New time; unlike the folk epic, where the individual and the folk soul are inseparable, in the novel the life of the individual and social life appear as relatively independent; but the "private", inner life of the individual is revealed in him "epopically", that is, with the revelation of its universally significant and social meaning. A typical novel situation is a clash in the hero of the moral and human (personal) with natural and social necessity. Since the novel develops in modern times, where the nature of the relationship between man and society is constantly changing, insofar as its form is essentially "open": the main situation is filled with concrete historical content every time and is embodied in various genre modifications. Historically, the picaresque novel is considered the first form. In the 18th century two main varieties develop: the social novel (G. Fielding, T. Smollett) and the psychological novel (S. Richardson, J. J. Rousseau, L. Stern, I. V. Goethe). Romantics create a historical novel (V. Scott). In the 1830s the classical era of the socio-psychological novel of critical realism of the 19th century begins. (Stendhal, O. Balzac, C. Dickens, W. Thackeray, G. Flaubert, L. N. Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky). Among the world names of writers of the 20th century. novelists: R. Rolland, T. Mann, M. Proust, F. Kafka, J. Joyce, J. Galsworthy, W. Faulkner, Garcia Marquez, V. V. Nabokov, M. A. Sholokhov, A. I. Solzhenitsyn . See also "New Romance".
Big Encyclopedic Dictionary. 2000 .
Synonyms:See what "ROMAN" is in other dictionaries:
Novel- Novel … Glossary of Lemkiv speaking
Novel. The history of the term. The problem of the novel. The emergence of the genre From the history of the genre. Conclusions. The novel as a bourgeois epic. The fate of the theory of the novel. The specificity of the form of the novel. The origin of the novel. The novel's conquest of everyday reality... Literary Encyclopedia
A, husband. Father: Romanovich, Romanovna; unfold Romanych. Derivatives: Romanka; Chamomile; Chamomile; Romanya; Roma; Romas; Romulus. Origin: (Lat. Romanus Roman; Roman.) Name days: January 18, February 11, February 16, March 2, March 29, May 15, June 5, June 13, ... ... Dictionary of personal names
Cm … Synonym dictionary
Lecapenus Ρωμανός Α΄ Λακαπήνος Coin of Romanos I Lecapenus ... Wikipedia
Novel- NOVEL is one of the freest literary forms, involving a huge number of modifications and embracing several main branches narrative genre. In the new European literature, this term usually raises what ... ... Dictionary of literary terms
ROMAN, novel, husband. (French roman). 1. A large narrative work, usually in prose, with a complex and developed plot. Read novels. Get involved in novels. "Hopeless love is only in novels." Chekhov. Household romance. ... ... Dictionary Ushakov
- (fr.). 1) so-called, first of all, everything, is written. in Romance. 2) the most popular type of epic works, which contains a story from the life of some social stratum, characterizing the outstanding features of his life and people. ... ... Dictionary foreign words Russian language
Novel- Roman ♦ Roman A literary genre that has only two restrictions - it must be narrative and based on fiction. A novel is a fictional story, told as if everything really happened that way, or, conversely, ... ... Philosophical Dictionary of Sponville
Novel- (French roman), a literary genre: an epic work of great form, in which the narrative is focused on the fate of an individual in its relation to the world around it, on the formation, development of its character and self-consciousness. epic novel... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary
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Introduction
Chapter 1. The emergence and development of the novel as a literary genre
1 Definition of novel
1.2 Literary and historical context in the development of the novel
3Antique novel
Chapter 2. Artistic and aesthetic originality of Apuleius' novel Metamorphoses
Conclusion
List of used literature
INTRODUCTION
In the theory of the novel, a number of problems still being solved are essential: the question of defining this term is sharp, and the question of the genre model of the novel is no less heterogeneous. According to M.M. Bakhtin, “It is never possible to give any embracing formula for the novel as a genre. Moreover, researchers are unable to point out a single definite and firm feature of the novel without such a clause that this feature, as a genre feature, would not be completely annulled.
In modern literary criticism, there are different definitions novel.
TSB (Great Soviet Encyclopedia): “The novel (French roman, German Roman), a kind of epic as a kind of literature, is one of the largest epic genres in terms of volume, which has significant differences from another of the same genre - the national historical (heroic) epic , has been actively developing in Western European literatures since the Renaissance, and in modern times it has become dominant in world literature.
“The latest literary dictionary-reference book” by N.V. Suslova: “The novel is an epic genre that reveals the history of several, sometimes many human destinies, sometimes entire generations, deployed in a wide artistic space and time, which has sufficient duration.”
The novel is one of the free literary forms, involving a huge number of modifications and embracing several main branches of the narrative genre. In the new European literature, this term is usually understood as some kind of imaginary story that excites the reader's interest in the depiction of passions, the painting of morals, or the fascination of adventures, always deployed in a broad and integral picture. This completely determines the difference between a novel and a story, a fairy tale or a song.
In our opinion, the most complete definition of this term is given by S.P. Belokurova: Latin) is a genre of epic: a large epic work that comprehensively depicts the life of people in certain period time or for a lifetime. The characteristic properties of the novel: the multilinear plot, covering the fate of the series actors; the presence of a system of equivalent characters; coverage of a wide range of life phenomena, the formulation of socially significant problems; significant duration of action. The author of one of the dictionary of literary terms correctly notes the original meaning that was invested in this concept, while indicating its modern sound. At the same time, the very name "novel" in different eras had its own interpretation, different from the modern one.
In a number of works of modern scientists, the legitimacy of using the term "novel" in relation to the works of ancient artistic and narrative prose is questioned. But the point, of course, is not only in the term, although behind it is the definition of the genre of these works, but in a whole series of problems that arise when considering them: the question of ideological and artistic background and the time of the appearance of this new type of literature for antiquity, the question of its relationship with reality, genre and style features.
Despite many theories about the origins of the Hellenistic novel, its beginnings "remain obscure, as do many other issues related to the history of Hellenistic prose. Attempts to 'deduce' the novel from some earlier genre or from a 'fusion' of several genres have not led to results; generated by a new ideology, the novel does not arise mechanically, but constitutes a new artistic unity that has absorbed diverse elements from the literature of the past.
Despite the existing problem associated with the development of the genre of the novel, namely the origin of the ancient novel, and the fact that it has not yet received its final resolution, regarding the place of the ancient novel in the general world literary process, it seems to us indisputable statement of most researchers that continuous development there was no genre of the novel from antiquity to the present day. The ancient novel arose and ended its existence in antiquity. The modern novel, whose appearance is attributed to the time of the Renaissance, arose independently, apparently, outside the influence of the established forms of the ancient novel. Subsequently, having arisen independently, the modern novel experienced some ancient influences. However, the denial of the continuity of the development of the genre of the novel does not at all deny, in our opinion, the existence of the novel in antiquity.
The relevance of this topic is due to the extraordinary interest in mysterious personality Apuleius and the language of his work.
Subject of study - artistic originality novel Metamorphoses, or the Golden Ass.
The object of research is the named novel.
The main purpose of the study is to highlight all theories of the origin and development of the ancient novel, as well as to identify the artistic and aesthetic value of Apuleius' novel.
Target term paper involves solving a number of problems:
1.To get acquainted with the existing theory on the topic of coursework, with different views on the emergence and development of the genre in question.
.Define the genre of the ancient novel.
.Explore the artistic and aesthetic features of the Apuleian "Golden Ass".
The work consists of an introduction, two chapters and a conclusion.
CHAPTER 1. THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE NOVEL AS A LITERARY GENRE
.1 NOVEL DEFINITION
novel literary narrative genre
The term "novel", which arose in the 12th century, managed to undergo a number of semantic changes over the nine centuries of its existence and covers extremely diverse literary phenomena. In addition, the forms that today are called novels appeared much earlier than the concept itself. The first forms of the novel genre date back to antiquity (the love and love-adventure novels of Heliodorus, Iamblichus and Longus), but neither the Greeks nor the Romans left a special name for this genre. Using later terminology, it is customary to call it a novel. Bishop Yue at the end of the 17th century, in search of the predecessors of the novel, first applied this term to a number of phenomena in ancient narrative prose. This name is based on the fact that we are interested in antique genre, having as its content the struggle of isolated individuals for their personal, private goals, represents a very significant thematic and compositional similarity with some types of the later European novel, in the formation of which the ancient novel played significant role. The name "novel" arose later, in the Middle Ages, and originally referred only to the language in which the work was written.
The most common language of medieval Western European writing was, as you know, the literary language of the ancient Romans - Latin. In the XII-XIII centuries. AD, along with plays, stories, stories written in Latin and existing mainly among the privileged classes of society, the nobility and the clergy, stories and stories began to appear written in Romance languages and common among the democratic strata of society who do not know Latin, among the trading bourgeoisie, artisans, villans (the so-called third estate). These works, in contrast to the Latin ones, began to be called: conte roman - a romance story, a story. Then the adjective acquired an independent meaning. Thus, a special name for narrative works arose, which later settled in the language and over time lost its original meaning. A novel began to be called a work in any language, but not any, but only large in size, differing in some features of the subject, compositional construction, plot development, etc.
It can be concluded that if this term, which is closest to the modern meaning, appeared in the era of the bourgeoisie - the 17th-18th centuries, then it is logical to attribute the emergence of the theory of the novel to the same time. And although already in the 16th - 17th centuries. some “theories” of the novel appear (Antonio Minturno “Poetic Art”, 1563; Pierre Nicole “Letter on the Heresy of Writing”, 1665), only together with classical German philosophy did the first attempts to create a general aesthetic theory of the novel appear, to include it in the system of art forms. “At the same time, the statements of great novelists about their own writing practice acquire a greater breadth and depth of generalization (Walter Scott, Goethe, Balzac). The principles of the bourgeois theory of the novel in its classical form were formulated during this period. But a more extensive literature on the theory of the novel appears only in the second half of the 19th century. Now the novel has finally established its dominance as a typical form of expression of bourgeois consciousness in literature.
