The genre of the story in Russian literature of the 1900s Russian literature of the 19th century

In the views of the Decembrists on history, strengths were combined with weaknesses. The Decembrists were convinced that monarchism was a despotic form of government, that it held back the mighty forces of the nation and hindered the progress of the country. In a word, autocracy is a strangler of the free initiative of the nation and of each individual person.
At the same time, the noble revolutionaries extended the ideas of modernity to the entire historical Russian experience, not seeing the qualitative originality of this or that era and not noticing that at a certain stage in history, the autocracy played a positive unifying role. Since, the Decembrists believed, there are no fundamental differences between the historical past and the present, the struggle between tyrants and tyrants is equally characteristic of all periods of Russian history. Consequently, the freedom-loving ideas of antiquity are identical to the freedom-loving ideas of modern times. Therefore, all ancient and new freedom-loving heroes think the same way with each other and with the author. And this meant that these self-sacrificing people were not at all born of this or that era, its social conditions. If the heroism of historical figures, bred by the Decembrists, was dependent on the circumstances of historical life, then the guarantees of the appearance of valor in the modern era would disappear. Thus, the character of the freedom lover was explained by the Decembrists not by the time that created him, but by the commonality of the patriotic and civic ideas of the past with the patriotic and civic ideas of the present. The Decembrists strove to reveal the unity of the national character at all times, leaving the historical development of the Russian people outside the brackets of their reflections. This, in essence, consisted of that anti-historicism and that rationalistic approach to history, which manifested themselves with particular force in many works of the Decembrists, including the historical story.
If Karamzin wrote that “we will not find any repetitions in history”, then the Decembrists insisted on the self-evidence of repetitions, for patriotism and love of freedom are repeated throughout all epochs. “Every century,” Karamzin argued, “has its own special moral character, plunges into the bowels of eternity and never appears on earth another time. For Karamzin, each century has a relatively independent character. Historical development is accomplished by changing such epochs, which are no longer resurrected in the future. According to the Decembrists, the content and distinctive features of the moral life of people do not disappear anywhere and, of course, do not disappear without a trace. History, by its examples, convinces of the vitality of patriotic and civic virtues. From this comes the allusion characteristic of the Decembrist historical literature, which consists in the fact that in history examples of civic virtues are found that are directly imposed on modernity and overturned into it. Historical figures or events illustrate the Decembrist understanding of the underlying conflict. The method of allusions and "applications" was intended to justify the Decembrist ideas historically, to give them a national meaning.
Since the historical heroes were like-minded of each other and the Decembrist author, they thought, felt, and spoke in the same way. In addition, the Decembrists glorified such historical figures who, for one reason or another, found themselves in conflict with tyrants, but at the same time the real causes of the clashes were not taken into account and therefore were distorted. So, for example, for Ryleev it is enough that Artemy Volynsky was Biron's opponent. This prompted the poet to draw the image of a passionate and adamant freedom lover, dying for his convictions, but not betraying them. Meanwhile, Volynsky, of course, was neither a revolutionary nor a freedom lover. He belonged to that noble oligarchy that wanted to overthrow Biron, assert its influence over Anna Ioannovna and seize power. In other words, his actions were not driven by revolutionary and democratic considerations. With Ryleev, Volynsky turned into a fiery freethinker, a Decembrist in thoughts and feelings. The poet Katenin was surprised at the coverage of Mazepa in the poem “Voinarovsky”, who appeared to Ryleev as “some kind of Cato”, that is, instead of a traitor and enemy of Russia - a hater of tyranny and a republican.
The Decembrists in their historical consciousness at the initial stage were far from recognizing the indisputable fact that autocracy is a form of government that naturally arose in the course of history, that monarchism is an objective result of the historical process, independent of our subjective desires and tastes. The Decembrists approached history romantically and therefore excluded the idea of ​​development, but they had not yet risen to the point of recognizing the historical period as a necessary link in the fate of the people. At the same time, the Decembrists did not want to deliberately distort history. On the contrary, they sought to rely on documents, borrowing them from various sources, mostly from Karamzin's "History ...". In doing so, they showed an interest in historical truth and historical documentation. For example, each “Duma” by Ryleev was preceded by a historical note, which told about the event depicted in the poem. Ryleev, therefore, convinced readers of the accuracy of the historical picture he had drawn. Over time, the Decembrists were more and more attentive to the historically reliable transmission of events, linking the concept of historicism with the concept of nationality. Attempts to capture the originality of the era, to penetrate the "soul" of the people led the Decembrists to reproduce the mores of the people in one or another historical era.
Reproducing traditional motifs and relying on existing structural elements, the Decembrists introduced original ideological content into the historical story and expressed history through the prism of modernity. Thanks to new content, early historical tale Decembrists, which included the ideas of romantic historicism, displaced the sentimental story on a historical plot and anticipated the further deepening of the genre.

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The prose of the first quarter of the 19th century developed more dramatically than poetry, which for thirty years, right up to Pushkin's "Belkin's Tales" and Gogol's prose, occupied a leading position in literary process. Inertia affected classical period history of Russian literature of the 18th century. The poetics of classicism established a special relationship between poetry and prose. Prose was considered a "low" kind of literature. complex philosophical and moral issues were the subject of poetry or "high" genres of dramaturgy (tragedy). "Contemptible prose" dealt with "base" reality, alien to reasonable grounds, bathing in ignorance and depravity. This prose naturalistically described the mores of society, did not shy away from everyday vernacular. Pictures of vicious reality in it served as models for edification, which usually invaded the narrative, like “God from the machine”: either in the form of authorial moralizing conclusions and comments, or through the inclusion of reasoning heroes, walking bearers of virtue, in the course of action. Behind all this, of course, was the pride of the human mind, which imagined itself to be God, contemptuously treated living life from the height of abstract theories. Only its vulgar side was captured by the artistic image, while the bright beginning was brought in from the outside in the form of a ready-made moral maxim. The bias towards naturalism and reasoning was weak side so-called "enlightenment realism" of the second half of XVIII century. But his traditions also migrated to the literature of the early 19th century. They manifested themselves in the work of two novelists of this period - A. E. Izmailov and V. T. Narezhny.

The novel by A. E. Izmailov "Eugene, or the Pernicious Consequences of Bad Education and Community" (1799-1801) is a biography of a young nobleman, Evgeny Negodyaev, spoiled by rich and ignorant parents. The corruption is completed by the communication of the noble undergrowth with the dissolute "Voltairian" Razvratin, who takes out only godlessness and immoral worldly philosophy from the teachings of the French encyclopedists. Moral "education" Vongodyaev crowns in the capital, where he manages to squander his father's fortune at the age of five and give his soul to God. All the heroes of this novel are guided in life only by vile motives and deeds. Ignorant and vicious landowners, covetous bureaucrats, French milliners from girls of easy virtue, a convict tutor, a “freethinker” from raznochintsy… The moralizing tendency comes from the author, resonating over the image of vice and depravity. The writer does not make any attempts to find something bright in the characters themselves.

