginning of the 18th century, however, its history is shrouded in darkness. In 1701, the manuscript was mentioned in the inventory of the property of the Resurrection Church as part of the Verkhospassky Cathedral. In 1720, by order of Peter I, the book was sent (along with other old books) to St. Petersburg. After the death of Catherine II, the manuscript was found in her chambers by Ya.A. Druzhinin, who served under the Empress, who in 1806 presented it as a gift to Emperor Alexander I, who, in turn, ordered that the book be deposited in the Imperial Public Library (now the Russian National Library Petersburg), where it is kept today.
The manuscript of the "Ostromirov Gospel" was decorated with a binding-salary with precious stones, because of which she almost died: in 1932, she was abducted by a plumber after breaking a shop window. The intruder, having torn off the binding, threw the manuscript into a closet (according to other sources, onto a closet), where it was soon found. The old book was no longer rebound.
WITH early XIX century, the scientific study of the manuscript began. For the first time "Ostromir Gospel" was published by Vostokov A.Kh. in 1843 with a brief grammar, dictionary and Greek interlinear text. For this set edition, a special slavic font, faithfully reproducing the handwriting of the original (there is even a reprint made in Wiesbaden in 1964). Later came facsimile editions: black and white - in 1883; color gift in the original format - in Leningrad in 1988.
Fragments of the "Ostromirov Gospel" were included in the compulsory curriculum of pre-revolutionary schools. In 1955 Trey E.H. restored this manuscript. On the basis of this ancient Russian book, modern grammars and dictionaries of the Old Slavonic language were created. A lot of research has been devoted to the monument and its language, but the language of this manuscript still requires thorough study.
The most ancient books of Rus': the Novgorod Codex
Speaking about the most ancient handwritten book compiled in Rus', one cannot ignore this manuscript. The Ostromir Gospel certainly holds the lead among the oldest books in Russian, for which the exact date of their writing has been reliably established. However, on July 13, 2000, during the excavation work (which has been going on there for the twenty-eighth year already), the Novgorod archaeological expedition led by Academician Yanin V.L. in the layers of the first quarter of the 11th century, three wooden (lime) boards 19x15x1 cm in size were found.
Each board has a rectangular recess (15x11.5 cm) filled with wax; on the middle plank, such recesses are made on both sides. The boards have holes on the edges into which wooden pins are inserted to connect them in single set. Thus, an old wooden book contained four wax pages (ceres). External sides the first and last tablets played the role of the covers of the codex.
The Novgorod codex consists of lime tablets with four pages (ceres) covered with wax for writing with a stylus. According to stratigraphic, radiocarbon and paleographic data, the wax codex was used in the first quarter of the 11th century and, possibly, starting from recent years X century, so that it is several decades older than the Ostromir Gospel, which was considered the oldest book in Rus' with a precisely established date of writing. Thus, the Novgorod Codex (or "Novgorod Psalter" - according to the most qualitatively readable text) is the most ancient book of Rus'.
Cera is well preserved due to the swampy place in which it remained for about a thousand years. The uniqueness of the situation lies in the fact that the planks were soaked through with moisture and there was no access to oxygen, as a result, there were no conditions for the vital activity of microorganisms that cause decay processes.
The dating of the Novgorod codex is determined by the fact that it lay half a meter from the edge and 30 centimeters below the log house, which received a reliable dendrochronological date - 1036. This is the upper bound on the likely time the planks hit the ground. It is reasonable to consider the baptism of Rus' in 988 as the lower chronological boundary of the creation of the code. At Uppsala University (Sweden's oldest university), a radiocarbon analysis of wax was made, which indicates the year 1015 (plus or minus 35 years) with an 84% probability.
Earlier Slavic dated documents are only some ancient Bulgarian and Croatian inscriptions of the 10th century, but they cannot be classified as "books". Consequently, today the Novgorod Psalter is the earliest monument of the Russian version of the Church Slavonic language and the oldest of the books of ancient Rus' that have come down to us that do not have an exact date.
In addition to the main text of the ancient book, researchers report on the "reconstruction" of some of the previous ("hidden") texts based on stylus prints and scratches on wooden tablets under wax. The problem of restoring these texts lies primarily in the fact that very faint imprints of tens of thousands of letters were superimposed on each other, hardly distinguishable from random strokes and cracks on the tree.
For example, among the "hidden texts" a worn out inscription was read, which says that in 999 the monk Isaac was made a priest in Suzdal in the church of St. Alexander the Armenian. It is possible that the monk Isaac was the author of the Novgorod code and belonged to a heretical religious trend.
Handwritten ancient books of Kievan Rus of the 11th century
Svyatoslav's collection of 1073. An ancient Russian book that was copied in Kyiv for Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich. The parade edition, which is an encyclopedia of various information, contains more than 400 sections from history, mathematics, natural science, grammar, philosophy and other areas. The book is written in Cyrillic on parchment. The original, which served as the basis for the rewriting of Svyatoslav's Izbornik, is considered to be a Bulgarian collection created in the 10th century for Tsar Simeon. One of the largest ancient books. The frontispieces are especially decorative - there are two of them in the book.
Svyatoslav's collection of 1073. An ancient Russian book written by two scribes, one of whom worked on the 1073 Izbornik. In the text, the authors report that the manuscript is composed of "many books of princes." A small handbook with encyclopedic content. It does not contain ceremonial illustrations. Compared to the Izbornik of 1073, the composition of the old book has been changed - there are more religious articles here. Among the new texts is "A Word on Reading Books", where the author teaches how to read a book.