From a historical and literary point of view, it is impossible to talk about the emergence of the novel as a genre, since essentially "novel" is "an inclusive term, overloaded with philosophical and ideological connotations and indicating a whole complex of relatively autonomous phenomena that are not always genetically related to each other." The “emergence of the novel” in this sense occupies entire epochs, from antiquity to the 17th or even the 18th century.
The emergence and justification of this term, of course, was influenced by the history of the development of the genre as a whole. An equally important role in the theory of the novel is played by its formation in various countries.
1.2 LITERARY AND HISTORICAL CONTEXT IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NOVEL
Historical development novel in different European countries reveals quite large differences caused by the uneven socio-economic development and the individual originality of the history of each country. But along with this, the history of the European novel also contains some common, recurring features that should be noted. In all major European literatures, although each time in its own way, the novel goes through certain regular stages. In the history of the European novel of the Middle Ages and modern times, priority belongs to French novel. Rabelais (first half of the 16th century) was the greatest representative of the French Renaissance in the field of the novel. “The novel originates in the fiction of the bourgeoisie in the era of the gradual disintegration of the feudal system and the rise of the commercial bourgeoisie. According to its artistic principle, this is a naturalistic novel, according to the thematic and compositional principle, it is adventurous, in the center of which is “a hero who experiences all sorts of adventures, amusing readers with his clever tricks, an adventurer, a rogue”, he experiences random and external adventures (a love trick, a meeting with robbers, a successful career, a clever money scam, etc.), without being interested in either deep social characteristics or complex psychological motivations. These adventures are interspersed with everyday scenes, expressing a penchant for rude jokes, a sense of humor, hostility towards the ruling classes, an ironic attitude towards their customs and manifestations. At the same time, the authors failed to grasp life in its deep social perspective, limiting themselves to external characteristics, showing a penchant for detail, for savoring everyday details. Its typical examples are Lazarillo from Tormes (16th century) and Gilles Blas by the French writer Lesage (first half of the 18th century). From the environment of the petty and middle bourgeoisie by the middle of the XVIII century. an advanced petty-bourgeois intelligentsia is growing up, starting an ideological struggle against the old order and using artistic creativity for this. On this basis, a psychological petty-bourgeois novel arises, in which the central place is no longer gamble, but deep contradictions and contrasts in the minds of the characters fighting for their happiness, for their moral ideals. Rousseau's The New Eloise (1761) can be called the clearest example of this. In the same era as Rousseau, Voltaire appears with his philosophical and journalistic novel Candide. Germany in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. there is a whole group of romantic writers who have created very vivid examples of the psychological novel in different literary styles. Such are Novalis ("Heinrich von Ofterdingen"), Friedrich Schlegel ("Lucinda"), Tick ("William Lovel") and finally the famous Hoffmann. “Along with this, we find a psychological novel in the style of the patriarchal noble aristocracy, perishing along with the entire old regime and realizing its death in the plane of the deepest moral and ideological conflicts.” Such is Chateaubriand with his Rene and Atala. Other layers of the feudal nobility are characterized by the cult of elegant sensuality and boundless, sometimes unbridled epicureanism. This is where the noble rococo novels come from with their cult of sensuality. For example, Couvre's novel "The Love Adventures of the Chevalier de Foble".
English novel in the first half of the 18th century. puts forward such major representatives as J. Swift with his famous satirical novel "Gulliver's Travels" and D. Defoe, the author of the equally famous "Robinson Crusoe", as well as a number of other novelists expressing the social worldview of the bourgeoisie.
In the era of the birth and development of industrial capitalism, the adventurous, naturalistic novel is gradually losing its significance. It is being replaced by a novel of social life, which arises and develops in the literature of those sections of capitalist society that turn out to be the most advanced, and in the conditions of a given country. In a number of countries (France, Germany, Russia), during the period when the adventurous novel is replaced by a social and everyday one, i.e., during the period when the feudal system is replaced by the capitalist one, the psychological novel with a romantic or sentimental orientation, reflecting social imbalance, temporarily acquires great importance. transition period(Jean-Paul, Chateaubriand and others). The heyday of the social novel coincides with the period of growth and flourishing of industrial capitalist society (Balzac, Dickens, Flaubert, Zola, and others). A novel is created according to the artistic principle - realistic. In the middle of the XIX century. The English realistic novel is making significant progress. Dickens's novels David Copperfield, Oliver Twist and Nicholas Nickleby, as well as Thackeray with his Vanity Fair, which gives a more embittered and stronger criticism of the noble-bourgeois society, are the pinnacle of the realistic novel. “The realist novel of the 19th century is distinguished by an extremely sharp formulation of moral problems, which now occupy a central place in artistic culture. This is connected with the experience of breaking with traditional ideas and the task of finding new moral guidelines for the individual in a situation of isolation, to develop moral regulators that do not ignore, but morally streamline the interests of the real practical activity of an isolated individual.
A special line is the novel of "mysteries and horrors" (the so-called "Gothic novel"), the plots of which, as a rule, are chosen in the sphere of the supernatural and whose characters are endowed with features of gloomy demonism. The largest representatives of the Gothic novel are A. Radcliffe and C. Maturin.
The gradual transition of capitalist society into the era of imperialism with its growing social conflicts leads to the degradation of bourgeois ideology. The cognitive level of bourgeois novelists is declining. In this regard, in the history of the novel there is a return to naturalism, to psychologism (Joyce, Proust). In the process of its development, however, the novel not only repeats a certain regular line, but also retains some genre features. The novel is historically repeated in different literary styles, in different styles it expresses various artistic principles. And for all that, the novel still remains a novel: a huge number of the most diverse works of this genre have something in common, some recurring features of content and form, which turn out to be signs of a genre that receives its classical expression in the bourgeois novel. “No matter how different those features of historical class consciousness, those social moods, those specific artistic ideas that are reflected in the novel, the novel expresses a certain type of self-consciousness, certain ideological needs and interests. The bourgeois novel lives and develops as long as the individualistic self-consciousness of the capitalist era is alive, as long as there is an interest in individual destiny, in personal life, in the struggle of individuality for their personal needs, for the right to life. These features of the content of the novel lead to the formal features of this genre. Thematically, the bourgeois novel depicts private, personal, everyday life and, against the background of it, the clash and struggle of personal interests. The composition of the novel is characterized by a more or less complex, straight or broken line of a single personal intrigue, a single causal chain of events, a single course of narration, to which all and all sorts of descriptive moments are subordinated. In all other respects, the novel is "historically infinitely varied".
Any genre, on the one hand, is always individual, on the other hand, it always relies on the literary tradition. The genre category is a historical category: each era is characterized not only by the genre system as a whole, but also by genre modifications or varieties in particular in relation to a particular genre. Literary critics distinguish varieties of genre today on the basis of a complex of stable properties (for example, the general nature of the subject matter, the properties of imagery, the type of composition, etc.).
Based on the foregoing, conditionally the typology modern novel can be represented as follows:
themes differ autobiographical, documentary, political, social; philosophical, intellectual; erotic, female, family and household; historical; adventurous, fantastic; satirical; sentimental, etc.
according to structural features: a novel in verse, a travel novel, a pamphlet novel, a parable novel, a feuilleton novel, etc.
Often the definition correlates the novel with the era in which one or another type of novel dominated: antique, chivalric, enlightenment, Victorian, Gothic, modernist, etc.
In addition, an epic novel stands out - a work in which the center of artistic attention is the fate of the people, and not the individual (L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace", M.A. Sholokhov "Quiet Flows the Don").
A special type is the polyphonic novel (according to M.M. Bakhtin), which involves such a construction, when the main idea of the work is formed by the simultaneous sound of "many voices", since none of the characters, nor the author has a monopoly on the truth and is not carrier.
Summing up all of the above, we note once again that despite the long history of this term and an even older genre form, in modern literary criticism there is no unambiguous view of the problems associated with the concept of "novel". It is known that it appeared in the Middle Ages, the first examples of novels - more than five centuries ago, in the history of the development of Western European literatures, the novel had many forms and modifications.
Finishing the conversation about the novel as a whole, we cannot but pay attention to the fact that, like any genre, it must have some features. Here we remain in solidarity with the adherent of "dialogism" in literature - M.M. Bakhtin, who identifies three main features of the genre model of the novel that fundamentally distinguish it from other genres:
“1) the stylistic three-dimensionality of the novel, associated with the multilingual consciousness that is realized in it; 2) a radical change in the temporal coordinates of the literary image in the novel; 3) new zone constructing a literary image in the novel, namely the zone of maximum contact with the present (modernity) in its incompleteness.
1.3 ANTIQUE NOVEL
It is known that in different historical periods of ancient literature, certain literary genres come to the fore: in the archaic era, the heroic epos dominates first, and later lyric poetry develops. classical era ancient Greek literature marked by the rise of dramaturgy, tragedy and comedy; later, in the IV century. BC. prose genres are intensively developing in the literature of Greece. Hellenism is characterized primarily by the development of small genre forms.