V. T. Narezhny tried to publish his first novel, The Russian Zhilblaz, or The Adventures of Prince Gavrila Simonovich Chistyakov, in 1812. But the image of the life and customs of Russian society was so sharp in it that the police imposed a ban on the three parts of the novel published in 1814, withdrawing them from circulation and prohibiting further publication. The next three parts, the last of which remained unfinished, saw the light only in Soviet times. Therefore, the novel did not actually enter the literary life of the beginning of the 19th century. In the preface, the author connects his idea with the educational moralistic tradition: his goal is “the depiction of morals in various states and relationships”. At the same time, Narezhny allows significant deviations from this genre norm: the bacchanalia of shamelessness and outrageousness in his work eludes the resonant control of the author, who is not completely sure of the truth and omnipotence of enlightenment ideas. In the context of the work, one feels some kind of uncertainty of the author's position, sliding towards moral indifference, one can feel Narezhny's bleak look at human nature, which, willy or not, knocks his novel out of the strict educational tradition.

So, the secretary of the all-powerful statesman Latron (from Latin latro - a robber) with a no less colorful surname Gadinsky admonishes Gavrila Chistyakov: “Get out of your head the old words, which are now considered dilapidated and almost out of use. These words are: virtue, charity, conscience, meekness and others like them. I think that these words will soon be completely expelled from the lexicons of all languages ​​in the world, and indeed. In addition to the bag, you will not gain anything with them. Gavrila Chistyakov, behind whom the author himself sometimes hides, cannot object to this. The hero of Narezhny is not even a rogue (not a classic picaro), which was such a hero in the tradition coming from Le Sage's novel "The Story of Gil Blas from Santillana", but a weak-willed creature, passively accepting any life circumstances. Leaving his hut in Falaleevka, he visited a landowner's estate, a monastery, a county town, a provincial town, Moscow, Warsaw. He was tried, he was in prison, he was the clerk of a Moscow merchant, a student of the "metaphysician" Babinarius, secretary of the nobleman Yastrebov, secretary of the leader Masonic Lodge Kuroumova, in the service of Prince Latron. Like a chameleon, he takes on the color of the environment into which he is thrown by whimsical fate. All of Russia opens before him with its ugly sides. And it seems that not only Chistyakov, but the author himself is ready to accept them as a sad, but inescapable norm of life. It is somehow hard to believe in the unexpected moral rebirth of the hero at the end of the novel. It seems that the author himself feels this: is it not for this reason that the reasoning background in the novel is so sluggish and inconsistent? Narezhny is obviously out of tune with the philosophy of education. But this shortcoming turns into a certain dignity, perhaps not even realized by the author himself: the description of everyday life in his novel becomes self-contained and, in its lack of control, paints.

This feature of the narrative style of Narezhny was clearly manifested in two novels from Ukrainian life - "Bursak" (1824) and "Two Ivans, or Passion for Litigation" (1825). The description of the bursat freemen in the first novel evokes the opening pages of N.V. Gogol's story "Viy". The comical quarrel between two Ukrainian lords Ivan and their neighbor Khariton Zanoza, flaring up over trifles and leading to a long-term lawsuit, recalls Gogol's "The Tale of how Ivan Ivanovich quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich" in the second novel.

The weakening of the educational principle leads Narezhny to humor, in some ways anticipating Gogol's. “For Gogol,” notes K). V. Mann, - what can be called the involuntary and naivety of comedy, avoiding surprise and affectation (which often accompany comedy in didactic literature), is highly characteristic. The characters "do not know" about their funny sides, they are not going to put them on public display - they just involuntarily manifest themselves. Yes, and life as a whole "does not know" about the comedy contained in it - it only naturally functions according to its own laws. The funny shows itself, as Gogol said, "by itself." But even in Narezhny his beginning, his outlines are noticeable. Hence the roll call, sometimes surprisingly unexpected.

Half a century after the death of Narezhny, I. A. Goncharov summed up his work in a peculiar way. Having become acquainted with three volumes of the Russian Zhilblaz in 1874, Goncharov wrote to M.I. Belinsky is deeply right in recognizing his talent and estimating him as the first Russian novelist in time. He is the school of Fonvizin, his follower and forerunner of Gogol. I do not want to exaggerate, read it carefully and you will see in it allusions, of course, weak, vague, often in a mutilated form, to the characteristic types created in such perfection by Gogol. He often falls into the manner of Fonvizin and seems to be predicting Gogol. Naturally, his ideas could not develop into characters in the absence of new forms and methods of art that subsequently appeared with us; but these ideas are worn in vague images - of the mean, and the old landowners, and all that life, which later came to life so realistically with our artists - but he belongs entirely to real school, started by Fonvizin and raised to the highest level by Gogol. And here in this Zhilblaz, and even more so in Bursaks and Two Ivans, where there was not enough image, the character is proved by the mind, often with a satirical or humorous seasoning. IN contemporary literature it would be a strong figure.

His successful efforts in the fight against the old language, against the Shishkov school, are also remarkable. ‹…› This struggle, in which he had not yet managed, like almost everyone then (in 1814), to completely get rid of the old school, makes his language heavy, rough, a mixture of Shishkovsky and Karamzin. But very often he manages, as if from a thicket of the forest, to go out onto the road and then he speaks easily, freely, sometimes pleasantly, and then again falls into archaisms and heavy turns.

So it was possible to evaluate the work of Narezhny only retrospectively. Contemporaries treated him differently. Introduced by the writer to the Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Sciences and Arts in 1818, the novel Black Year, or Mountain Princes was rejected: the author was shocked by the stylistic and linguistic rudeness, as well as "jokes about religion and autocratic power." The main line of development of Russian prose at the beginning of the 19th century went in a different direction, since it faced the task of mastering the high content of Russian life and developing a language that would correspond to it.

Prose learns from poetry, expands its thematic boundaries, develops a language capable of depicting not only low, but also high objects, grasping the complex processes of the spiritual life of a modern person. The formation of Russian prose of modern times ends in the 1830s with Pushkin and Gogol. And until that time, its language is in the stage of experimental growth, creative development. In the first half of the 19th century, prose was still very dependent on verse; "poetic" content predominated in it. The former forms of the educational moralistic novel are perceived as an obstacle to its development. Lyrical prose is spreading - landscape sketches, meditations, a kind of "elegy in prose", psychological portraits. “Small genres,” notes N. N. Petrunina, “win the right of literary citizenship and become those “cells” through which new trends penetrate into prose ... A peculiar form of combining these miniatures becomes journey, which in the literature of Russian sentimentalism turns out to be the main “big genre”, pushing plot narrative into the background”.