Archangel Gospel of 1092. This ancient manuscript unique in terms of linguistics, paleography and bibliology. It maintains the old Russian spelling. Artistically, the publication is more than modest. Written on parchment in a charter, without drawings and miniatures. On the other hand, screensavers that are laconic in color, but harmonious in proportions and decorations are good. Dense even lines are separated only on rare pages by a cinnabar line with initial letters. In 2000, the "Arkhangelsk Gospel" was included by UNESCO in the international register "Memory of the World".
Novgorod Service Menaia for September 1095, October 1096 and November 1097. Menaion - liturgical books and books for reading containing "lives of the saints", stories about church holidays and teachings. Menaia for service periods contain texts for one month, arranged according to the days of each month, respectively with the holidays and days of memory of the saints. The most ancient menaias have come down to us incompletely - each of them lacks several leaves. The books are quite large for the 11th century: two of them have more than 170 sheets, the third has more than 120 sheets. Menaia were written for the Novgorod Lazarev Monastery. Today they are considered ancient monuments Church Slavonic, conveying the features of the Old Russian northern dialects.
The very first printed Russian books
The Russian word "book" (derived from the Church Slavonic "book") was well known to Slavic scribes of chronicles as early as the 14th century. However, at that time all ancient Russian books were handwritten. In Rus', the beginning of typographic printing, as is known from school textbooks, dates back to XVI century. It is connected with the names of the remarkable Russian master Ivan Fedorov and Belarusian Peter Mstislavets.
The first Russian printing house was founded near the Moscow Kremlin, on Nikolskaya Street (then - Nikolsky sacrum). Unlike the first European printing house of Johannes Gutenberg, who became the first printer of his own free will, the Moscow printing house was built by order of the tsar. Moreover, this construction lasted for almost ten years.
By the time of its creation, craftsmen in Rus' already had some experience in the production of printed books. Back in 1553-1557, Russian masters, whose names have not yet been established, published two printed books. They are the first Russian publications that came out from under the printing press. Their typography was not yet very skillful, the lines were not aligned, the pages were not numbered. There is a hypothesis that the first books in Rus' were printed by a certain Marusha Nefediev. He is mentioned in two letters of Ivan the Terrible as a "printing master". It is possible that Ivan Fedorov knew about these first books. But, of course, his famous "Apostle" in all his qualities incomparably surpassed them.
So, when the printing house was erected, on April 19, 1563, "cunning masters of printing business" began work on their first book - "The Acts and Epistles of the Holy Apostles." This work lasted for about a year. Ivan Fedorov did a huge amount of editorial work, designed the book in accordance with all the rules of the printing art of that time. Now this antique book is a rarity!
On March 1, 1564, at the behest of Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible, with the blessing of Metropolitan of All Rus' Macarius, the first Russian precisely dated book "The Apostle" was published - Ivan Fedorov entered the history of Russia as the first printer. Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets began printing the Apostle on April 19, 1563. It came out in an unprecedented circulation for that time - about a thousand copies. None of the foreign European printing houses at that time printed their books in such quantity.
Ivan Fedorov also managed to surpass foreign printing technology - he printed his book in two colors, which foreign masters could not do yet. After the canonical church text of the Apostle, Ivan Fedorov added his afterword. In it, he told how and when the book was created. The publication of the Apostle earned recognition even from such famous typographers and publishers of the 16th century as the Nuremberg master Anton Koberger and the Venetian scribe Aldus Manutius.
However, new trends in the book business provoked a protest from the copyist monks - their work became financial plan just unprofitable. The printers were accused of spreading heresy. In 1566, for an unknown reason, a fire broke out in their printing house, and they decided to urgently leave the capital of Muscovy. The first printers fled to Lithuania, taking with them 35 engraved boards. Being warmly received by the Polish King Sigismund, Ivan Fedorov found refuge with the Polish hetman Chodkiewicz, a philanthropist and educator, who founded a printing house on his estate.
But the printing press founded by Ivan Fedorov could no longer be stopped. In the 17th century, the Moscow printing house already produced quite a lot of books, and some of them - the Psalter, the Apostle, the Missal, the Grammar by Smotritsky - were published in several editions, and their circulation reached six thousand copies.
It is curious that Russian book publishers were the first in the world to print books for children - in 1692 in Moscow the first Primer was published for them, compiled by the outstanding teacher Karion Istomin. In the "Primer" there were many drawings that attracted the attention of "youths and maidens", as it is said in the dedication. The book could really teach children, as Istomin called, "not resorting to a rod, but amusing."
The meaning of the printed word was well understood by Tsar Peter the Great. He greatly contributed to the development of Russian book printing. With his participation, on January 1, 1708, a civil type was introduced. Russian books of general educational content, textbooks, essays appeared artistic nature. Books on a new subject began to differ from church books that were printed in Cyrillic. From that time on, the number of church books began to steadily decrease, while the number of publications of secular literature increased.
New printing houses began to open in the Russian Empire. In 1711, the only Moscow printing house in the country was joined by the St. Petersburg printing house, and ten years later, the Senate one. Russian printed books began to be sold in shops. In Moscow in the 17th century, Kitay-gorod was the center of the book trade. According to the inventory of 1695, in Kitay-gorod, there were "... up to 72 rows of small shops, forming small narrow streets. There were rows of sash, mitten, hosiery, shoe, boot, sole, fur, beaver, sable, and among them was a row for icons and books". These ranks were also mentioned by Maxim Grek, the most educated man XVI century - obviously, they were the first Russian "trade" where you could buy a book.