The decline of Greek literature is marked by the appearance of the first samples of the ancient novel or "epic of private life", which, transforming, enriching and developing, will probably become the favorite genre in literature XIX-XX centuries What was the first ancient novel? At the dawn of its formation, the novel is represented by a special variety - a love-adventure novel. B. Gilenson refers to this genre the story "The Acts of Alexander", "erroneously attributed to the historian Callisthenes (4th century BC): in the center of it is not the real Alexander the Great, but rather a fairy-tale character who has incredible adventures in land of giants, dwarfs, cannibals." (B. Gilenson, p. 379). More expressively, the features of this genre variety are presented in Khariton's “The Tale of Love of Kherey and Kalliroi” (1st century AD). Characteristic love-adventure novel in that it contains fixed standard situations and characters: two beautiful loving people separated; they are haunted by the wrath of the gods and hostile parents; they fall into the hands of robbers, pirates, they can fall into slavery, be thrown into prison. Their love and loyalty, as well as happy accidents, help to pass all the tests. In the finale, there is a happy reunion of the heroes. "This is in many ways an early, somewhat naive form of the novel." Naivety is undoubtedly the influence of Hellenistic poetry, elegy and idyll. A huge role in the genre that has not yet developed is played by adventures, all sorts of accidents. This is how we see the "ETHIOPIC" of HELIODOR, which is based on a plot popular in ancient times: an Ethiopian queen, who looked at the image of Andromeda at the moment of conception, had a white daughter. To get rid of the painful suspicions of her husband, the queen threw her daughter. She came to Delphi to the priest Charicles, who named her Chariklia. The beautiful young man Theagenes is in love with this girl of rare beauty. Their feelings are mutual, but the priest, the foster father, intends the girl to another - his nephew. The wise old man Calasirides, having read the signs on the bandage of Chariklia, reveals the secret of her birth. He advises young people to flee to Ethiopia and thereby save themselves from the marriage that awaits Chariklia in Delphi. Theagenes kidnaps the girl, sails on a ship to the banks of the Nile, in order to continue the journey from there to the homeland of Chariklia. There are many adventures with lovers, they either part, then reunite, then they are captured by robbers, then they run away from them. Finally, the lovers reach Ethiopia. There, King Hydas is going to sacrifice them to the gods, but then it turns out that he is the father of Chariklia. There is a happy "recognition" of the abandoned child, a popular motif. Parents agree to the marriage of their daughter with Theagenes. The novel is melodramatic and sentimental. He affirms the beauty of love and chastity, in the name of which young people meekly endure the hardships that fall to their lot. The style of the novel is flowery and rhetorical. Heroes usually express themselves in a sublime style. This feature is clear, since rhetoric, the art of speaking beautifully, occupied a special place in antiquity. The rhetorical story was supposed to contain "a cheerful tone of narration, dissimilar characters, seriousness, frivolity, hope, fear, suspicion, longing, pretense, compassion, a variety of events, a change of fate, unexpected disasters, sudden joy, a pleasant outcome of events" .
We noticed that the novel used the traditions and techniques of earlier literary genres. But it was preceded not only by oratory speeches, but also by entertaining stories, erotic elegies, ethnographic descriptions and historiographies. If we consider the time of registration in separate genre of the ancient novel, the end of the II - the beginning of the I century. BC, it should be noted the fact that even in the II century. BC. A collection of stories by Aristides from Miletus - "Miletian Tales" - enjoyed particular success. In the Hellenistic novel, stories of travel and adventure intertwine with pathetic love stories.
In contrast to the interpretation of Greek novels as artificial and in their own way rational products of rhetorical skill, characteristic of Rode and his school, for recent decades began to pay attention to the original and traditional elements myth and aretalogy, available in the novel. So, according to B. Lavagnini, the novel is born from local legends and traditions. These local legends become " individual novel”, when in Greek literature interest passes from the fate of the state to the fate of the individual, and when in historiography the love theme acquires an independent, “human” interest. So, for example, touching upon the contradictions between slaves and slave owners, Long - the author of the novel "Daphnis and Chloe" - does not tell about the fate of the people, but depicts a shepherd and a shepherdess, awakening the love of these two pure and innocent creatures. Adventures in this novel are few and episodic, which distinguishes it, first of all, from "Ethiopica". "Unlike the love-adventure novel of Heliodor, this is a love novel." Sometimes it is called an idyllic novel. Not sharp plot twists and turns, not exciting adventures, but love experiences of a sensual nature, deployed in the bosom of a rural poetic landscape, determine the value of this work. True, there are pirates here, and wars, and happy “recognitions”. In the finale, the heroes, who turned out to be the children of wealthy parents, are married. Much later, Long would also become popular in Europe, especially during the late Renaissance. Literary critics will say out loud that he revealed the prototype of the so-called. pastoral novels.
According to V.V. Kozhinov, the origins of the novel must be sought in the oral art of the masses. According to the law of folklore, it is made up of old plot, figurative, linguistic elements, in fact forming something fundamentally new. This was the earliest monument of the Greek novel, preserved only in papyrus fragments - a novel about the Assyrian prince Nina and his wife Semiramis.
N.A. Chistyakova and N.V. Vulikh in their "History of Ancient Literature" jokingly call the novel "the illegitimate offspring of the decrepit epic and capricious simpering - Hellenistic historiography" . Undoubtedly, historical figures were sometimes depicted in some Greek novels. For example, in Khariton's novel "Cherei and Kalliroya" one of the heroes is the Syracusan strategist Hermocrates, who during the Peloponnesian War in 413 won a brilliant victory over the Athenian navy.
A survey of Greek romance and adventure novels, preserved in whole or in fragments, helps us to understand some of the main patterns in the history of the entire genre. The similarities between the individual novels are so great that considering them in close connection with each other seems completely justified. Novels can be divided into groups, which is due to a number of stylistic and genre features. Here I would like to note that although questions about the relationship between the narration in the novel and reality, the genre and style features of this genre, about its development in Ancient Greece and remain open, almost all researchers distinguish two of its varieties. Which ones exactly is another question.
Thus, the author of the "History of Ancient Literature" B. Gilenson, along with Griftsov, Kuznetsov, sees Heliodor's "Ethiopia" (as well as the novels of Iamblichus, Achilles Tatia, Long) marked by the wide use of all the techniques and means of that specific rhetorical skill that was cultivated in the era of the new sophistry. The traditional plot scheme does not burden the authors; they treat it very freely, enriching the traditional plot with introductory episodes. Not to mention Heliodor, who gave the chronological manner of narration of events usual in novels in a completely different way, and Iamblichus, and Achilles Tatius, and Long - each in their own way overcome the canon inherited from the past.
Quite different literary critics see the early novels - fragments of the novel about Nina, the novels of Khariton, Xenophon of Ephesus, "The History of Apollonius" - are simple in compositional terms, strictly adhere to the developed canon - an image of exoticism and adventure, and also tend to a brief retelling of the previously stated events. The novels of this category, designed mainly for the broadest masses, in many cases approach the style of a fairy tale. Their language is close to that "general" literary language, which is not distinguished by rhetoric.
Despite some possibility of classifying the Hellenistic novel, all the considered Greek novels are united by one common feature: they depict a world of exotic places, dramatic events and ideally sublime feelings, a world consciously opposed to real life, leading thought away from worldly prose.
Being created in the conditions of the decline of ancient society, in the conditions of the strengthening of religious quests, the Greek novel reflected the features of its time. "Only an ideology that broke with mythology and put man in the center of attention" could contribute to the creation of a novel that depicted not feats mythological heroes but the life of ordinary people with their joys and sorrows. The heroes of these works felt like puppets in the hands of fate or gods, they suffer and accept suffering as a lot of life, they are virtuous and chaste.
As we can see, the new genre, crowning the glorious path of development of ancient literature, reflected the profound changes that took place in ancient society at the junction of the old and new eras, and "as if heralded the beginning of its decline."
Tronsky also looks at two ways of developing the Attic novel. This or pathetic story about perfect figures, carriers of lofty and noble feelings, or a satirical narrative that has a pronounced "low"-domestic bias. The literary critic refers the novels we have named above to the first type of Greek novel. The second type of ancient novel - satirical novel morals with a comic-domestic bias - is not represented by a single monument and is known only from the presentation of the “novel about the donkey”, which has come down to us among the works of Lucian. The researcher believes that its origin began with a historical (or pseudo-historical) depiction of reality.
The development and formation of the ancient novel was impossible without its embodiment not only in Greek, but also in Roman literature. Roman literature, of course, is of a later date: it arises and flourishes in a period that for Greece was already a time of decline. It is in Roman literature that we find the use of the surrounding life and the drama of its works. Despite the age difference of 400-500 years, like Greek literature, Roman literature went through the same periods of social development: pre-classical, classical and post-classical.
All three considered stages of Roman literature, with all the difference between them, due to the rapid pace of social development of Rome in the 3rd - 2nd centuries, are united by one common problem, which remained the main one for all writers - the problem of the genre. Rome enters this period with an almost amorphous material of oral ceremonial literature, and leaves it with the entire genre repertoire of Greek literature. Through the efforts of the first Roman writers, Roman genres acquired at that time that solid appearance, which they retained almost to the end of antiquity. The elements that made up this image were of threefold origin: from the Greek classics, from Hellenistic modernity, and from the Roman folklore tradition. In different genres, this formation went differently. As for the genre of the novel, it is brilliantly represented by Apuleius and Petronius. The novel, the last narrative genre of fading antiquity, seems to prelude the medieval development, where the adventurous "petty-bourgeois" novel also takes shape, on the one hand, as a chain of short stories, and on the other, as a parody of the forms of chivalrous narration.
CHAPTER 2
One of famous novels Ancient (namely, Roman) literature is the novel "Metamorphoses, or the Golden Ass" by Apuleius.
Philosopher, sophist and magician, Apuleius is a characteristic phenomenon of his time. His work is extremely varied. He wrote in Latin and Greek, composed speeches, philosophical and scientific works, poetic works V various genres. But the legacy of this author today is six works: "Metamorphoses" (a novel, which will be discussed later), "Apology, or On Magic", a collection of excerpts from the speeches of "Florida" and philosophical writings"On the deity of Socrates", "On Plato and his teachings" and "On the Universe". According to most literary critics, the world significance of Apuleius is based on the fact that he wrote the novel Metamorphoses.