The experiences of the first decade of the 19th century date back to Letters from a Russian Traveler (1801) by Karamzin.

Following Karamzin, many Russian writers turn to the genre of travel: “Journey across the Crimea and Bessarabia” by P. Sumarokov (1800), “Journey to midday Russia” by V. V. Izmailov (1800-1802), “Journey to Kazan, Vyatka and Orenburg" M. Nevzorov (1803), "Journey to Little Russia" book. P. Shalikov (1803). The focus here is not the outside world, but the traveler's reaction to it. The mind and heart of the wanderer, the way he perceives and evaluates reality, his habits, feelings and experiences - this is what becomes the narrative nerve and the main goal of the journey. It is in the travel genre that for the first time in Russian literature the image of modern man, cultural and historical type of his personality. It is noteworthy that it is precisely the “private” person, with his inclinations and habits, with his emotional and intellectual world wins his place in literature, strives to become a hero of the new time.

In the 1810s, the travel genre was significantly updated. The epochal historical shifts and upheavals of the Napoleonic Wars and the Patriotic War of 1812 cause a flood of letters and notes from their participants. The first place here belongs to the Letters of a Russian Officer by F. N. Glinka (1808, 1815-1816). Their creative history is extended in time. First, there are notes of a young author, a participant in the foreign campaign of 1805-1806. Then Glinka describes peacetime, his trips around Russia. Finally, the Patriotic War of 1812 and European battles up to the complete victory over Napoleon and the entry of Russian troops into Paris. The story itself involuntarily shapes the intention of this book and intrudes into its narrative.

Before us new type a storyteller whose “journey” is made not out of idle curiosity, but out of “duty,” military duty. In the center of the narrative is the problem of the relationship of the individual with the history of his time. Glinka's impressions of Russian and European reality are woven together. The turning point in Russian and world history immeasurably expands the problems of letters in comparison with the travel genre of the previous period. LN Tolstoy was an attentive reader of this book for a reason. Two themes are closely intertwined in the narrative: war and peace. The Austrian campaign, unexpectedly for the author, appears in his letters as a prologue to the formidable and majestic epic of the Patriotic War. We see the spiritual growth of the author, we see how the national self-determination of the Russian person gradually becomes the central problem of the narrative. Already in the first part of the story about the foreign way of life, the author's thought about Russia, about her national way of life, is constantly present. A trip to the interior provinces reinforces this idea. In the depths of Russia, Glinka looks closely at the features of the old Russian way of life, at the national "mores, customs, fundamental virtues", not affected by "superficial vices". During this peaceful journey, he is especially interested in "natural gifts", forms of manifestation of people's initiative, amateur performance, and enterprise.

1812 gives the author's thoughts a new direction, he feels folk character war: “Soldiers will fight terribly! The villagers exchange their scythes for pikes. They only talk about enlistment, about a general uprising. “Come on, sir! Let's all go!” The spirit is awakening, the souls are ready. The people are asking liberties.‹…> Arm everyone, arm everyone who can, the commander-in-chief finally says in his last proclamation. – And so - the people's war! He draws incomparable pictures of the Battle of Borodino, giving living historical material to M. Yu. Lermontov’s poem “Borodino”: “Everything is silent! ... The Russians, with a pure, impeccable conscience, quietly doze, lightening the smoking lights ... Stars occasionally sparkle in the cloudy sky. So everything is quiet on our side.

On the contrary: the arranged fires shine brightly in camps enemy; music, singing, trumpet voices and cries are carried throughout their camp. Compare with Lermontov:

I lay down to take a nap at the gun carriage,

And it was heard before dawn,

How the French rejoiced.

But our open bivouac was quiet...

Glinka looks at the events of European life through the eyes of a Russian Orthodox Christian, providing living material for Leo Tolstoy's epic novel. In Napoleon, he sees the direct offspring of the French Revolution, the events of which he evaluates in a Christian way as a direct consequence of the superstition of people who deified their minds: “The revolution that befell France began with a revolution of fundamental opinions and general concepts. selfishness(l'egoisme) and superstition the essence of the two main springs that moved all the wheels of the infernal machine - revolution! greed stifled the heavenly teachings of faith, inflamed in people an incurable thirst for money, for their own benefits, and protected their hearts with a cruel bark of indifference. Then all the teachings of the Gospel fell on stones, and mercy, pity and love for one's neighbor could no longer enter into the hearts of the hardened. Then strange phenomena were shown in society: people without merits, talents and enlightenment enjoyed innumerable benefits of wealth at the same time as merits, talents and enlightenment groaned in terrible poverty! ... "

This is how the historiosophical thinking of the Russian officer, the future Decembrist, is formed. L. N. Tolstoy in “War and Peace” relies on these thoughts of Glinka, explaining the reasons for the aggressive wars of the French led by Napoleon: “In order for the peoples of the West to make that militant movement to Moscow that they made, it was necessary: ​​1) that they form into a militant group of such magnitude as to be able to endure a clash with the militant group of the East; 2) that they renounce all established traditions and habits, and 3) that, in making their militant movement, they should have at their head a man who, both for himself and for them, could justify the deceptions, robberies and murders that accompanied this movement.

And since the French Revolution, the old, insufficiently great group has been destroyed; old habits and traditions are destroyed; step by step a group of new dimensions, new habits and traditions are worked out, and that person is being prepared who must stand at the head of the future movement and bear all the responsibility of those who have to be accomplished.

A man without convictions, without habits, without traditions, without a name, not even a Frenchman, by the most strange accidents, it seems, moves between all the parties that worry France and, without sticking to any of them, is brought to a conspicuous place.

Following the “Letters” of Glinka, a number of Decembrist “journeys” and “letters” appear - letters from M. F. Orlov to D. P. Buturlin, “Letters to a friend in Germany”, attributed to A. D. Ulybyshev (1819-1820) , etc. The role of social and civil issues is increasing in them, which is gradually replacing the “sensitive” style of sentimentalist prose. Sentimentalistic stylistics and imagery are preserved only in the Travel Notes of a Russian Officer (1820) by I. I. Lazhechnikov, the first major work of the future historical novelist. But even here the national-patriotic theme, the focus on the impressions of a "simple observer" is reminiscent of Glinka's Letters.

Other popular genre Russian prose of the early 19th century was a story. Karamzin, standing at the origins of new Russian literature, was the first to give its genre samples: 1. Plotless lyrical story - "The Village". 2. A love-psychological story with complex social and moral issues - “Poor Liza”. 3. An ironic story-tale - "The Beautiful Princess and Happy Carla." 4. Different types of historical story. 5. A mysterious story with elements of pre-romantic Gothic - "Bornholm Island". 6. A satirical story about the customs of the modern nobility - "My confession". 7. The beginning of the socio-psychological novel - "The Knight of Our Time".