The historical past today is practically systematized. Science knows periods, major events and prominent figures. However, centuries continue to keep secrets. Gaps in knowledge about existence and life previous generations are contained in the secret manuscripts of history, not yet understood and deciphered by scientists. Perhaps their discovery will change the understanding of the universe and time. Today, ten of the most mysterious are distinguished from the most famous specimens.
1. Voynich Manuscript
The 250-page book, found in the 15th century, contains images of plants, space objects and naked women. story plot or individual stories have not been unraveled by historians and other scientists. Although one researcher claims to have deciphered 10 words from the text of an old edition.
Discovered an antique book in 1912 by Wilfid Voynich. Analysis of the content showed that some of the characters have distinctive features real language. Whether Voynich speculated on the find, presenting it as a valuable artifact, or whether this document is a real cultural treasure remains a mystery. The object is in storage at Yale University.
Voynich manuscript
2. Handbook of ritual rites
The history of the ancient manuscript on 20 pages began about 1300 years ago. It is written in the ancient Coptic language of the Egyptian Christians. It contains many magical spells and formulas, including love spells, as well as spells for black jaundice and instructions for conducting exorcism sessions.
The text may have been written by a group of Sethians, an ancient Christian sect led by Seth, who claims to be the third son of Adam and Eve. IN ancient message there is an indication of a certain mysterious figure - Baktiota, whose identity is unknown.
Researchers who translated and analyzed the text ancient manuscript book, called him conditionally " Directory ritual rites ". It is currently housed at the Macquarie University Museum of Ancient Cultures in Sydney, Australia. The manuscript was handed over in 1981 from private collection Michael Fakelmann. Where he got the text from is not disclosed.
Directory of ritual rites 3. Code of Grolier
The so-called Grolier Code, named after the New York club where the copy was exhibited, presents the writings of the Mayan peoples with ancient hieroglyphs that demonstrate the number system and religious beliefs of the civilization. The content contains a description of observations of the movement of the planet Venus. A collector from Mexico named Josue Saenz claims that he acquired the manuscript from Madoders in the 1960s. Scientists are still arguing about the authenticity of the artifact.
Recent studies have shown that the paper on which the Code is written is approximately 800 years old. The illustrations are painted with a blue paint characteristic of Maya, which still cannot be synthesized in the laboratory. This confirms the value of the historical document. Along with other signs, for example, the content of hieroglyphs and images, such a conclusion speaks of the authenticity of the ancient message.
Grolier Code 4. Copper Scroll
The library of ancient manuscripts is represented by Hebrew text on several sheets. They were discovered in a cave at Qumran in the Judean Desert along with other Dead Sea Scrolls. The text indicates the places of storage of a huge amount of treasures with silver, coins, gold and vessels. The message dates from about 70 AD, that is, the time when the Roman army besieged and destroyed the shrines of Jerusalem. It is believed that this is the oldest manuscript, the contents of which are unknown to science.
Researchers do not get tired of arguing about the reality and mythical nature of the described treasure. To date, the jewels mentioned in the text have not been found either in Israel or in Palestine. If the scroll is authentic, then perhaps the treasures were found in ancient times.
Copper Scroll 5. Popol Vuh
The title of this manuscript translates as " Legal Counsel's Book". It contains mythical story, told by the descendants of the Mayan peoples who settled in Guatemala. According to their legends, the forefathers of all living things, Tepev and Kukumatz, created the Earth from a water void, endowed it with animals and plants. Michael Coe of Yale University told about this in the book Maya, Thames and Hudson, 2011.
The book indicates that the founders of the world experienced difficulties in creating people. At the end, it is described that they got the twin heroes Ahpu and Xbalanque. They traveled a lot and became the masters of the underworld.
The earliest surviving copy of the Popol Vuha dates from 1701. The codex was written in Spanish priest Frasisco Jimenez from the Dominican Republic. A copy is held by the Newberry Library in Chicago.
Popol Vuha manuscript 6. Treatise of the judgments
The codex contains the first Hebrew text indicating the location of treasures from King Solomon's temple. It tells about the fate of the Ark of the Covenant. The scripture indicates that these artifacts " cannot be found until the coming of the Messiah, the son of David...«
The earliest copy dates from 1648. It was made by James Davil, a professor at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland, who studied and translated this ancient manuscript.
In analyzing the content, he relied on traditional methods biblical exegesis (interpretation) to understand where the treasures might be. Under his pen, history took on the appearance of a fantastic adventure, rather than a real guide to finding valuable artifacts.
Treatise of the Courts - an ancient manuscript 7. Gospel of Judas
In 2006 the National geographical society(National Geographic) has published a third-century translation of a text called the Gospel of Judas.
The secrets of an ancient manuscript are revealed in relation to the biblical figure of Judas Iscariot, who, according to the New Testament, betrayed Jesus. The manuscript, written in the Coptic language used by Egyptian Christians, describes Jesus asking Judas for betrayal so that he could be crucified on a cross so that he could ascend to heaven.
However, experts disagree on the translation and interpretation of the text. Aprel DeConick, professor of religion at Rice University in Houston, says the text actually contains an indication that Judas was a "demon". Analysis of the manuscript and comparison of its content with the Gospel confirmed that the text is authentic. The research was carried out by a team led by Joseph Barabe of the McCrone Association in Illinois.
Gospel of Judas 8. Dresden Codex
The age of the artifact is about 800 years. It is composed of 39 illustrated pages with texts. Research, the results of which were published in 2016, indicates that the Codex records the phases of the planet Venus, according to which the ancient Maya performed their rites.