The plot of the novel is closely connected with its title, or rather, it is repelled from it. Metamorphosis is a transformation, and precisely a human transformation.
The plot of "Metamorphoses" is based on the story of a young Greek named Lucius, who ended up in Thessaly, a country famous for sorcery, and stayed in the house of a friend whose wife is reputed to be a powerful sorceress. In a thirst to join the mysterious sphere of magic, Lukiy enters into a relationship with a maid who is somewhat involved in the art of the mistress, but the maid mistakenly turns him into a donkey instead of a bird. Lukiy preserves the human mind and human tastes. He even knows a means of getting rid of the spell: for this it is enough to chew roses. But the reverse transformation is delayed for a long time. “Donkey” is kidnapped by robbers on the same night, he experiences various adventures, gets from one owner to another, suffers beatings everywhere and repeatedly finds himself on the verge of death. When an outlandish animal draws attention to itself, it is destined for a shameful public display. All this is the content of the first ten books of the novel. At the last moment, Lukiy manages to escape to Coast, and in the final 11th book, he makes a prayer to the goddess Isis. The goddess appears to him in a dream, promises salvation, but in order to future life dedicated to serving her. Indeed, the next day, the donkey meets the sacred procession of Isis, chews roses from the wreath of her priest and becomes a man. The revived Lucius now acquires the features of Apuleius himself: he turns out to be a native of Madavra, accepts initiation into the mysteries of Isis and is sent by divine inspiration to Rome, where he is honored with higher degrees dedications.
In the introduction to the novel, Apuleius characterizes it as a "Greek story", that is, containing novelistic features. What are the similarities and differences between the Greek novel and the novel of Apuleius? According to I.M. Tronsky, "Metamorphoses" are a reworking of the Greek work, an abbreviated retelling of which we find in the "Lucia or Ass" attributed to Lucian. This is the same plot, with the same series of adventures: even the verbal form of both works is identical in many cases. Both here and there the story is told in the first person, on behalf of Lucius. But the Greek "Lucius" (in one book) is much shorter than the "Metamorphoses", which make up 11 books. The story that has been preserved among the works of Lucian contains only the main plot in a concise presentation and with obvious cuts that obscure the course of action. In Apuleius, the plot is expanded by numerous episodes in which the hero takes a personal part, and by a number of inserted short stories, not directly connected with the plot and introduced as stories about what was seen and heard before and after the transformation. So, for example, according to the remarks of E. Poe, “the unsuccessful escape of a donkey and a captive girl from the den of robbers is told and motivated by Apuleius in more detail than by Lucian<…>If Lucian simply reports the fact of their capture by the robbers, then Apuleius tells about the dispute during the journey, about the delay that occurred because of this, which was the reason that they again got to the robbers. In the same way, Apuleius' story with a soldier looks more understandable and motivated than the Greek author's [Metamorphoses, IX, 39]. The endings are also different: in "Lukia" there is no intervention of Isis. The hero himself eats saving roses, and the author subjects him, already a man, "a compiler of stories and other compositions," to the final humiliation: the lady who liked him when he was a donkey rejects his love as a man. This unexpected ending, which gives a parodic-satirical light to the dry retelling of the misadventures of the "donkey", sharply opposes the religiously solemn ending of the novel by Apuleius. In the Latin version, the names of the characters have also been changed, except for the name of the protagonist, Lucia (Lucia). I.M. Tronsky compared the plot of the Greek and Roman analogies.
We know that the Roman novel as a whole followed the development of the Greek one in many ways, and despite the similarity of both, Apuleius's Metamorphoses differs in many ways from all Greek novels. The Roman novel, for all its dependence on the Greek, differs from it both in technique and structure, but - even more significantly - in its everyday writing character; so, in Apuleius, both the details of the background and the characters are historically reliable. Despite this, the Metamorphoses are written in the stylistic tradition of rhetorical prose, in a flowery and refined manner. The style of insert novels is simpler. Unlike the accepted canons of the genre, this work excludes both moral didactics and a disapproving attitude towards the depicted. Naturally, we would look in vain for the psychological disclosure of the character of its hero in the novel, although Apuleius has individual - and sometimes subtle - psychological observations. The author's task excluded the need for this, and the phases of Lucius' life should have revealed themselves in a change in his appearance. Known role in a similar construction of the image, Apuleius's desire not to abandon the exclusion of folklore technique probably also played, since the plot was of folklore origin.
V.V. Kozhinov sees the difference between the Roman novel and the Greek one in different approaches to depicting private life: Apuleius considers private life only as a specific phenomenon, “justified” only where there is no “truly public life, - in the environment of slaves, hetaerae or in a conditional fantasy world - in a person who has taken the form of an animal. Society itself should be portrayed as if from a bird's eye view, covering the activities of prominent citizens of the state in close-up and not dwelling on the little things of private life.
Talking about genre features this work, it is important to note that most literary critics mark it as an adventurous and everyday model of the ancient novel. MM Bakhtin also singles out the special character of time in it - a combination of adventurous time with everyday life, which is sharply different from Greek. “These features: 1) the life path of Lucius is given in the shell of “metamorphosis”; 2) the path of life itself merges with the real path of wandering - Lucius wandering around the world in the form of a donkey. The life path in the shell of metamorphosis in the novel is given both in the main plot of the life path of Lucius, and in the inserted short story about Cupid and Psyche, which is a parallel semantic variant of the main plot.
The language of Apuleius is rich and flowery. He uses a lot of vulgarisms, dialectisms, and at the same time is a sonorous, cultural Latin language author ... Greek in essence of his education and personal orientation. Apuleius wrote a multi-valued, multifaceted - polyphonic novel, in which "the contrast between literal and symbolic content, between everyday comedy and religious-mystical pathos is quite similar to the contrast between the "low" language and the "high" style of the novel ".
The novel of Apuleius, like the European picaresque novels of modern times, like the famous "Don Quixote" by Cervantes, is full of inserted stories that diversify its content, captivate the reader and give a wide panorama modern author life and culture. There are sixteen such short stories in the Metamorphoses. Many of them were subsequently reworked by other writers and, having changed the socio-temporal flavor, adorned such masterpieces as Boccaccio's Decameron (short stories about a lover in a barrel and a lover who pretended to be a sneeze); others have changed so that they are included in new books in an almost unrecognizable form. But the greatest glory fell to the short story about Cupid and Psyche. Here is her summary.
The youngest of the three earthly princesses, Psyche angered Venus with her amazing beauty. The goddess decided to destroy her, forcing her to fall in love with the most worthless of mortals, for which she sent her son, Amur, known for his cruel love arrows, to her. True, in Apuleius Cupid is not a curly, capricious child, but a beautiful young man, who also has a good character. Fascinated by the beauty of Psyche, Cupid himself falls in love with her and secretly marries the princess. Psyche settles in a magical castle, where any of her desires is warned, where she experiences all the joys of life and love with only one condition: she does not have the right to see her beloved spouse. The instigation of the sisters and her own curiosity, connecting Psyche with the protagonist of the novel, push her to violate the ban. In the dead of night, Psyche turns on the light and, shocked by the beauty of Cupid, inadvertently drips boiling oil from the lamp on his shoulder. The husband disappears, and Psyche, shocked by her "crime", expecting a child, embarks on a long search for her beloved. At the same time, Venus, having learned about everything, is looking for the heroine. In her search, Mercury helps her, who delivers her unloved daughter-in-law to her mother-in-law. Further, Psyche, with the help of other gods and nature itself, performs completely insoluble tasks set before her by Venus, until finally touched by Jupiter grants Psyche immortality, thus calming Venus and uniting the spouses.
Apuleius considered himself and really belonged to the number of Platonist philosophers, and the tale of Cupid and Psyche confirms this, once again retelling Plato's idea of the wanderings of the soul. But not only this makes her completely indispensable in the novel, because, as already noted, both Lucius and Psyche suffer from the same thing - their own curiosity - the driving rod of the whole book. Only "for Psyche, this is an apotheosis (Here - glorification, exaltation.); for Lucius - divine initiation. The common theme of suffering and moral purification through suffering informs these parts of Apuleius's work" - I.P. Strelnikov. The author, as we see, is concerned about the problem of fate. “A sensual person, according to the author, is in the power of blind fate, which undeservedly inflicts its blows on him”[ 15; p.16].
An important role in the narrative and in revealing the ideological concept of the novel is played by the appearance in the Metamorphoses of another mythological personality - the goddess Isis. Information about it is contained in Egyptian mythology: in the legends about the god Ra and Isis, about Isis and Osiris. The cult of Isis is a story according to which Osiris was the pharaoh and ruled over a great country. Isis was his wife. Their brother, Seth, was jealous of the pharaoh's fame and plotted to kill him. Seth gave a rich feast in honor of his brother Osiris, during the festivity of which he proudly showed everyone a magnificent coffin adorned with silver, gold and precious stones. It was a coffin worthy of the gods, and Set proposed a simple contest, the winner of which would get a coffin: everyone present at the feast was to lie in it, and whoever fit it would receive it as a reward. Pharaoh Osiris was supposed to be the first. The coffin also served as a trap, and as soon as the powerful pharaoh lay down in it, the coffin was closed with a lid, hammered with nails and thrown into the Nile, which carried it into the sea. After the loss of her husband, Isis was stricken with grief. She was said to have traveled extensively in search of an ornate coffin. After spending many years wandering, Isis landed on the shores of Phoenicia, where Astarte reigned. Astarte did not recognize the goddess, but, feeling pity for her, took her to look after her little son. Isis took good care of the boy and decided to make him immortal. To do this, it was necessary to place the child in a flame. Unfortunately, Queen Astarte saw her son on fire, grabbed him and took him away, breaking the spell and forever depriving him of this gift. When Isis was called to the council to be held accountable for her actions, the goddess revealed her name. Astarte helped her find Osiris, telling her that a large tamarisk grew near the ocean shore. The tree was so huge that it was cut down and used as a pillar in the palace temple. The Phoenicians did not know that the body of the great pharaoh Osiris was hidden in a beautiful tree. Isis brought the body hidden in tamarisk to Egypt. The evil Seth found out about their return and cut the pharaoh's body into pieces and only after that threw it into the Nile. Isis had to look for all the parts of the body of Osiris. She managed to find everything except the penis. Then she made it of gold and laid down the body of her husband. With the help of embalming (Isis is considered the creator of the art of embalming) and spells, Isis revived her husband, who returns to her every year during the harvest.