The most common at the beginning of the 19th century was the type of sentimental story about unfortunate lovers, continuing the tradition of "Poor Liza": "Poor Masha" (1801) by A. E. Izmailov, "Seduced Henrietta" (1802) by I. Svechinsky, "Lindor and Liza, or The Oath” (1803) and “The Story of Poor Marya” (1805) by N. P. Brusilov, “The Beautiful Tatyana Living at the Foot of the Sparrow Hills” (1804) by V. V. Izmailov, “Inna” (1806) by G. P. Kamenev, etc. Here, the first attempts at social concretization of the heroes are already encountered, the theme of the struggle between feeling and duty, ardent passions and virtue arises, an analysis of the contradictory movements of the human soul is growing.

A mysterious pre-romantic story, with gothic elements, developing the motives of horrors and secrets of the English gothic novel (X. Walpole, Anna Radcliffe, M. G. Lewis), the genre of which was discovered by Karamzin back in late XVIII century (“Sierra Morena” and “Bornholm Island”), was developed in the story of V. A. Zhukovsky “Maryina Grove” (1809). If Karamzin in "Poor Lisa" created a legend that poeticized the surroundings of the Simonov Monastery, then Zhukovsky surrounded another corner of Moscow - Maryina Roscha - with dreamy romance.

The action of his story-elegy is timed to coincide with the times of Prince Vladimir. Names with the flavor of the Russian Middle Ages are used - Rogdai, Peresvet, Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya. Signs are given historical life Ancient Rus' - "squad", "collection of the people", "posadniks of Novgorod". But these historical details are nothing more than a decoration, a historical accessory. The story is painted with the color of pre-romantic Gothic: gloomy Ossian lyricism, a composition built on the contrasts of landscape, lighting, lyrical tone. The theme of the innocent “sentimental” love of the girl Maria and the singer Uslad is invaded by a demonic motif associated with the hero Rogdai, whose house rises above the “low huts of farmers” as a symbol of fate hanging over the happiness of a peaceful singer and a poor villager. Give birth with your mighty power and strength passionate nature wins over Maria during the long absence of her beloved Delight. But his triumph is fragile, he is unable to win the heart of Mary. The jealous man destroys his victim and perishes himself. And the life of the returned singer Delight, after the shock he experienced, turns into “a sweet expectation, a consoling hope for the near end of parting,” a meeting with Mary behind the coffin. The story is autobiographical and permeated with the motives of Zhukovsky's ballads. The example of this story shows how Russian prose was the first half of XIX century mastering the achievements of poetry. She “assimilates the compositional principles of poetic genres - lexical and syntactic repetitions, ring construction, rhythmic structure, sound writing techniques. Complex paraphrases and psychological epithets are of great importance. Interest in contrasting states is characteristic: in nature and in man, either the peaceful, idyllic, or the stormy, destructive or mournfully melancholic beginning is emphasized ”(N. N. Petrunina).

One of the achievements of mature romanticism was a comprehensive historicism, covering not only forms of statehood, but also privacy person (everyday life, customs, psychology, way of thinking), connecting with the general course of history. From this point of view, each epoch was conceived as a unique individual whole, and each person in it is an organic part of it. The life of this or that people in history was perceived as a natural growth and disclosure of the historical idea originally inherent in it, from which, like a plant from a grain, a national historical organism developed. On the way to mature romanticism, Russian literature had to overcome the abstraction inherent in classicism and enlightenment in the approach to understanding historical time, to learn to see the specifics of each moment of life taken in its connection with the past and future fate of the people.

One of the forms of the emerging European pre-romantic historicism was "Ossian" poetry and prose. Its historical roots were associated with the Scottish poet James MacPherson, a collector of folklore, who created sentimental-lyrical hoax poems attributed to the never-existing Celtic bard of the third century AD - Ossian. In 1765, Macpherson published the two-volume work "Songs of Ossian", accepted in Europe for the works of northern Homer, who revealed to mankind the poetic antiquity of the northern peoples. In all European countries, a real cult of the "Scottish bard" arose, which was a fact of awakening national consciousness. This cult stimulated the appeal of writers and poets to distant epochs, to the prehistory of all Indo-European mankind, to the origins of their own people, to national deities and heroes. At the heart of Ossian's elegiac lyricism was the image of a powerful and inexorable time, carrying away the ancient heroes and the very memory of their valor. The "Songs of Ossian" were painted with the color of the harsh northern nature and sustained in a single musical tonality - elegiac sorrow.

Ossianism had a great influence on the formation of the national heroic theme in Russian literature. He determined the spiritual atmosphere in which our perception and assimilation of epics, chronicles, and the newly discovered Tale of Igor's Campaign took place. Translations and imitations of the "Songs of Ossian" began to appear in our country from the 1780s. In 1792, E. I. Kostrov published a prose translation of 24 of his poems. The first attempts at original Ossian prose date back to the 1790s: Oskold by M. N. Muravyov (published by Karamzin in 1810), Rogvold by V. T. Narezhny (1798). They recreate the atmosphere of an ancient historical legend, depict heroic characters, depict a gloomy night landscape. In their lyrical composition, the traditions of a sentimental story and a historical-heroic elegy merge.

In 1803, Zhukovsky published the beginning of his historical novel Vadim Novgorodsky in Vestnik Evropy. The influence of Ossian permeates the figurative and intonational structure in it, determines a special "song" interpretation of history. The times of "glory, the exploits of the brave Slavs, their generosity, their fidelity in friendship, holy reverence for vows and oaths" are sung. Ancient pagan gods are mentioned, historical and fictitious names of Gostomysl, Radegast, Vadim are used. It tells about the expulsion and death of the Novgorod heroes, about the triumph of "foreigners". The past is given the features of modernity: the world human feelings and relationships is typical of the literature of sentimentalism. The whole story is permeated with gloomy and harsh lyrical tension. Its historicism, of course, is conditional, but Zhukovsky did not set the goal of creating historical characters. The story is prefaced with an elegy in prose - "a tribute to the sorrowful friendship" and "to the memory of Andrei Ivanovich Turgenev." The tone of this elegy, like a tuning fork, sets the whole story in a mournful elegiac mood.

The formation of historicism in Russian prose can also be traced on the example of the work of K. N. Batyushkov. His first historical experience- the "old story" "Predslava and Dobrynya" (1810) transfers the action to ancient Kyiv, during the time of Prince Vladimir. It tells about the unhappy love of the daughter of Prince Predslava for the young hero Dobrynya: grand ducal origin is an obstacle to their rapprochement - the princess is betrothed to the stern, proud and vindictive Bulgarian prince Radmir. Lovers fall prey to his jealousy. The story is far from historical truth. The action in it is immersed in the atmosphere of a fairy tale. The "knightly" entourage corresponds to the romantic appearance of the heroes with the tragic intensity of their passions. Here Batyushkov is not original: he moves in line with the tradition of the historical story of the beginning of the 19th century.