“These people did have complex rituals that were tied strictly to the calendar,” said Gerardo Aldan, a historian at the University of California, Santa Barbara. - Probably they were vigorous activity, the periods of which were associated with the phases of Venus.
The codex was transferred to the Royal Library of Dresden, Germany, in 1730. How he got to Europe is unknown. It is known that many texts belonging to the Maya culture were destroyed by Christian missionaries seeking to eradicate any other mention of another faith.
Dresden List 9. Gospel of Mary Lota
The manuscript is written in Egyptian Coptic and is approximately 1500 years old. The Gospel does not tell about the life of Jesus, but his name is mentioned in 37 predictions.
The text contains a story about the creation of the scripture: " The gospel of Mary, the mother of Jesus Christ, from Gabriel the Archangel, who brought good news from the One who will go ahead and receive according to his heart and be exacted from him.
The message of antiquity is kept at Harvard University. It was deciphered and the details published in 2014 by Anna Marie Luijengic, professor of religion at Princeton University. In his book " Forbidden Oracles. Gospel of Mary Lota” she says that the gospel is a prediction, an attempt to predict the future. A person looking for an answer could choose one of 37 oracles to find a solution to their problem. How the system worked remains unknown.
The edition was donated to Harvard in 1984.
Gospel of Mary Lote 10. Liber Linteus
Ancient texts found in silk covers of an Egyptian mummy. They were written in the Etruscan language used in Italy in antiquity. The artifact dates from around 200 BC. The mummy with the robe is in the Zagreb Museum in Croatia.
The meaning of the message of antiquity is not clear. It is presented as a ritual calendar, although there are only six months in it, said Lammert Bouke van der Meer, a professor at the University of Leiden in the book “ Prayers, places and rituals in Etruscan religion(Brill, 2008).
For ancient egypt was characterized by the reuse of materials for wrapping mummies or making death masks. At that time, trade in the Mediterranean was widespread. Nothing unusual in the fact that the fabric came from Italy to Egypt is not seen.
Liber Linteus They probably contained Egyptian magic spells, but the text is written in a language unknown to science. Who knows, maybe any of these ancient manuscripts can turn the prevailing ideas about the universe and history.
Ancient manuscripts prove: Rus' is the birthplace of vampires. At first we worshiped them, and then we simply began to respect them.
After Francis Ford Coppola's film Dracula, based on Bram Stoker's novel, was released in 1992, some unhealthy interest in vampires woke up in society. They began to write books about them, publish encyclopedias, shoot more and more new films. The excitement has not subsided to this day. What is worth only one saga "Twilight" about the love of an earthly girl and a vampire. And housewives are crying over the TV series The Vampire Diaries, which tells about the love of two ghoul brothers for a simple schoolgirl. Vampires have become true heroes of our time, but what time they come from is not known for certain. Dr. came to unexpected conclusions philological sciences, Professor of the Russian State University for the Humanities Mikhail Odessky, when he decided to get to the bottom of the very concept of "vampire". The first mention of these semi-mythical creatures, as the scientist proves, are found precisely in Slavic culture. Does this mean that vampires have Russian roots?
From ghoul to vampire
The first mentions of ghouls are found in ancient Russian manuscripts. And "", written by the Moscow clerk Fedor Kuritsyn, glorified vampirism almost for the whole White light
Perhaps the very first mention in world culture of a certain vampire-like creature is found in the monument of ancient Russian writing - "Afterword" to "Interpretation of prophetic books." It was preserved in manuscripts of the 15th century, but, as follows from the text itself, the original was written in the 11th century. As Professor Mikhail Odessky, who studied the text, notes, the very name of the scribe is curious, first of all - “Az pop Oupir Lihyi”. Translating into modern Russian - Ghoul Dashing. The name is clearly mysterious and far from befitting the ministers of the church, who in those days were scribes. Of course, it is difficult to assume that the monk Ghoul Dashing was a bloodsucker. But where did such a strange name come from? “The name for a monk is quite normal, besides, nicknames were widely used in ancient times,” explains Mikhail Odessky. - They usually did not come from the good qualities of a person, but from negative or funny ones. And therefore, it could well be that the monk was given the name of the Ghoul Dashing, characterizing him as a man of a non-timid ten. True, the word "dashing" in those days also meant various forms of evil, to the point that Satan himself was awarded with such an epithet.
And the Swedish Slavist Anders Sjöberg even offered to discard demonism and argued that the Ghoul Dashing was actually a Swedish rune cutter named Upir Ofeg, who could well have ended up in the retinue of Ingegerd, the daughter of the Swedish king, who became the wife of Yaroslav the Wise. And then it turns out that in transliteration Ghoul is the name of the rune cutter of Epirus, and Dashing is the translation of his nickname...
There is a version that the word "ghoul" had a swearing connotation. The “Message to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery” by Ivan the Terrible has been preserved. Known for his “subtle” sense of humor and who loved to scoff at his subjects, the sovereign this time complained about the depravity of the boyars’ morals, who took tonsure and visited the monastery: “But this one doesn’t even know clothes, not only residence. Or a demon for the son of John Sheremetev? Or a fool for and stubborn Khabarov? The infernal context is interesting here. "Upir" appears next to the "demonic son."