Isis was the supreme goddess of magic and, through her love for Osiris, became the great goddess of love and healing. Her temples in Egypt were used for healing, and Isis was known miraculous healings that she did.
The glory of Isis and her cult spread to other countries. She entered the Greek and Roman pantheons of the gods. Isis became known as the Lady of ten thousand names, since in every country where her cult appeared, she absorbed many features and hypostases of local goddesses.
"Pay attention, reader: you will have fun," - with these words the introductory chapter of "Metamorphoses" ends. The author promises to entertain the reader, but also pursues a moralizing goal. The ideological concept of the novel is revealed only in the last book, when the lines between the hero and the author begin to blur. The plot receives an allegorical interpretation, in which the moral side is complicated by the teachings of the religion of the sacraments. The stay of the reasonable Lucius in the skin of the “long-disgusted” pure Isis, a voluptuous animal becomes an allegory of sensual life. “Neither origin, nor position, nor even the very science that distinguishes you, has gone to you,” the priest of Isis says to Lukius, “because you, having become a slave of voluptuousness out of the passion of your young age, received a fatal retribution for inappropriate curiosity.” Thus, the second vice, the perniciousness of which can be illustrated by the novel, joins sensuality - "curiosity", the desire to arbitrarily penetrate into the hidden mysteries of the supernatural. But even more important for Apuleius is the other side of the issue. A sensual person is a slave of "blind fate"; he who has overcome sensuality in the religion of initiation "celebrates victory over fate." "You were taken under its protection by another fate, but already sighted." This opposition is reflected in the entire construction of the novel. Lukius never ceases to be a toy before initiation insidious fate, stalking him as she stalks the heroes of an antique romance novel, and guiding him through a disjointed series of adventures; Lucius' life after initiation moves systematically, according to the prescription of the deity, from the lowest level to the highest. With the idea of overcoming fate, we already met with Sallust, but there it was achieved by "personal valor"; two centuries after Sallust, the representative of late antique society, Apuleius, no longer counts on his own strength and entrusts himself to the patronage of a deity.
"Metamorphoses" of Apuleius - a story about a man turned into a donkey - in ancient times was called the "Golden Ass", where the epithet meant higher form assessments, coinciding in meaning with the words "wonderful", "most beautiful". Such an attitude towards the novel, which was both entertaining and serious, is understandable - it met the most diverse needs and interests: if desired, one could find satisfaction in its entertainment, and more thoughtful readers received an answer to moral and religious questions. The glory of Apuleius was very great. Legends were created around the name of the "magician"; Apuleius was opposed to Christ. "Metamorphoses" were well known in the Middle Ages; short stories about a lover in a barrel and a lover who gave himself away by sneezing passed into Boccaccio's Decameron. But greatest success fell to the lot of "Cupid and Psyche". This plot has been processed many times in literature (for example, La Fontaine, Wieland, we have Bogdanovich's Darling) and provided material for the work of the greatest masters of fine art (Raphael, Canova, Thorvaldsen, etc.).
CONCLUSION
Despite the long history of this term and an even older genre form, in modern literary criticism there is no unambiguous view of the problems associated with the concept of "novel". It is known that it appeared in the Middle Ages, the first examples of novels - more than five centuries ago, in the history of the development of Western European literatures, the novel had many forms and modifications.
In a number of works of modern scientists, the legitimacy of using the term "novel" in relation to the works of ancient artistic and narrative prose is questioned, we determined that Apuleius' novel "Metamorphoses, or the Golden Ass" is an example of an ancient novel.
"Metamorphoses" of Apuleius - a story about a man turned into a donkey - even in ancient times was called the "Golden Ass", where the epithet meant the highest form of appreciation, coinciding in meaning with the words "wonderful", "most beautiful". Such an attitude towards the novel, which was both entertaining and serious, is understandable - it met the most diverse needs and interests: if desired, one could find satisfaction in its entertainment, and more thoughtful readers received an answer to moral and religious questions.
Today, this side of the Metamorphoses, of course, retains only cultural and historical interest. But the artistic impact of the novel did not lose its strength, and the remoteness of the time of creation gave it an additional attraction - the opportunity to penetrate into the famous and unfamiliar world of a foreign culture. So we also call "Metamorphoses" the "Golden Ass" not only by tradition.
LIST OF USED LITERATURE
1) Antique novel / Collection of articles. - M., 1969.
) Apuleius "Metamorphoses" and other works / under the general editorship. S. Averintseva. - M.: Fiction, 1988.
)Bakhtin, M.M. Essays on historical poetics / M. M. Bakhtin. -
) Belokurova, S.P. Dictionary of literary terms / S.P. Belokurova. - M., 2005.
) TSB: in 30 T. / ed. 3rd. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1969 - 1978.
) Wikipedia
)Gasparov, M.L. Greek and Roman literature II - III centuries. n. e.// History of World Literature. - T. 1.
) Gilenson, B.A. History of ancient literature / B.A. Gilenson. - M.: Flinta, Nauka, 2001.
) Grigoryeva, N. Magic mirror "Metamorphoses"// Apuleius "Metamorphoses" and other writings/ ed. S. Averintseva. - M.: Fiction, 1988.
) Grossman, L. //Literary Encyclopedia: in 11 T. - T.9. - M.: OGIZ RSFSR, State Institute, Soviet Encyclopedia, 1935.
) Kozhinov, V.V. The origin of the novel / V.V. Kozhinov. - M., 1963.
)Kun, N.A. Legends and myths of Ancient Greece / N.A. Kuhn. - M., 2006.
) Literary encyclopedia in 11 T. - T.9. - M.: OGIZ RSFSR, State Institute, Soviet Encyclopedia, 1935.
)Losev, A.F. History of ancient literature / A.F. Losev. - M.: Nauka, 1977.
) Polyakova, S.V. About the ancient novel // Achilles Tatius. Leucippe and Clitophon. Long. Daphnis and Chloe. PETRONIUS. Satyricon. Apuleius. Metamorphoses. - M., 1969. - S. 5-20
) Pospelov, G. // Literary Encyclopedia: in 11 T. - T.9. - M.: OGIZ RSFSR, State Institute, Soviet Encyclopedia, 1935.
)Poe, E. Antique novel / / Antique novel. - M., 1969.
) Raspopin, V.N. Misadventures of Apuleius from Madavra // Literature of Ancient Rome. - M., 1996.
) Rymar, T.N.// Literary Encyclopedia: in 11 T. - T.9. - M.: OGIZ RSFSR, State Institute, Soviet Encyclopedia, 1935.
) Strelnikova, I.P. "Metamorphoses" of Apuleius // Antique novel. - M., 1969.
) Suslova, N.V. The latest literary dictionary-reference book / N.V. Suslova. - Mn., 2002.
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ROMAN (from the French roman - originally a work in Romance languages) is a large form of the epic genre of modern literature. His most common features: image of a person in complex forms life process, the multilinear plot, covering the fate of a number of actors, polyphony, hence the large volume compared to other genres. It is clear, of course, that these features characterize the main trends in the development of the novel and manifest themselves in extremely diverse ways.
The very emergence of this genre - or, more precisely, its prerequisites - is often attributed to antiquity or the Middle Ages. So, one speaks of "antique R." ("Daphnis and Chloe", "Metamorphoses, or the Golden Ass" by Apuleius, "Satyricon" by Petronius, etc.) and "R. chivalric" ("Tristan and Isolde", "Lohengrin" von Eschenbach, "The Death of Arthur" Malory etc.). These prose narratives do indeed have certain features that bring them closer to R. in the modern, proper sense of the word. However, before us are still rather similar, analogous, than homogeneous, phenomena.
In ancient and medieval narrative prose literature, there are not a number of those essential properties of content and form that play a decisive role in poetry. ") stories, and consider the stories of medieval knights as, again, a kind of genre of knightly epic in prose. R. in the proper sense begins to form only at the end of the Renaissance. Its origin is inextricably linked with that new artistic element, which was originally embodied in the Renaissance short story (see), more precisely, in a special genre of "books of short stories" such as Boccaccio's "Decameron".
R. was the epic of private life. If in the previous epic the central role was played by the images of representatives of the people, society, state (leaders, generals, priests) or the images of heroes who openly embodied the strength and wisdom of an entire human team, then in R. the images of ordinary people, people , in the actions of which only their individual fate, their personal aspirations are directly expressed. The previous epic was based on great historical (even if legendary) events, the main characters were participants or, more precisely, direct creators of them. Meanwhile, R. (with the exception of a special form of historical R., as well as R.-epics) is based on the events of private life and, moreover, usually on events fictitious by the author.