Batyushkov's participation in the historical European campaign of the Russian army, which ended with the complete defeat of Napoleon and the entry of Russian troops into Paris, forced the writer to turn to contemporary events. In the story "Journey to the Sirey Castle" (1814), Batyushkov describes a visit to the castle associated with the name of Voltaire. Unlike Karamzin, he comes to this castle not as a simple traveler, but as a participant in a great historical event that affected the fate of all European mankind. Therefore, the nerve of the essay is the spirit of rapid historical change. The author feels himself not only an heir to French culture, but also a participant in historical events that decide the fate of France and all of Europe. The image of France has many faces: it is the France of the time of Voltaire, the France of the period of the revolution, the France of Napoleon and the defeated France of 1814. Contemporary events are perceived by the author through the historical prism of different eras. Modernity is a product of history, a direct consequence of it.

Historicism Batyushkov triumphs further in the sketches "A walk to the Academy of Arts" (1814) and "Evening at Cantemir" (1816). The description of the exhibition at the academy is based on the picture of the emergence of St. Petersburg from the swamp of "Finnish blat", which Pushkin used in the introduction to the poem " Bronze Horseman". Petersburg of Alexander I and the art of modern times are put in connection with Batyushkov's reformatory activity of Peter.

The dialogue "Evening at Cantemir" depicts a discussion between a Russian representative of a new Europeanized culture and French enlighteners. At the same time, Batyushkov strives to give his heroes a language appropriate to their time. But Batyushkov still fails to depict the past in its life-like concreteness. The process of development of Russian literature will include his ability to perceive modernity as a product of history.

In 1822 Pushkin wrote: “The question is whose prose is the best in our literature. The answer is Karamzin. Pushkin came to this conclusion after reading the first eight volumes of The History of the Russian State, under whose influence the development of Russian artistic and historical prose took place from the late 1810s to the 1830s.

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romantic poems
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The last free Slav!
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Lyrics by Lermontov 1838-1840
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Love in Lermontov's lyrics
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Lermontov's poems about the appointment of the poet and poetry
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Duel and second exile to the Caucasus
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Lyrics of Lermontov 1840-1841
And June 1840, Lermontov arrived in Stavropol, where the headquarters of the Russian troops was located. And on June 18 he was sent to the left flank of the Caucasian line. During the assault on the blockages on the Valerik River (

The creative history of the novel "A Hero of Our Time
Lermontov began work on the novel on the basis of his first exile to the Caucasus. In 1839, two stories appeared in the journal Otechestvennye Zapiski - Bela and Fatalist, in the beginning of 1840

The composition of the novel and its meaningful meaning
Did Lermontov accidentally abandon the chronological principle in the arrangement of the stories included in the novel, from the order of their initial publication? Why is The Fatalist at the end of the novel? Why by

Spiritual journey of Pechorin
The spiritual journey of Pechorin, a man with a romantic mindset and character, takes Lermontov through those worlds of Russian life that have long been mastered in romantic novels and short stories.

The significance of Lermontov's work in the history of Russian literature
In his lyrics, Lermontov opened up space for introspection, self-deepening, for the dialectics of the soul. These discoveries would later be used by Russian poetry and prose. It was Lermontov who solved the problem of "poetry we

Lermontov M. Yu. Op. In 6 volumes - M.; L., 1954-1957; M. Yu. Lermontov in the memoirs of his contemporaries. - M., 1972; Belinsky V. G. 1) A hero of our time. Composition by M. Lermontov. 2) St

The formation of creative talent and the life fate of Koltsov
By the will of fate, Koltsov spent his whole life wandering around the villages, villages and "slobodushki" of the Voronezh Territory, absorbing the poetry of folk life with a receptive soul. Alexey Vasilyevich Koltsov was born on 3 (1

Russian songs" Koltsova
In 1846, the first posthumous edition of Koltsov's poems, prepared by Belinsky, was published. In the introductory article that accompanied him on the life and writings of the poet, Belinsky shares the poem

Thoughts of Koltsov
The songful, cosmic-natural view of the world is transformed and complicated in Koltsov's philosophical "thoughts", which, as a rule, were underestimated by democratic criticism. In "thoughts" Koltsov appears samob

Koltsov in the history of Russian culture
Contemporaries saw something prophetic in Koltsov's poetry. V. Maikov wrote: "He was more a poet of the possible and the future than a poet of the real and the present." And Nekrasov called Koltsov's songs "ve

Koltsov A. V. Full. coll. op. / Enter, art. and note. L. A. Plotkina / Prepared. text by M. I. Malova and L. A. Plotkin. - L., 1958. - ("Library of the poet". B. Ser. - 2nd ed.); Koltsov A.V.

The originality of Gogol's realism
Gogol's work marked a new phase in the development of Russian realism. First Belinsky, and then Chernyshevsky began to assert that this writer was the ancestor of the "Gogol period" in our

Gogol's childhood and youth
Nikolai Vasilievich Gogol was born on March 20 (April 1), 1809 in the town of Velikie Sorochintsy, Mirgorod district, Poltava province, in the family of a poor Ukrainian landowner Vasily Afanasyevich Gog

The beginning of the creative path. "Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka"
In June 1828, Gogol graduated from the course at the Nizhyn gymnasium, and at the end of the year, having enlisted letters of recommendation from influential relatives, went to St. Petersburg. He went to the capital with the most

Collection of short stories "Mirgorod"
The success of "Evenings ..." dramatically changed the position of Gogol in St. Petersburg. Delvig, Pletnev and Zhukovsky take a heartfelt part in his fate. Pletnev, who at that time was an inspector of the Patriotic Institute

Gogol the historian
The signs of Gogol's historicism noted back in "Evenings ..." are further developed in the collection "Mirgorod". And this is no coincidence. Work on it coincided with the writer's serious passion for historical

Petersburg Tales of Gogol
In the first half of 1835, Gogol published the collection "Arabesques", which, along with historical and journalistic articles, included three stories: "Nevsky Prospekt", "Portrait" and "Notes

Dramaturgy of Gogol. Comedy "Inspector"
Back in the period of Mirgorod and Arabesques, Gogol felt the need to express his understanding and appreciation of contemporary reality in comedy. On February 20, 1833, he informed M.P. Pogodin: “I did not write

The creative history of Gogol's poem "Dead Souls"
The plot of the poem was suggested to Gogol by Pushkin, who witnessed fraudulent transactions with "dead souls" during his exile in Chisinau. At the beginning of the 19th century, people fled to the south of Russia, to Bessarabia, from different ends.