In a certain context, ancient literary monuments can indeed testify to the infernal, otherworldly meaning of the word "ghoul". Hence the assumption arises that the ghouls were worshiped as deities. And then the nickname of the scribe Ghoul Dashing is only an indication of his chosenness, proximity to higher powers. Here, for example, in the "Word of St. Gregory" (a list of the second half of the 15th - early 16th centuries) there are inserts about the history of Slavic paganism. In particular, the following is said: “Before Perun, their god, and before that, they laid the demand for rest and protection.” Again, these "ghouls" are ghouls, to whom, judging by the ancient text, sacrifices were made during pagan worship. About who the ghouls and beregini are, the text does not directly say, as well as about what sacrifices were made to them. It is assumed that positive, good deities or creatures could be coastlines, because the words “shore”, “protect”, “protect” evoked exclusively positive associations before, and today. It can be assumed that, in contrast to them, ghouls were evil creatures. And sacrifices were made to them for one simple reason - in this way people tried to propitiate them. However, there is another version - the ghouls could be the spirits of their ancestors, that is, they could not personify either evil or good.
“The logic is this: a ghoul is a dead man, a dead man is an ancestor, that is, in all likelihood, we are talking about the worship of dead ancestors,” explains Mikhail Odessky. Back in the 19th century, the famous Slavic philologist Izmail Sreznevsky considered the issue of the original in paganism "the dogma of the one, supreme God, the ancestor of all other deities." The researcher spoke about three periods of Russian paganism: the period of adoration of Perun was the last, the period of worship of the "family and women in childbirth" preceding it, and the most ancient - the period of worship of ghouls and coastlines. “Sreznevsky cites many cases of mentioning ghouls in the folk traditions of the Slavs,” says Mikhail Odessky. - This word occurs in different forms: V masculine(upir, upyur, vpir, vampire), in the feminine (upirina, vampera) and almost everywhere in two meanings: either a bat, or a ghost, a werewolf, an evil spirit that sucks blood from people. It is in this second sense that vampires became known throughout the world. And again, our people had a hand in this.
went too far
Around the same time when the word “ghoul” was first encountered in ancient manuscripts, that is, in a list of the 15th century, the notorious now Vlad III Tepes (Dracula) rules in Romania, who later became the prototype of the most famous literary and movie vampire. He left behind a rich epistolary legacy. At that time there was no written Romanian language and Dracula wrote in Latin and Church Slavonic. But, perhaps, one of the most reliable, interesting and informative texts about Tepes - "The Tale of Dracula Governor" - was written, as scientists suggest, by the Moscow embassy clerk Fyodor Kuritsyn, who served at the court of the Hungarian king. For a long time he stayed in the Balkans, and returning to his homeland, he became famous as a heretic. It should be noted that very quickly in Russia the concept of a vampire became associated with a witch or sorcerer, who in turn were associated with the concept of heresy. It was defined as a departure from the dogmas considered important to the church. In the faith of the Russian people, the idea was entrenched that a person will not find peace after death if it occurred at the moment when he was excommunicated from the church. He could be excommunicated for immoral behavior or heresy. Thus, a heretic could become a vampire after death. This fact makes the legendary personality of Fyodor Kuritsyn and makes us take a special look at his "The Tale of Dracula Voivode", written clearly under the influence of heretical views, implicated in folk Slavic traditions. Interestingly, he never calls Vlad Tepes by his real name. The legend begins with the following words: “There was a governor in the Muntian land, a Christian of the Greek faith, his name in Wallachian is Dracula, but in our opinion the Devil.” The nickname Dracula (the ruler himself wrote Dragkulya) is not translated exactly as the deacon Kuritsyn wrote. In Romanian, "devil" is "dracul" (dracul), and "dracula" (draculea) is "son of the devil." However, the nickname is the father of Vlad Voivode Vlad II received not at all because of his connection with evil spirits. Not yet taking the throne, he joined the elite knightly Order of the Dragon at the court of Sigismund I of Luxembourg, founded by the Hungarian king to fight the infidels, mainly the Turks. Having become the ruler, he ordered to depict a dragon on coins. "Dracula" means primarily "dragon". But the author of the legend changed everything in a different way. In any case, it was his manuscript that initiated the perception of Dracula as a man of unprecedented cruelty, the personification of evil. This is how it is presented in modern literature.
Researchers have little doubt that it is in the Slavic roots that one of the main reasons for the modern vampire cult lies. “What is the worst thing about the vampire of the same Bram Stoker? - asks Mikhail Odessky. - He is truly terrible not in his castle in Transylvania, but when he invades London. The end of the 19th century, the heyday of civilization, and suddenly something creepy and dark appears from Eastern Europe. This is horror before an unknown being, before another culture and another society - distant and incomprehensible.
But what is the phenomenon of the ghoul-vampire? Why, of all the mythical creatures that abounded in Slavic legends, only they have survived to this day? Why does no one somehow particularly remember either Perun or the coastline? Perhaps the answer lies in the fact that at some point in history, vampire ghouls "descended from heaven to earth." And people no longer worshiped them, but tried to get along peacefully with them.
Opinions
Alexander Kolesnichenko, Candidate of Philological Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Periodical Press of the Moscow state university stamps named after Ivan Fedorov:
The hypothesis about the Russian origin of the word "vampire" is quite reasonable. Another thing is that we know very little about antiquity and ghouls are mentioned only a few times in the sources. It is likely that in each of these cases the meaning of the word could be different. And for ten centuries, the word could even change its meaning to a diametrically opposite one. This is quite common in the language. But given the geopolitical position Ancient Rus', there is a possibility that the first vampires in modern meaning of this word appeared among us, and it is safe to say that this creature is - Slavic origin. It is likely that they were revered as deities, because then people worshiped both natural phenomena and idols equally.