Further, the action of the folk and, more broadly, historical epic, as a rule, unfolded in the distant past, a kind of "epic time", while R. is characterized by a connection with living modernity, or at least with the most recent past, with the exception of a special kind of R. - historical. Finally, the epic had, above all, a heroic character, was the embodiment of a high poetic element; R., on the other hand, acts as a prose genre, as an image of everyday, everyday life in all the versatility of its manifestations. More or less conventionally, one can define the novel as a fundamentally “average” and neutral genre. And this clearly expresses the historical novelty of the genre, because earlier the genres "high" (heroic) or "low" (comic) dominated, and the genres "medium", neutral, did not receive any wide development. R. was the most complete and complete expression of the claims of epic prose. But with all the profound differences from the previous forms of the epic, R. is the true heir to the ancient and medieval epic literature, the true epic of the new time. On a completely new artistic basis in R., as Hegel said, “the richness and diversity of interests, states, characters, life relations, the wide background of the integral world again fully come into play” (Soch., vol. 14, p. 273). This is in no way contradicted by the fact that in the center of R. is usually the image of a "private" person with his purely personal fate and experiences. In the era of the emergence of R. "... individual person appears liberated from natural ties, etc., which in previous historical epochs made him an affiliation of a certain limited human conglomerate "(Marx K., On the Critique of Political Economy, 1953, pp. 193-94). On the one hand, this means that that the individual no longer appears primarily as a representative of a certain group of people, he acquires his own personal destiny and individual consciousness.But at the same time, this means that the individual person is no longer directly connected with a certain limited collective, but with the life of the whole community. This, in turn, leads to the fact that it becomes possible and, moreover, necessary, the artistic development of social life through the prism of the individual fate of a "private" person.
Of course, this development is accomplished in a much more complex and indirect way than the development of the fate of the people in the form of a majestic folk hero, as was the case in the ancient epic. But there is no doubt that the novels of Prevost, Fielding, Stendhal, Lermontov, Dickens, Turgenev, etc. in the personal destinies of the main characters reveal the broadest and deepest content of the social life of the era. Moreover, in many R. there is not even any detailed picture of the life of society, as such; the whole image is focused on the private life of the individual. However, since in the new society built after the Renaissance, the private life of a person turned out to be inextricably linked with the whole life of the social whole (even if the person did not act as a politician, leader, ideologist), - completely "private" actions and experiences of Tom Jones (by Fielding), Werther (by Goethe), Pechorin, Madame Bovary appear as an artistic development of the integral essence of the social world that gave birth to these heroes. Therefore, R. was able to become a true epic of the new time and, in its most monumental manifestations, revived the epic genre, as it were (see). The first historical form of R., which was preceded by the short story and the epic of the Renaissance, was the picaresque R., which actively developed in the late 16th - early 16th century. 18th century ("Lazarillo from Tor-mesa", "Franción" by Sorel, "Simpli-cissimus" by Grimmelhausen, "Gille Blas" by Lesage, etc.). From the end of the 17th century psychological prose develops, which was of great importance for the formation of R. (books by La Rochefoucauld, La Bruyère, Lafayette's story The Princess of Cleves). Finally, memoirs of the 16th and 17th centuries played a very important role in the formation of R., in which for the first time the private life and personal experiences of people began to be objectively depicted (books by Benvenuto Cellini, Montaigne, Sevigny, etc.); so, it was the memoirs (or, more precisely, the sailor's travel notes) that served as the basis and stimulus for the creation of one of the first great R. - "Robinson Crusoe" (1719) by Defoe. R. reaches maturity in the 18th century. One of the earliest authentic examples of the genre is Manon Lescaut (1731) by Antoine Prevost. In this R., as it were, merged into an innovative organic integrity of the tradition of picaresque R., psychological prose(in the spirit of La Rochefoucauld's "Maxim") and memoir literature (it is characteristic that this R. originally appeared as a fragment of a multi-volume fictional memoir of a certain person).
During the 18th century R. wins a dominant position in literature (in the 17th century it still acts as a lateral, secondary sphere of the art of the word). In R. 18th century. two different lines are already developing—social R. (Fielding, Smollett, Louvet de Couvre, and so on) and a more powerful line of psychological R. (Richardson, Rousseau, Stern, Goethe, and others).
At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, during the era of romanticism, the genre of rhyme went through a kind of crisis; the subjective-lyrical nature of romantic literature contradicts the epic essence of R. Many writers of this time (Chateaubriand, Senancourt, Schlegel, Novalis, Constant) create R., which resemble rather lyrical poems in prose.
However, at the same time, a special form is flourishing - historical R., which acts as a kind of synthesis of R. in the proper sense and the epic poem of the past (the novels of Walter Scott, Vigny, Hugo, Gogol).
On the whole, the period of romanticism was of renewing significance for R.; it prepared for his new rise and flourishing. In the second third of the 19th century the classical epoch of R. falls (Stendhal, Lermontov, Balzac, Dickens, Thackeray, Turgenev, Flaubert, Maupassant, and others). The Russian novel of the second half of the 19th century plays a special role, primarily the novels of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky. In the work of these greatest writers, one of the decisive properties of R. reaches a qualitatively new level - his ability to embody the universal, all-human meaning in the private destinies and personal experiences of the heroes. Profound psychologism, mastering the subtlest movements of the soul, characteristic of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky, not only do not contradict, but, on the contrary, determine this property. Tolstoy, noting that in R. Dostoevsky "not only we, people related to him, but foreigners recognize themselves, their souls ...", explained it this way: "The deeper you scoop, the more common to all, more familiar and dearer" (Tolstoy L N., O literature, M., 1955, p. 264).
The novel by Tolstoy and Dostoevsky had a huge impact on the further development of the genre in world literature. Major novelists of the 20th century - T. Mann, France, Rolland, Hamsun, Martin du Gard, Galsworthy, Laxness, Faulkner, Hemingway, Tagore, Akutagawa - were direct students and followers of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky. T. Mann said that Tolstoy's novels "lead us into the temptation to overturn the relationship between the novel and the epic, affirmed by school aesthetics, and consider not the novel as a product of the decay of the epic, but the epic as a primitive prototype of the novel." (Sobr. soch., v. 10, M., 1961, p. 279).
The traditions of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky were innovatively continued by Gorky, who became the founder of R. socialist realism. In the highest examples of this genre, life, being, appears as the creative act of the people, and therefore the storytelling of socialist realism especially organically embodies the epic essence of the genre, gravitates towards the epic in the exact sense of the word. This is evident in such major phenomena of Soviet R. as "The Life of Klim Samgin" and "Quiet Flows the Don". But this does not mean at all that the genre of socialist realism renounces the many-sided nature of the genre. Already at least the named works characterize the deep development of the life and consciousness of the individual, which has always been inherent in R.
In the first post-October years, the idea was popular, according to which, in the new, revolutionary R., the image of the masses should become the main or even the only content. However, when this idea was implemented, R. was in danger of disintegration, he turned into a chain of incoherent episodes (for example, in the works of B. Pilnyak). In literature of the 20th century. the frequent desire to limit oneself to the image of the inner world of the individual is expressed in attempts to recreate the so-called. "stream of consciousness" (Proust, Joyce, modern school of "new R." in France). But, deprived of an objectively effective basis, R., in essence, loses its epic nature and ceases to be R. in the true sense of the word.
R. can really develop only on the basis of the harmonious unity of objective and subjective, external and internal in man. This unity is characteristic of the largest novels of recent times - the novels of Sholokhov, Laxness, Graham Greene, Faulkner, and others.
Lit .: Griftsov B. A., Theory of the novel, M., 1927; Chicherin A.V., The emergence of the epic novel, M., 1958; Fox R., Roman i people, M., 1960; Dneprov V., Roman - a new kind of poetry, in his book: Problems of Realism, L., 1961; Kozhinov V., The origin of the novel, M., 1963; The Present and Future of the Novel (Materials of the discussion), "In. Literature", 1964, No. 6, 10; Bakhtin M., Word in the novel, "Questions of literature", 1965, No. 8; History of the Russian novel, vol. 1 - 2, M. - L., 1962 - 64; Russian history Soviet novel, book. 1 - 2, M. - L., 1965; Deks P., Seven centuries of the novel. Sat. st., trans. from French, Moscow, 1962.
V. Nozhinov.
Sources:
- Dictionary of literary terms. Ed. From 48 comp.: L. I. Timofeev and S. V. Turaev. M., "Enlightenment", 1974. 509 p.
Let us turn to one of the founders of Russian literary criticism - V. G. Belinsky, who wrote back in the first half of the 19th century: "... now our literature has turned into a novel and a story (...) What books are most read and sold out? Novels and stories. (... ) What books are written by all our writers, called and uncalled (...)? Novels and stories. (...) in what books are human life, and the rules of morality, and philosophical systems, and, in a word, all sciences? In novels and stories " .
The 19th century is called the "golden age of the Russian novel": A. Pushkin and F. Dostoevsky, N. Gogol and I. Turgenev, L. Tolstoy and N. Leskov, A. Herzen and M. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N. Chernyshevsky and A. K. Tolstoy worked fruitfully in this large form of epic. Even A. Chekhov dreamed of writing a novel about love...
The novel, in contrast to the story and the story, can be called an "extensive" type of literature, since it requires a wide coverage of artistic material.
The novel is characterized by the following features:
- branching of the plot, multiple storylines; often central characters novels have "their" storylines, the author tells their story in detail (the story of Oblomov, the story of Stolz, the story of Olga Ilyinskaya, the story of Agafya Matveena in Goncharov's novel "Oblomov");
- variety of characters (by age, social groups, characters, types, views, etc.);
- global scope of subjects and problems;
- a large coverage of artistic time (the action of "War and Peace" by L. Tolstoy fits into a decade and a half);
- a well-developed historical background, the correlation of the fates of the heroes with the characteristics of the era, etc.