roads and their symbolic meaning
The poem opens with the entrance to the provincial town NN of a spring cart. Acquaintance with the main character is preceded by a conversation between “two Russian men” about the possibilities of this britzka: “Look at you,” said one friend

Manilov and Chichikov
Let us note that Chichikov peers into the "dead souls" of the landlords as false mirror. These people represent fragments of his own soul taken to the extreme and overflowing. That is why with

Korobochka and Chichikov
The box, to which Chichikov was brought by chance, is the exact opposite of Manilov's daydreaming, soaring in a blue void. This is one of those "small landowners who cry for crop failures, losses

Nozdrev and Chichikov
Nozdryov, with whom another "accident" brings Chichikov, is an example of an ugly broad Russian nature. Dostoevsky would later say of such people: "If there is no God, then everything is permitted." Nozdryov has God

Sobakevich and Chichikov
The talent of depicting a person through his everyday environment reaches Gogol's triumph in the story of the meeting between Chichikov and Sobakevich. This landowner does not have his head in the clouds, he stands on the ground with both feet,

Plushkin and Chichikov
In the gallery of landowners presented by Gogol to general shame and ridicule, there is one remarkable feature: in the replacement of one hero by another, a feeling of vulgarity grows, into the terrible mud of which one plunges

The Path of Pavel Ivanovich Chichikov
Chichikov - a living embodiment of the movement of Russian life in the 19th century - is given in a poem with a widely expanded biography. Compared with the determined and relatively frozen characters of the Russian landowner

Dead Souls" in Russian criticism
« Dead Souls”were published in 1842 and, willy-nilly, found themselves in the center of the ongoing epoch-making split in Russian thoughts XIX century on the Slavophile and Western directions. Slavophiles otry

The story "Overcoat"
Halfway from the first volume of Dead Souls to the second is the last Petersburg story Gogol's "The Overcoat", which differs sharply from "Nevsky Prospekt", "The Nose" and "Notes of a Madman" is special

Selected places from correspondence with friends»
Work on the second volume of Dead Souls is slow and difficult. The long-term stay in Rome, the separation of Gogol from living Russian impressions, is having an effect. His letters of this period are filled with appeals

Belinsky's letter to Gogol
In the autumn of 1847, Gogol received an angry letter from Belinsky, which deeply wounded both the talent and noble intentions of the writer. “Russia,” Belinsky argued, “sees its salvation not in mysticism, not in

The second volume of Dead Souls. Creative drama of Gogol
From the second volume, only a few fragments have survived, indicating a significant creative evolution of the writer. He dreamed of creating goodie who "would be able to say the almighty word:"

Gogol N. V. Full. coll. op. - M., 1937-1952. - T. 1-14; Gogol N. V. Sobr. op. In 9 volumes - M., 1994; N. V. Gogol in Russian criticism and memoirs of contemporaries. - M., 1959;

Aksakov Ivan Sergeevich (1823-1886) - poet and publicist. One of the leaders of Russian Slavophiles. The most famous work: the fairy tale "The Scarlet Flower".

Aksakov Konstantin Sergeevich (1817-1860) - poet, literary critic, linguist, historian. Inspirer and ideologist of Slavophilism.

Aksakov Sergei Timofeevich (1791-1859) - writer and public figure, literary and theater critic. Wrote a book about fishing and hunting. Father of writers Konstantin and Ivan Aksakov.

Annensky Innokenty Fedorovich (1855-1909) - poet, playwright, literary critic, linguist, translator. Author of plays: "King Ixion", "Laodamia", "Melanippa the Philosopher", "Famira Kefared".

Baratynsky Yevgeny Abramovich (1800-1844) - poet and translator. Author of poems: "Eda", "Feasts", "Ball", "Concubine" ("Gypsy").

Batyushkov Konstantin Nikolaevich (1787-1855) - poet. Also the author of a number of well-known prose articles: "On the character of Lomonosov", "Evening at Kantemir" and others.

Belinsky Vissarion Grigoryevich (1811-1848) - literary critic. He headed the critical department in the publication "Domestic Notes". Author of numerous critical articles. He had a great influence on Russian literature.

Bestuzhev-Marlinsky Alexander Alexandrovich (1797-1837) - Byronist writer, literary critic. Published under the pseudonym Marlinsky. Published the almanac "Polar Star". He was one of the Decembrists. Author of prose: "Test", "Terrible fortune-telling", "Frigate Hope" and others.

Vyazemsky Petr Andreevich (1792-1878) - poet, memoirist, historian, literary critic. One of the founders and the first head of the Russian Historical Society. Close friend of Pushkin.

Venevetinov Dmitry Vladimirovich (1805-1827) - poet, prose writer, philosopher, translator, literary critic Author of 50 poems. He was also known as an artist and musician. Organizer of the secret philosophical association "Society of Philosophy".

Herzen Alexander Ivanovich (1812-1870) - writer, philosopher, teacher. The most famous works: the novel “Who is to blame?”, the stories “Doctor Krupov”, “The Magpie-Thief”, “Damaged”.

Glinka Sergei Nikolaevich (1776-1847) - writer, memoirist, historian. The ideological inspirer of conservative nationalism. Author of the following works: "Selim and Roxana", "Virtue of Women" and others.

Glinka Fyodor Nikolaevich (1876-1880) - poet and writer. Member of the Decembrist Society. The most famous works: the poems "Karelia" and "The Mysterious Drop".

Gogol Nikolai Vasilyevich (1809-1852) - writer, playwright, poet, literary critic. Classic of Russian literature. Author of Dead Souls, the cycle of stories Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka, the stories The Overcoat and Viy, the plays The Inspector General and The Marriage, and many other works.

Goncharov Ivan Alexandrovich (1812-1891) - writer, literary critic. Author of the novels: "Oblomov", "Cliff", "Ordinary History".

Griboyedov Alexander Sergeevich (1795-1829) - poet, playwright and composer. He was a diplomat, died in the service in Persia. The most famous work is the poem "Woe from Wit", which served as the source of many catchphrases.

Grigorovich Dmitry Vasilyevich (1822-1900) - writer.

Davydov Denis Vasilyevich (1784-1839) - poet, memoirist. Hero of the Patriotic War of 1812. Author of numerous poems and military memoirs.

Dal Vladimir Ivanovich (1801-1872) - writer and ethnographer. Being a military doctor, he collected folklore along the way. The most famous literary work is the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language. Dahl tinkered with the dictionary for over 50 years.

Delvig Anton Antonovich (1798-1831) - poet, publisher.

Dobrolyubov Nikolai Alexandrovich (1836-1861) - literary critic and poet. Published under pseudonyms -bov and N. Laibov. Author of numerous critical and philosophical articles.

Dostoevsky Fyodor Mikhailovich (1821-1881) - writer and philosopher. Recognized classic of Russian literature. Author of works: "The Brothers Karamazov", "Idiot", "Crime and Punishment", "Teenager" and many others.