Leonid Koloss, literary historian, candidate of philological sciences:
The word "ghoul" may be of Russian origin, but there is no evidence that vampirism as a phenomenon has our roots. Many peoples of the world had similar legends. Yes, our culture has made a significant contribution to the development of the modern vampire cult, but did not become its progenitor. On the example of Russian literature, we observe the process of transformation of the mythical ghoul into a specific "living" vampire. Take, for example, the work of Gogol. In Vie it is mythical creatures, and in his later works, the same " Dead souls”, he describes quite earthly characters in similar tones. Thus, living people are endowed with qualities folk characters. It is precisely this that is now clearly demonstrated by the cinema, which, with new force popularizes legends about vampires. The popularity of vampires can be explained simply: with their help it is convenient to scare people, and people want to be scared.
Copyright Journal "Itogi"
Erica Orloff
Mystery of the ancient manuscript
To my children. May each of you have something as meaningful as the Book.
I saw another dream...
The inscription, like a trace of someone's ghostly breath on the window, quietly whispers its message to us through the ages.
Even books have their secrets. Come on, tell us something else, - said Uncle Harry, referring to the manuscript. He seemed to want to talk to her. Leaning over the crumbling pages, he, like a true scholar of antiquity, carefully studied the manuscript.
Secrets? I asked, and my question echoed through the vast hall of the auction house. In this building with marble floors and high ceilings, even the slightest noise turned into a measured rustle of tree leaves.
Callie, every object, like a person, has its own secrets. Including books. And my task is to lure them out.
He brought the ultraviolet lamp close to the pages of the manuscript and suddenly exhaled loudly.
What's there? I whispered, looking over his shoulder. I felt goosebumps run down my spine.
He pointed with his finger.
Look at the fields!
In the bluish light of the lamp, I could barely make out the thin web of illegible and, as it were, even unearthly words.
It seems that the lines of the manuscript were already written on top of this inscription, - I said quietly and narrowed my eyes to better see the find.
I knew that Uncle Harry, working at the Manhattan Royal Auction House as an expert on medieval illuminated manuscripts, lived off these ancient writings of the monks. Ancient legends were heard in the rustle of their pages. He could talk about them endlessly over breakfast and dinner. He read about them. He studied them. And whatever was written in the margins, it was uncle's dream come true.
Do you know what it is? It's a palimpsest!
Palimp... what?
In response, he smiled broadly, and dimples immediately appeared on his cheeks, and azure eyes lit up with happiness. Uncle Harry was a tall man, six feet tall, and the first strands of silver were already showing in his blond hair. He is the smartest person I have ever known. He has an amazing photographic memory and an encyclopedic knowledge of history. But I never get bored with him: it seems that history comes to life in his mouth.
Palimpsest! A thousand years ago, paper was still a rarity. People wrote on parchment or velin, that is, on pieces of animal skin. When the book itself or part of it was no longer needed, they washed off the inscription with a mixture of oat bran soaked in milk, or simply washed it off with a pumice stone. And the pages could be used again, because the inscriptions disappeared. People believed that without a trace.
I began to carefully examine the squiggle, barely visible in the light of the lamp, like a stroke of a pen.
So I, therefore, see an inscription that is a thousand years old? And someone wanted to hide it? Maybe it's a secret message? I asked my uncle.
He nodded.
Sometimes fortune smiles on us. The stars converge, and fate presents us with a gift ... in the form of such a miracle. It is priceless. Usually time and nature destroy all traces.
I looked at the manuscript again. The black lines were drawn by a sharp hand, they were so even that each was a work of art. Not a single letter was knocked out of order, there was not a single blot - perfection itself. At the top of the page was a golden miniature that time had bypassed. The knight and lady were painted in dark blues and greens, bright as peacock feathers.
What a beauty! - I said.
But what makes this thing special is the inscription. All mysteries come out, Callie. This is true. Traces remain forever, even a thousand years later.
Does the person who put the manuscript up for auction know it's a palimpsest?
Uncle Harry shook his head.
The owner of the lot inherited from his father a collection of rare books and manuscripts. But the son is only interested in money. - Uncle again glanced at the ancient lines with envy: - He can't even imagine what secrets these pages hide. The price will reach hundreds of thousands, and maybe even a million dollars. I will be able to evaluate the book more accurately when I learn more about its fate.
He paused and shook his head again.
Sad, isn't it?
Someone spends their entire life building up a collection of books or antiques. They think it will help them stay in people's memory. And then their children come, who simply do not care about the efforts of their parents, and they sell everything. Apparently, a passion for hobby cannot be instilled.
Maybe you are right. But on the other hand ... here we are, - I said, - and here are the words in the margins. And you care.
I still can't believe it. And I know another person who will be delighted with the find. I need to call Peter Sokolov.
And who is it?
World renowned specialist in rare books and medieval manuscripts.
Even more special than you? I doubt.
He was my academic advisor. And yes, he knows a lot more than me. He is the only one who understands your crazy uncle and shares his love for ancient documents. - Uncle Harry kissed me on the top of the head: - I told you this summer will be memorable.
I rolled my eyes.
Great. You found an old manuscript. Indeed very ancient. From parchment or there it is ordered. And with their secrets. But I don't think that makes the summer a success - at least not for me. Dad left me and went to Europe with his next fair-haired passion. Are they really getting younger and blonder, or is it just me?