The end of the 19th century somewhat weakened the interest of writers in large epic forms, and small genres - the story and the story - came to the fore. But since the 20s of the twentieth century, the novel has become relevant again: A. Tolstoy writes "Walking through the torments" and "Peter I", A. Fadeev - "Rout", I. Babel - "Cavalry", M. Sholokhov - "Quiet Don" and "Virgin Soil Upturned", N. Ostrovsky - "Born by the Revolution" and "How the Steel Was Tempered", M. Bulgakov - "The White Guard" and "The Master and Margarita"…
Distinguish set varieties (genres) of the novel: historical, fantastic, gothic (or horror novel), psychological, philosophical, social, morality novel (or everyday life novel), utopian or dystopian novel, parable novel, anecdote novel, adventure (or adventure) novel, detective novel etc. A special genre is ideological novel in which main task the author is to convey to the reader a certain ideology, a system of views on how society should be. The novels of N. Chernyshevsky "What to do?", M. Gorky "Mother", N. Ostrovsky "How the steel was tempered", M. Sholokhov "Virgin Soil Upturned", etc. can be considered ideological.
- Historical the novel is interested in major, critical historical events and determines the fate of a person in a particular era by the features of the depicted time;
- fantastic the novel tells about fantastic events that go beyond the usual material, scientifically known world;
- psychological the novel tells about the features and motives of human behavior in certain circumstances, about the manifestation of the internal properties and qualities of human nature, about personal, individual features a person, often considering various psychological types of people;
- philosophical the novel reveals the writer's system of philosophical ideas about the world and man;
- social the novel comprehends the laws of the organization of society, studies the influence of these laws on human destinies; depicts the state of individual social groups and artistically explains it;
- novel of manners or everyday writing the novel depicts the everyday side of a person's existence, the features of his daily life, reflects his habits, moral norms, perhaps some ethnographic details;
- in the center adventurous the novel, naturally, the adventures of the hero; while the character traits of the characters historical truth And historical details are not always interesting to the author and are often in the background, and even in the third plan;
- utopian novel depicts the wonderful future of a person or the ideal structure of the state, from the point of view of the author; dystopian novel on the contrary, he paints the world and society as, according to the author, they should not be, but can become through the fault of man.
- The largest epic genre is epic novel, in which each of the features listed above is globally developed and developed by the writer; epic creates a wide canvas of human existence. Epic is usually not enough alone human destiny, she is interested in the stories of entire families, dynasties in a long time context, against a broad historical background, making a person an important part of a vast and eternal world.
All these genres of the novel - except, perhaps, the Gothic or horror novel, which did not take root in Russia - are widely represented in Russian literature of the 19th and 20th centuries.
Each era prefers certain genres of the novel. So Russian literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century gave preference to a realistic novel of a socio-philosophical and everyday life content. The twentieth century demanded a variety of novel content, and all genres of the novel received a powerful development at that time.
ROMAN (literary genre) ROMAN (literary genre)
ROMAN (French roman, German Roman; English novel/romance; Spanish novela, Italian romanzo), central genre (cm. GENRE) European literature of modern times (cm. NEW TIME (in history)), fictional, in contrast to the adjacent genre of the story (cm. STORY), an extensive, plot-branched prose narrative (despite the existence of compact, so-called "little novels" (fr. le petit roman), and poetic novels, for example, "a novel in verse" "Eugene Onegin").
In contrast to the classical epic (cm. EPOS) the novel focuses on depicting the historical present and destinies individuals, ordinary people who are looking for themselves and their destiny in this worldly, "prosaic", world that has lost its original stability, integrity and sacredness (poetry). Even if in a novel, for example, in a historical novel, the action is transferred to the past, this past is always evaluated and perceived as immediately preceding the present and correlated with the present.
The novel as open to modernity, not formally ossified, becoming a genre of literature of the New and Contemporary times, cannot be exhaustively defined in universalist terms. theoretical poetics, but can be characterized in the light of historical poetics, which explores the evolution and development of artistic consciousness, the history and prehistory of artistic forms. Historical poetics takes into account both the diachronic variability and diversity of the novel, and the conventionality of using the word "novel" itself as a genre "label". Far from all novels, even exemplary novels with modern point of view, were defined by their creators and the reading public precisely as "novels".
Initially, in the 12th-13th centuries, the word roman meant any written text in Old French, and only in the second half of the 17th century. partially acquired its modern semantic content. Cervantes (cm. SERVANTES Saavedra Miguel de)- the creator of the paradigmatic novel of the New Age "Don Quixote" (1604-1615) - called his book "history", and used the word "novela" for the title of the book of stories and short stories "Instructive Novels" (1613).
On the other hand, many works that the critics of the 19th century - the heyday of the realistic novel - after the fact called "novels" are not always such. A typical example is the poetic and prose pastoral eclogues (cm. ECLOGUS (in literature)) Renaissance, turned into "pastoral novels", the so-called " folk books» of the 16th century, including the parody Pentateuch by F. Rabelais. (cm. RABLE Francois) Fantastic or allegorical satirical narratives are artificially classified as novels, dating back to the ancient "menippe satire". (cm. MENIPPO'S SATIRE)”, such as Criticon by B. Graciana (cm. GRACIAN-Y-MORALES Baltasar), J. Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress (cm. BUNYAN John), The Adventures of Telemachus by Fenelon (cm. FENELON François), satires by J. Swift (cm. SWIFT Jonathan), Voltaire's "philosophical tales" (cm. VOLTAIRE), "poem" by N. V. Gogol (cm. GOGOL Nikolay Vasilievich)"Dead Souls", "Penguin Island" by A. France (cm. FRANCE Anatole). Also, not all utopias can be called novels. (cm. UTOPIA), although - on the border of utopia and the novel at the end of the 18th century. the genre of the utopian novel arose (Morris (cm. Morris William), Chernyshevsky (cm. Chernyshevsky Nikolai Gavrilovich), Zola (cm. ZOLA Emil)), and then its antipode double - a dystopian novel (“When the Sleeper Wakes” by G. Wells (cm. Welles Herbert), "We" Evg. Zamyatin (cm. ZAMYATIN Evgeny Ivanovich)).
The novel, in principle, is a borderline genre, associated with almost all types of discourse adjacent to it. (cm. DISCURSIVE), both written and oral, easily absorbing foreign-genre and even foreign-generic verbal structures: essay documents, diaries, notes, letters (epistolary novel (cm. epistolary literature)), memoirs, confessions, newspaper chronicles, plots and images of folk and literary fairy tales, national and sacred traditions (for example, gospel images and motifs in the prose of F. M. Dostoevsky (cm. Dostoevsky, Fedor Mikhailovich)). There are novels in which the lyrical beginning is clearly expressed, in others the features of farce, comedy, tragedy, drama, medieval mystery are distinguishable. The emergence of the concept is natural (V. Dneprov (cm. CITY OF MILITARY GLORY)), according to which the novel is the fourth - in relation to the epic, lyrics and drama - a kind of literature.
The novel is a multilingual, multifaceted and multi-angle genre that represents the world and a person in the world from a variety of points of view, including multi-genre points of view, including other genre worlds as an image object. The novel preserves in its meaningful form the memory of myth and ritual (the city of Macondo in the novel by G. Garcia Márquez (cm. Garcia Marquez (Gabriel)"One Hundred Years of Solitude"). Therefore, being "the standard-bearer and herald of individualism" (Vyach. Ivanov (cm. IVANOV Vyacheslav Ivanovich)), the novel in a new form (in a written word) at the same time seeks to resurrect primitive syncretism (cm. SYNCRETISM) words, sound and gesture (hence the organic birth of cinema and TV novels), to restore the original unity of man and the universe.
The problem of the place and time of the birth of the novel remains debatable. According to both the extremely wide and extremely narrow interpretation of the essence of the novel - an adventure story focused on the fate of lovers striving for union - the first novels were created in ancient India and, regardless of that, in Greece (cm. ANCIENT GREECE) and Rome (cm. ANCIENT ROME) in II-IV centuries. The so-called Greek (Hellenistic) novel is chronologically the first version of the "adventurous novel of trial" (M. Bakhtin (cm. Bakhtin Mikhail Mikhailovich)) lies at the origins of the first stylistic line in the development of the novel, which is characterized by “mono-lingualism and mono-style” (in English criticism, narratives of this kind are called romance).
The action in "romance" takes place in "adventurous time", which is removed from real (historical, biographical, natural) time and represents a kind of "gaping" (Bakhtin (cm. Bakhtin Mikhail Mikhailovich)) between the beginning and end points of the development of the cyclic plot - two moments in the life of the heroes-in love: their meeting, marked by a sudden flare-up of mutual love, and their reunion after separation and overcoming each of them various trials and temptations.
The interval between the first meeting and the final reunion is filled with such events as the attack of pirates, the kidnapping of the bride during the wedding, the sea storm, the fire, the shipwreck, the miraculous rescue, the false news of the death of one of the lovers, the imprisonment on false charges of the other, threatening him the death penalty, the ascension of another to the heights of earthly power, an unexpected meeting and recognition. art space the Greek novel is an “alien”, exotic world: events take place in several Middle Eastern and African countries, which are described in sufficient detail (the novel is a kind of guide to a foreign world, a replacement for geographical and historical encyclopedias, although it also contains a lot of fantastic information).
A key role in the development of the plot in the ancient novel is played by chance, as well as various kinds of dreams and predictions. The characters and feelings of the characters, their appearance and even age remain unchanged throughout the development of the plot. The Hellenistic novel is genetically connected with myth, with Roman legal proceedings and rhetoric. Therefore, in such a novel there is a lot of reasoning on philosophical, religious and moral topics, speeches, including those delivered by the heroes in court and built according to all the rules of ancient rhetoric: the adventurous love plot of the novel is also a judicial “casus”, the subject of its discussion from two diametrically opposed points of view, pro and contra (this contraversity, conjugation of opposites will be preserved as genre feature novel at all stages of its development).