Zhemchuzhnikov Alexander Mikhailovich (1826-1896) - poet. Together with his brothers and writer Tolstoy A.K. created the image of Kozma Prutkov.

Zhemchuzhnikov Alexei Mikhailovich (1821-1908) - poet and satirist. Together with his brothers and writer Tolstoy A.K. created the image of Kozma Prutkov. Author of the comedy "Strange Night" and the collection of poems "Songs of Old Age".

Zhemchuzhnikov Vladimir Mikhailovich (1830-1884) - poet. Together with his brothers and writer Tolstoy A.K. created the image of Kozma Prutkov.

Zhukovsky Vasily Andreevich (1783-1852) - poet, literary critic, translator, founder of Russian romanticism.

Zagoskin Mikhail Nikolaevich (1789-1852) - writer and playwright. Author of the first Russian historical novels. Author of the works "Prankster", "Yuri Miloslavsky, or Russians in 1612", "Kulma Petrovich Miroshev" and others.

Karamzin Nikolai Mikhailovich (1766-1826) - historian, writer and poet. Author of the monumental work "History of the Russian State" in 12 volumes. His pen belongs to the story: "Poor Lisa", "Eugene and Julia" and many others.

Kireevsky Ivan Vasilyevich (1806-1856) - religious philosopher, literary critic, Slavophile.

Krylov Ivan Andreevich (1769-1844) - poet and fabulist. Author of 236 fables, many expressions of which have become winged. He published magazines: "Mail of Spirits", "Spectator", "Mercury".

Kuchelbecker Wilhelm Karlovich (1797-1846) - poet. He was one of the Decembrists. Close friend of Pushkin. Author of works: "The Argives", "The Death of Byron", "The Eternal Jew".

Lazhechnikov Ivan Ivanovich (1792-1869) - writer, one of the founders of the Russian historical novel. Author of the novels "Ice House" and "Basurman".

Lermontov Mikhail Yurievich (1814-1841) - poet, writer, playwright, artist. Classic of Russian literature. The most famous works: the novel "A Hero of Our Time", the story " Prisoner of the Caucasus”, poems “Mtsyri” and “Masquerade”.

Leskov Nikolai Semenovich (1831-1895) - writer. The most famous works: "Lefty", "Cathedrals", "On knives", "Righteous".

Nekrasov Nikolai Alekseevich (1821-1878) - poet and writer. Classic of Russian literature. Head of the Sovremennik magazine, editor of the Domestic Notes magazine. The most famous works are: “Who should live well in Rus'”, “Russian women”, “Frost, Red nose”.

Ogarev Nikolai Platonovich (1813-1877) - poet. Author of poems, poems, critical articles.

Odoevsky Alexander Ivanovich (1802-1839) - poet and writer. He was one of the Decembrists. The author of the poem "Vasilko", the poems "Zosima" and "The Elder-Prophet".

Odoevsky Vladimirovich Fedorovich (1804-1869) - writer, thinker, one of the creators of musicology. He wrote fantastic and utopian works. Author of the novel "Year 4338", numerous stories.

Ostrovsky Alexander Nikolaevich (1823-1886) - playwright. Classic of Russian literature. Author of plays: "Thunderstorm", "Dowry", "Balzaminov's Marriage" and many others.

Panaev Ivan Ivanovich (1812-1862) - writer, literary critic, journalist. Author of works: " Sissy”,“ Meeting at the station ”,“ Lions of the province ”and others.

Pisarev Dmitry Ivanovich (1840-1868) - literary critic of the sixties, translator. Many of Pisarev's articles were dismantled into aphorisms.

Pushkin Alexander Sergeevich (1799-1837) - poet, writer, playwright. Classic of Russian literature. Author: poems "Poltava" and "Eugene Onegin", the story "The Captain's Daughter", a collection of stories "Tales of Belkin" and numerous poems. He founded the literary magazine Sovremennik.

Raevsky Vladimir Fedoseevich (1795-1872) - poet. Member of the Patriotic War of 1812. He was one of the Decembrists.

Ryleev Kondraty Fedorovich (1795-1826) - poet. He was one of the Decembrists. Author of the historical poetic cycle "Duma". He published the literary almanac "Polar Star".

Saltykov-Shchedrin Mikhail Efgrafovich (1826-1889) - writer, journalist. Classic of Russian literature. The most famous works: "Gentlemen Golovlev", " wise gudgeon"," Poshekhonskaya antiquity. He was the editor of the journal "Domestic Notes".

Samarin Yuriy Fedorovich (1819-1876) - publicist and philosopher.

Sukhovo-Kobylin Alexander Vasilyevich (1817-1903) - playwright, philosopher, translator. Author of plays: "Krechinsky's Wedding", "Deed", "Death of Tarelkin".

Tolstoy Alexei Konstantinovich (1817-1875) - writer, poet, playwright. Author of the poems: "The Sinner", "The Alchemist", the plays "Fantasy", "Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich", the stories "Ghoul" and "Wolf Foster". Together with the Zhemchuzhnikov brothers, he created the image of Kozma Prutkov.

Tolstoy Lev Nikolaevich (1828-1910) - writer, thinker, educator. Classic of Russian literature. Served in the artillery. Participated in the defense of Sevastopol. The most famous works: "War and Peace", "Anna Karenina", "Resurrection". In 1901 he was excommunicated from the church.

Turgenev Ivan Sergeevich (1818-1883) - writer, poet, playwright. Classic of Russian literature. The most famous works: "Mumu", "Asya", "Noble Nest", "Fathers and Sons".

Tyutchev Fedor Ivanovich (1803-1873) - poet. Classic of Russian literature.

Fet Afanasy Afanasyevich (1820-1892) - lyric poet, memoirist, translator. Classic of Russian literature. Author of numerous romantic poems. He translated Juvenal, Goethe, Catullus.

Khomyakov Alexei Stepanovich (1804-1860) - poet, philosopher, theologian, artist.

Chernyshevsky Nikolai Gavrilovich (1828-1889) - writer, philosopher, literary critic. Author of the novels What Is to Be Done? and "Prologue", as well as the stories "Alferyev", "Small stories".

Chekhov Anton Pavlovich (1860-1904) - writer, playwright. Classic of Russian literature. Playwright " The Cherry Orchard”, “Three sisters”, “Uncle Vanya” and numerous stories. Conducted a population census on Sakhalin Island.

"Verily, that was the golden age of our literature,

the period of her innocence and bliss! .. "

M. A. Antonovich

M. Antonovich in his article called the "golden age of literature" the beginning of the 19th century - the period of creativity of A. S. Pushkin and N. V. Gogol. Subsequently, this definition began to characterize the literature of the entire 19th century - up to the works of A.P. Chekhov and L.N. Tolstoy.