You are not the only one who thinks so. I never understood your father either. Nor did he understand why my sister married him. Uncle Harry frowned. Although I shouldn't have said it.
Why? It's true. And only the mystery of an old dusty manuscript can compare with this riddle.
How could I tell him that I was hoping for a romantic acquaintance this summer. Or even an adventure.
Patience, Callie, my uncle winked. “Remember what I said about secrets.
What does it mean?
You never know where a secret will lead you. It's like playing hide-and-seek through the ages. He uttered these words in a mysterious and jokingly nasty voice. - I need to call. For now, you can stay here and study the manuscript. But don't touch it!
He went to his office and, without looking back, threw after him:
And don't breathe on her!
I leaned over the table and stared at the tiny, barely visible squiggle. However, I couldn't make out the words.
And then I saw her. Below was a signature.
...
I saw another dream: behold, the sun and the moon and eleven stars worship me...
Reach for the stars. Dream about them.
My mother has always been a palimpsest to me. She died when I was six years old and all my life I've been looking for secret messages from her, hoping she would pass them on to me in the same way that the marginal notes spoke to Uncle Harry. It is a passionate desire that has never left me. Sometimes when I see one of my friends hugging their mom, I feel sharp pain in heart. And that night, I once again sat alone in my room in Harry's apartment, legs tucked under me, looking at old photographs of my mother.
My "room" - and it's worth putting quotation marks here - was what real estate agents in Manhattan call a second bedroom, although, in truth, it looks more like a niche in the wall, to which another wall has been added. But there was enough space for me, especially since Uncle Harry kept photographs of my mother here and here I hoped to find secret messages from her. He was her brother, and that's why I kept asking him questions about her. I always wondered if I looked like her ... I know I'm not like my father.
My father and I tried all our lives to avoid each other - in a way, we are terribly lucky that he is almost never at home. During my studies, I tolerated his presence in our house in suburban Boston. Fortunately, he traveled a lot, so I spent half the time with my friend Sophia's family. Or I was left in the care of a neighbor who lives opposite our apartment. But my favorite time of the year is summer, because I always saved it for Uncle Harry, his friend Gabe and New York. We usually spent time playing games and going to the beach, and once we even went to Toronto.
And this year? Oh, I was especially glad to get out of the house. I was in danger of a summer codenamed "Meet the Stepmother" as my father was already looking for diamond rings for his newest and blondest girlfriend named Sharon. I was sickened by the mere thought of the upcoming festival.
After I looked at the photos and chatted on Facebook with Sophia, who was spending the summer at a sports camp, I fell asleep without turning off the TV.
When I woke up, I stared at the ceiling, then turned my gaze to the plasma screen hanging on the wall. The morning news anchor, with her hair impeccably styled and coiffed, cheerfully announced that it was already six o'clock in the morning.
Mmmrrrrr! I murmured to Uncle Harry's cat. His name was Aggi, short for Agamemnon. By breed he is a silver Persian, and one eye is green and the other is yellow. As befits his breed, he leaves his hair everywhere. - It's summer, I can finally sleep off. And why, you ask, am I awake?
In response, I heard Aggie meow, who began to stomp on my stomach until he lay down, purring like a car engine. I reached for the remote and changed channels. I was too lazy to get up, but I was already so awake that now I definitely could not fall asleep.
Twenty minutes later Uncle Harry knocked on the door.
Are you up? he called me.
Unfortunately, yes.
He stuck his head in the door.
What will you wear to work today?
I glanced at my closet: its doors were wide open, clothes were strewn about on the floor.
Mmm... I don't know. Pants with some kind of sweater: it's so cold in your office. And since when are you interested in my appearance? I'm just bringing you coffee. So, I haven't decided yet. It's still too early to decide anything.
How about this? - And he threw a Barney's branded bag on my bed.
I sat up in bed and ran my hand through my curls. I heard Gabe sing in the shower another hit from the musical Guys and Dolls, in which he played the role of an avid debater Sky Masterson. Uncle went to this show twenty times and always sat in the front row of the stalls in the middle. If you count, he spent a small fortune on this, and after each performance he stood at the door of the theater with a yellow-and-black program in his hands to get Gabe's autograph. It was a sickeningly touching story from the How We Met series. And the rest, as they say, is history.
It's sad when your uncle is doing as well on the love front as you can never do. The fact that I am an honorary member of the club of smarties already means that something beautiful is missing in my personal life. Of course, my grandmother still believes that the whole point is that Uncle Harry simply did not meet the “right” girl. But at least he is now exactly in the trend of all fashionable novelties.
Pulling the box out of the bag, I tore off the gift wrapping and looked at Uncle Harry.
Are you kidding?
I took the package out of the box and unwrapped it. In my hands I had a small black dress. It really was amazing. I looked at the price tag.
Three hundred and fifty dollars? Are you crazy!
No, he didn't. I've always wanted to buy a dress in the style of Audrey Hepburn from Breakfast at Tiffany's. But I had no one to give it to. Until you showed up. Come on, don't you like it?
I nodded dumbfounded. This is probably the most chic thing in my wardrobe.
It's amazing! The only pity is that only your dusty manuscripts will see me in it.
You can never look too good for parchment work.
I grinned.
Thanks, I really like it a lot.
After the shower, I decided not to straighten my hair and keep the curls. The weather forecast promised high humidity, so it makes no sense to fight the true nature of my hair. All the same, they will braid, and you will get something between asparagus bushes and steel wool.