In Western Europe, the Hellenistic novel, forgotten during the Middle Ages, was rediscovered in the Renaissance by the authors of late Renaissance poetics created by admirers of the same rediscovered and read Aristotle. (cm. ARISTOTLE). Trying to adapt Aristotelian poetics (in which nothing is said about the novel) to the needs of modern literature with its rapid development of various kinds fictional narratives, neo-Aristotelian humanists turned to the Greek (as well as Byzantine) novel as an ancient example-precedent, focusing on which one should create a plausible narrative (truthfulness, reliability - a new quality prescribed in humanistic poetics to novel fiction). The recommendations contained in the neo-Aristotelian treatises were largely followed by the creators of pseudo-historical adventurous love novels of the Baroque era (M. de Scuderi (cm. SCUDERIE Madeleine de) and etc.).
The plot of the Greek novel is not only exploited in mass literature and culture of the 19th and 20th centuries. (in the same Latin American TV novels), but also seen in the plot collisions of "high" literature in the novels of Balzac, Hugo, Dickens, Dostoevsky, A. N. Tolstoy (the trilogy "Sisters", "Walking through the torments", "The Eighteenth Year") , Andrey Platonov ("Chevengur"), Pasternak ("Doctor Zhivago"), although they are often parodied ("Candide" by Voltaire) and radically rethought (purposeful destruction of the mythology of the "sacred wedding" in the prose of Andrei Platonov and G. Garcia Marquez ).
But the novel is not reduced to the plot. A truly novel hero is not exhausted by the plot: he, in Bakhtin's words, is always either "more than the plot or less than his humanity." He is not only and not so much an “outer man”, realizing himself in action, in an act, in a rhetorical word addressed to everyone and no one, but an “inner man”, aimed at self-knowledge and at a confession-prayer appeal to God and a specific “other”: such a person was discovered by Christianity (the Epistles of the Apostle Paul, the "Confession" of Aurelius Augustine (cm. AUGUSTINE Blessed)), which paved the way for the formation of the European novel.
The novel, as a biography of the "inner man", began to take shape in Western European literature in the form of a poetic, and then a prose chivalric novel. (cm. ROMANCE) 12th-13th centuries - the first narrative genre of the Middle Ages, perceived by authors and educated listeners and readers as fiction, although by tradition (which also becomes the subject of a parody game) it was often passed off as the writings of ancient "historians". At the heart of the plot conflict of the chivalric novel is the indestructible confrontation between the whole and the separate, chivalric community (the mythical chivalry of the times of King Arthur (cm. ARTHUR (legendary king))) and the hero-knight, who stands out among others for his merits, and - according to the principle of metonymy - is the best part of the knightly class. In the feat of chivalry destined for him from above and in the loving service of Eternal femininity, the hero-knight must rethink his place in the world and in society, divided into classes, but united by Christian, universal values. Knightly adventure is not just a test of the hero for self-identity, but also a moment of his self-knowledge.
Fiction, adventure as a test of self-identity and as a path to self-knowledge of the hero, a combination of the motives of love and heroism, the interest of the author and readers of the novel in the inner world of the characters - all these are characteristic genre signs of a chivalric novel, “reinforced” by the experience of the “Greek” close to it in style and structure. novel, at the end of the Renaissance, they will move into the novel of the New Age, parodying the chivalric epic and at the same time preserving the ideal of chivalrous service as a value guide (“Don Quixote” by Cervantes).
The cardinal difference between the novel of the New Age and the novel of the Middle Ages is the transfer of events from the fabulously utopian world (the chronotope of the chivalric novel is “a wonderful world in adventurous time”, according to Bakhtin) to a recognizable “prosaic” modernity. One of the first (along with the novel by Cervantes) genre varieties of the new European novel is oriented towards modern, “low”, reality - a picaresque novel. (cm. PLUTOVSKY NOVEL)(or picaresque), which developed and flourished in Spain in the second half of the 16th - first half of the 17th century. ("Lazarillo from Tormes (cm. LAZARILLO WITH TORMESA), Mateo Aleman (cm. ALEMAN I DE ENERO Mateo), F. de Quevedo (cm. Quevedo i Villegas Francisco). Genetically, picaresque is associated with the second stylistic line in the development of the novel, according to Bakhtin (cf. the English term novel as the opposite of romance). It is preceded by the "grassroots" prose of antiquity and the Middle Ages, which never took shape in the form of a proper novel narrative, to which Apuleius' Golden Ass belongs. (cm. APULEI), Satyricon by Petronius (cm. PETRONIUS Guy), menippea Lucian (cm. LUCIAN) and Cicero (cm. CICERO), medieval fablios (cm. FABLIO), shvanki (cm. Schwank), farces (cm. FARS (at the theater)), hundreds (cm. SOTI) and other genres of laughter associated with carnival (carnivalized literature, on the one hand, opposes “inner man” to “outer man”, on the other hand, to man as a socialized being (the “official” image of man, according to Bakhtin) to a natural, private, everyday man. The first example of the picaresque genre - the anonymous story "The Life of Lazarillo from Tormes" (1554) - is parodically oriented towards the genre of confession and is built as a pseudo-confessional narrative on behalf of the hero, aimed not at repentance, but at self-praise and self-justification (Denis Diderot (cm. DIDRO Denis) and "Notes from the Underground" by F. M. Dostoevsky). The author-ironist, hiding behind the hero-narrator, stylizes his fiction as a “human document” (it is characteristic that all four surviving editions of the story are anonymous). Later, genuine autobiographical narratives (“The Life of Estebanillo Gonzalez”), already stylized as picaresque novels, would branch off from the picaresque genre. At the same time, picaresque, having lost its proper novelistic properties, will turn into an allegorical satirical epic (B. Gracian).
The first examples of the novel genre reveal a specifically novelistic attitude to fiction, which becomes the subject of an ambiguous game between the author and the reader: on the one hand, the novelist invites the reader to believe in the authenticity of the life he depicts, to immerse himself in it, to dissolve in the flow of what is happening and in the experiences of the characters, on the other - every now and then ironically emphasizes the fictitiousness, the creation of novel reality. Don Quixote is a novel in which the defining beginning is the dialogue between Don Quixote and Sancho Panza, the author and the reader, passing through it. The picaresque novel is a kind of denial of the "ideal" world of novels of the first stylistic line - chivalric, pastoral, "Moorish". "Don Quixote", parodying chivalric novels, includes novels of the first stylistic line as objects of the image, creating parodic (and not only) images of the genres of these novels. The world of Cervantes' narration breaks up into a "book" and "life", but the boundary between them is blurred: the hero of Cervantes lives life as a novel, brings a conceived but not written novel to life, becoming the author and co-author of the novel of his life, while the author under the mask of the dummy Arab historian Sid Ahmet Benenkheli - becomes a character in the novel, without leaving his other roles at the same time - the author-publisher and the author-creator of the text: starting from the prologue to each part, he is the reader's interlocutor, who is also invited to join the game with the text of the book and the text of life. Thus, the “quixotic situation” unfolds in the stereometric space of the tragic farcical “novel of consciousness”, in the creation of which three main subjects are involved: Author - Hero - Reader. In Don Quixote, for the first time in European culture, a “three-dimensional” novelistic word sounded - the most striking sign of novelistic discourse.
Just as Cervantes' novel combines both stylistic lines in the development of the novel, the traditions of rhetorical and carnival discourses, the English novelists of the Enlightenment (D. Defoe (cm. DEFO Daniel), G. Fielding (cm. FIELDING Henry), T. Smollett (cm. Smollett Tobias George)) reconcile the initially incompatible novel of the “Cervantes type” and the picaresque, creating the “novel of the high road”, which, in turn, absorbs the experience that originated in early Renaissance Italy (“Fiametta” by Boccaccio (cm. Boccaccio Giovanni)) and finally took shape in France in the 17th century. ("Princess of Cleves" M. de Lafayette (cm. Lafayette Marie Madeleine)) of a psychological novel, as well as features of an idyll. Traditions of the English love-sentimental and family-household novel of the Enlightenment (S. Richardson (cm. RICHARDSON Samuel), O. Goldsmith (cm. GOLDSMITH Oliver)) will be taken up by the novelists of the 19th and 20th centuries. Having absorbed, in turn, the experience of W. Scott, who also took shape in England under the pen (cm. SCOTT Walter) historical novel, in a specifically Russian cultural context, the genre of the epic novel (L. N. Tolstoy) will arise, which in centuries will compare two opposites in a single artistic structure - the epic and the novel, once again confirming the fundamental feature of the novel - its essential controversy and the dialectic of its inner form.
The ability of the novel to constantly renew itself throughout its life in the culture of the Modern and Contemporary times is confirmed by the regular appearance of novels-parodies on certain examples of the genre that gravitate towards canonization: parodic and self-parodic beginnings are present in the prose of Fielding, Stern (cm. STERN Lawrence), Wieland (cm. Wieland Christoph Martin), Dickens, M. Twain (cm. TWAIN Mark), Joyce (cm. JOYCE James), Pushkin (cm. Pushkin, Alexander Sergeyevich), Dostoevsky, Nabokov (cm. NABOKOV Vladimir Vladimirovich), G. Garcia Marquez and others. Most of the parody and self-parody novels can be called "self-conscious novels" or meta-novels, i.e. texts based on parodic citation and ironic rethinking of other people's texts. At the origins of this tradition is also the first "exemplary" novel of the New Age - "Don Quixote".
The diversity of the novel tradition, reflecting the inexhaustibility of the genre itself, is also manifested in the emergence of specific national varieties of the genre: the “novel of education” in Germany (Goethe (cm. Goethe Johann Wolfgang), T.Mann ( cm.