What are the main features of Russian classical literature of this period?

Fashionable at the beginning of the century, sentimentalism gradually fades into the background - the formation of romanticism begins, and from the middle of the century realism rules the ball.

New types of heroes appear in literature: " small man", which most often dies under the pressure of the foundations accepted in society and the "extra person" is a string of images, starting with Onegin and Pechorin.

Continuing the traditions of the satirical image, proposed by M. Fonvizin, in the literature of the 19th century satirical image vices of modern society becomes one of the central motives. Often satire takes on grotesque forms. Vivid examples are Gogol's "Nose" or "The History of a City" by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin.

Another one distinguishing feature The literature of this period has an acute social orientation. Writers and poets are increasingly turning to socio-political topics, often plunging into the field of psychology. This leitmotif permeates the works of I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy. A new form appears - the Russian realistic novel, with its deep psychologism, the most severe criticism of reality, irreconcilable enmity with the existing foundations and loud calls for renewal.

Well, the main reason that prompted many critics to call the 19th century the golden age of Russian culture: the literature of this period, despite a number of unfavorable factors, had a powerful influence on the development of world culture as a whole. Soaking up all the best that offered world literature, Russian literature was able to remain original and unique.

Russian writers of the 19th century

V.A. Zhukovsky- Pushkin's mentor and his Teacher. It is Vasily Andreevich who is considered the founder of Russian romanticism. It can be said that Zhukovsky "prepared" the ground for Pushkin's bold experiments, since he was the first to expand the scope of the poetic word. After Zhukovsky, the era of the democratization of the Russian language began, which was so brilliantly continued by Pushkin.

Selected Poems:

A.S. Griboyedov went down in history as the author of one work. But what! Masterpiece! Phrases and quotes from the comedy "Woe from Wit" have long become winged, and the work itself is considered the first realistic comedy in the history of Russian literature.

Analysis of the work:

A.S. Pushkin. He was called differently: A. Grigoriev claimed that "Pushkin is our everything!", F. Dostoevsky "the great and incomprehensible Forerunner", and Emperor Nicholas I admitted that, in his opinion, Pushkin is "the most intelligent person in Russia". Simply put, this is Genius.

Pushkin's greatest merit is that he radically changed Russian literary language, saving him from pretentious abbreviations, like "young, breg, sweet", from the ridiculous "marshmallows", "Psyche", "Cupids", so revered in grandiloquent elegies, from borrowings, which were then so abundant in Russian poetry. Pushkin brought colloquial vocabulary, craft slang, elements of Russian folklore to the pages of printed publications.

A. N. Ostrovsky also pointed out another important achievement of this brilliant poet. Before Pushkin, Russian literature was imitative, stubbornly imposing traditions and ideals alien to our people. Pushkin, on the other hand, "gave courage to the Russian writer to be Russian", "revealed the Russian soul". In his stories and novels, for the first time, the theme of the morality of the social ideals of that time is so vividly raised. And the main character light hand Pushkin is now becoming an ordinary "little man" - with his thoughts and hopes, desires and character.

Analysis of works:

M.Yu. Lermontov- bright, mysterious, with a touch of mysticism and an incredible thirst for will. All his work is a unique fusion of romanticism and realism. Moreover, both directions do not oppose at all, but, as it were, complement each other. This man went down in history as a poet, writer, playwright and artist. He wrote 5 plays: the most famous is the drama "Masquerade".

And among prose works, the real diamond of creativity was the novel "A Hero of Our Time" - the first realistic novel in prose in the history of Russian literature, where for the first time the writer tries to trace the "dialectics of the soul" of his hero, mercilessly subjecting him to psychological analysis. This innovative creative method of Lermontov will be used by many Russian and foreign writers in the future.

Selected works:

N.V. Gogol known as a writer and playwright, but it is no coincidence that one of his most famous works - "Dead Souls" is considered a poem. There is no other such Master of the word in world literature. Gogol's language is melodious, incredibly bright and figurative. This was most clearly manifested in his collection Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka.

On the other hand, N.V. Gogol is considered the founder of the "natural school", with its satire bordering on the grotesque, accusatory motifs and ridicule of human vices.

Selected works:

I.S. Turgenev- the greatest Russian novelist who established the canons of the classic novel. He continues the traditions established by Pushkin and Gogol. He often refers to the theme of "an extra person", trying to convey the relevance and significance of social ideas through the fate of his hero.

Turgenev's merit also lies in the fact that he became the first propagandist of Russian culture in Europe. This is a prose writer who opened the world of the Russian peasantry, intelligentsia and revolutionaries to foreign countries. And the string of female images in his novels became the pinnacle of the writer's skill.

Selected works:

A.N. Ostrovsky- an outstanding Russian playwright. Ostrovsky's merits were most precisely expressed by I. Goncharov, recognizing him as the creator of the Russian folk theater. The plays of this writer became a "school of life" for the playwrights of the next generation. And the Moscow Maly Theater, where most of the plays of this talented writer were staged, proudly calls itself the "Ostrovsky House".

Selected works:

I.A. Goncharov continued to develop the traditions of the Russian realistic novel. The author of the famous trilogy, who, like no one else, managed to describe the main vice of the Russian people - laziness. With the light hand of the writer, the term "Oblomovism" also appeared.

Selected works:

L.N. Tolstoy- a real block of Russian literature. His novels are recognized as the pinnacle of the art of novel writing. The style of presentation and the creative method of L. Tolstoy are still considered the standard of the writer's skill. And his ideas of humanism had a huge impact on the development of humanistic ideas throughout the world.

Selected works:

N.S. Leskov- a talented successor to the traditions of N. Gogol. Made a huge contribution to the development of new genre forms in literature, such as pictures from life, rhapsodies, incredible events.

Selected works:

N.G. Chernyshevsky- an outstanding writer and literary critic who proposed his theory of the aesthetics of the relationship of art to reality. This theory became the reference for the literature of the next few generations.

Selected works:

F.M. Dostoevsky- brilliant writer psychological novels known all over the world. Dostoevsky is often called the forerunner of such trends in culture as existentialism and surrealism.

Selected works:

M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin- the greatest satirist, who brought the art of denunciation, ridicule and parody to the heights of skill.

Selected works:

A.P. Chekhov. With this name, historians traditionally complete the era of the golden age of Russian literature. Chekhov was recognized throughout the world during his lifetime. His short stories have become a benchmark for short story writers. And Chekhov's plays had a huge impact on the development of world drama.

Selected works:

TO late XIX centuries of tradition critical realism began to gradually fade away. In a society permeated through and through with pre-revolutionary moods, mystical moods, partly even decadent ones, have come into fashion. They became the forerunner of the emergence of a new literary trend - symbolism and marked the beginning of a new period in the history of Russian literature - the silver age of poetry.