After putting on lip gloss and eyelashes, I put on black ballerinas - I also decided that I would not fight with a height of five feet three inches. But really, I'm kidding myself because I'm five foot two and have a little more hair on my head. I have naturally pale skin, all dotted with freckles, which I also don't bother to hide, and bright gray eyes. I took a look at bookshelf, on which my uncle arranged frames with black and white photographs of my mother. She looks straight into the camera lens and laughs as the wind blows her hair. In the photo, she is dressed exactly like the Madonna of the 80s, and somehow miraculously Mom is all right.
I wish I knew what made her laugh so much. Uncle Harry doesn't remember this. I am very similar to her - only a different hair color, but the same pale skin type. Alas, from the sun's rays I immediately turn into boiled cancer. But that's where the similarities seem to end. Because in every photo, mom looks like a model, or like a bohemian artist, or like someone glamorous from a life like a fairy tale.
I took another look at myself from head to toe in the mirror of the closet in my room. I looked…almost an adult. Smiling at my reflection, I went out into the narrow corridor. It was hung with posters of Uncle Harry and Gabe's favorite musicals - Boys and Dolls, 42nd Street, Contact, Chicago, Spamalot. Turning right, I went to the kitchen. It was huge by Manhattan standards, tiny by Boston standards, with electrical appliances shiny and sparkling clean, maple-colored cabinets, and granite-topped kitchen counters. I reached for the coffee grinder.
No time, dear," said Harry. We'll stop by Starbucks on the way. We need to go.
Gabe walked over to me.
Are you wearing a kimono? I asked, touching the blue and green silk.
Great, can I borrow it from you sometime?
If I were you, I would never take that dress off. Yes, and it is not a pity to die for him. You look incredible.
Thank you. I stood up on my toes and kissed him goodbye. - By the way, I liked your soulful chants today.
Did you hear me sing?
Every note.
Harry rolled his eyes playfully.
Holy innocence! He knows very well that we hear him.
After descending the elevator from the fortieth floor and looking into Starbucks (I'll die if I don't drink coffee in the morning, this is the source of life for me), my uncle and I rushed into the morning crowd of people hurrying to work - but we didn't go to the auction house.
Where are we going?
Home to Dr. Sokolov.
I thought he would come to your work to see the manuscript. Isn't this manuscript what all your medieval specialists live for?
Harry threw back his head and laughed.
I'm afraid this is impossible.
He has agoraphobia.
I tried to remember what kind of phobia this was.
Harry turned around and looked at me.
He never leaves his house. Never.
At all? Does he work?
Yes, he writes scientific articles, conducts research. He gives lectures via video link, records podcasts. Modern technologies make friends with people like him. People bring books to his house. Well, or in my case, I'll show him the video.
Strange... Never go outside. Where does he get food from?
Callie, honey. We are in New York. Here you can order everything at home.
Well, fine, but there must be things for which he leaves the apartment?
Probably yes. But for such cases, he has an assistant.
We got into a yellow taxi and ten minutes later, having narrowly avoided a dozen accidents, pale and completely rocked, we were already leaving at the gate of a four-story mansion in Greenwich Village. On the other side of the street, the trees raised their branches to the sky, spreading them over the road and trying to overcome the concrete barriers. Two long, polished limousines were parked outside the houses.
Amazing street, - I said, getting out of the taxi. - This part of the city seems so quiet and secluded.
I looked at my uncle.
That building over there is the typical home of a highly paid actress. I can't even tell you how many times I met Uma Thurman here. Oh, or my idol Anderson Cooper. Once I saw him go by on his bike. - Uncle nodded in the direction of a three-story stone mansion, located on the other side of the road. - I think someone lives there. famous writer. One way or another, Dr. Sokolov, as they say, is of golden blood. This house has belonged to his family for more than a hundred years, ever since the time when carriages drove along this street. Do you want me to tell you about incredible fact from the history?
I am not sure.
But it is absolutely necessary when it comes to such a luxurious home. For example, the reason why it is multi-storey is rooted deep in history, in a time when the rich could only live on the upper floors, away from the stink of horse manure. It was…
Better stop there, I moaned. Sometimes Uncle Harry's love of history was too graphic for me.
I looked around the street and wondered what it would be like to live here. The street was calm and serene, and for a second it seemed to me that I had fallen into the past. I even heard the chirping of birds hiding in the trees. As I approached the door of Dr. Sokolov's house, I noticed a sign hanging next to the doorbell. It read: "Sokolov and Sons, experts in antiques." Uncle called, and we heard the overflowing ringing of a bell throughout the house.
The four-meter-high massive door, polished to a shine, opened, but instead of an agoraphobic aged antiquities expert, I found myself face to face with the most handsome guy that I have ever seen. At that very moment, I felt myself blushing.
Oh, hello, Harry," he smiled at my uncle, two dimples showing in his cheeks. Then he looked at me, and I thought he saw something through me. Or inside. I backed away and bumped into my uncle.
Calliope, meet August Sokolov, Professor Sokolov's invaluable assistant and concurrently his son.
Hello! I tried to get my breath back.
There was a long pause. I got a good look at August: he had green eyes, brown hair curled slightly at the collar of his shirt. One ear was pierced - there was an earring with a Yin-Yang symbol. The left eye had a scar that looked like a horseshoe. The guy stared at me and blinked.
Come in, my father is waiting for you.
I stepped over the threshold, Uncle Harry followed me. Augustus led us through a marble foyer; as we walked past paintings and real (really) knightly armor, I glanced over my shoulder at my uncle.
"What?" said Uncle Harry soundlessly, with the most innocent air.
But I didn't take my eyes off him.
