Every day we meet with Russian surnames: these are the surnames of our friends and classmates, the surnames of teachers, the surnames of scientists, writers, researchers that we hear in the lessons, which we read about in books, the surnames of theater and film artists, the surnames of politicians and athletes, about whom we learn from TV shows and social networks. It is always interesting to immerse yourself in the history of your country, your ancestors, your family.
In our research work, we formulated the following problem: what secrets and mysteries do Russian surnames? Based on this, we have identified:
− object of study - Russian surnames,
− the subject of research is the origin of Russian surnames.
The purpose of our work: to find out how Russian surnames originated, and divide them into groups according to the history of their occurrence.
To achieve this goal, the following tasks were put forward:
- to study the issue of the origin of Russian surnames and identify their features;
- determine the history of the emergence of Russian common, rare, unusual surnames;
- compare material on the history of the origin of the surnames of the indicated groups;
- to investigate the origin and meaning of the names of classmates (5 A class MBOU "Gymnasium No. 44" in Kursk).
Working hypothesis: we think that Russian surnames are a real encyclopedia of history, ethnography, life, ideals, views of the Russian people. They most often reflect the profession, place of birth, family ties of people.
Research methods: description, classification, comparison, generalization, analysis.
The official fixing of the surname for each person happened less than a century ago, that within the framework of history - a very small period of time.
The history of each individual surname is unique in its own way. Sometimes dozens of people with the same last name live in the same area. Sometimes it also happens that we smile when we hear some unusual last name. In recent times, the history of the origin and distribution of surnames worried only linguists, historians, ethnographers, and, of course, the owners of this value. But today, scientists from the laboratory of popular human genetics of the State Medical Genetic Institute have become interested in this issue. scientific center RAMN. Scientists argue that the entire Russian gene pool is hidden in the origins of the origin of native Russian surnames.
Thus, a group of researchers led by Elena Balanovskaya carried out work on the topic “Family portraits of five Russian regions”. The criterion for listing a surname was as follows: it was included if, within three generations at least five carriers of this surname lived in the region. First, lists were compiled for five conditional regions: Northern, Central, Central-Western, Central-Eastern and Southern. The first 25 surnames from this list the so-called "all-Russian surnames": Smirnov, Ivanov, Kuznetsov, Sokolov, Popov, Lebedev, Kozlov, Novikov, Morozov, Petrov, Volkov, Solovyov, Vasiliev, Zaitsev, Pavlov, Semyonov, Golubev, Vinogradov, Bogdanov, Vorobyov, Fedorov, Mikhailov , Belyaev, Tarasov, Belov. The origin and significance of some of them is curious.
The most common surname in Russia is Ivanov. Initially, this is a middle name from the form Ivan male name John. Ivanov is a primordially Russian surname, since the derivative name has been in use for several centuries. It was typical name men of peasant origin. No less common is the surname Smirnov. According to one version, in ancient times there was an estate of wandering people who led a nomadic lifestyle, moving throughout Rus'. It is believed that when they first entered the territory of a settlement, they uttered the phrase: “Greetings to you, good people. We go WITH THE NEW WORLD. The surname Kuznetsov is the third most popular. The surname Kuznetsov comes from the naming of his father by occupation. The blacksmith used to be necessary and famous person in their village, therefore they called such a surname everywhere.
There are actually a lot of rare surnames that really cut the ear. There are just a relatively small number of carriers of such surnames. Initially, a person was given a nickname that distinguished him from the rest of the mass of the people. If a nickname was assigned to a person, it gradually became the name of a certain genus, family, even if unofficially. So nicknames turned into surnames. Some of them managed to survive, others irretrievably gone into the past and exist for us only on paper. Rare surnames not always funny and ridiculous. Among them there are many harmonious and beautiful - those that their carriers are rightly proud of.
The origin of the surname Owl is connected with nature, namely with the animal world. Giving the baby such a name, the parents wanted nature to perceive the child as her own, so that he would pass on those useful qualities that the chosen representative of the animal world is endowed with. The surname Pechka originates from the nickname Pechka, which goes back to a similar common noun. In the old days, a stove (stove) was available in every Russian house. The surname Workers is formed from the nickname Worker. Most likely, the founder of the Rabotyagov family was a hardworking, diligent peasant or craftsman.
The topic of the experimental part of our work: "The origin and meaning of the names of students of grade 5A MBOU" Gymnasium No. 44 "". Having studied the works of research scientists, we found that most of them agree on the origin of surnames and distinguish following groups: surnames formed from the forms of given names; surnames formed from the name of the area where one of the ancestors came from; surnames formed from professional nicknames of ancestors; a group of surnames that students of religious institutions received; surnames formed from the names of representatives of the animal world.
Taking into account the above groups identified by scientists, we conducted our own study, the subject of which was the names of students in grade 5 A. To successfully complete this task, we needed existing surname dictionaries and explanatory dictionaries, with the help of which we searched for a surname or a word that formed the basis of a surname.
In total in our cool list 24 surnames. There are children of different nationalities in the class. Among them there are Hispanics, Armenians, Russians, so the origin of the surnames reflects the traditions and customs of these peoples.
The analysis of the names of classmates helped to compile tables 1, 2 and analyze the names of the students in our class:
Table 1
Classification of surnames by origin
table 2
Classification by grammatical features
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Baramykin Burmistrova Breeders Gavrilova Gridasov |
Makhovskaya Polyanskaya pushing Prasolov |
Salnikova Simankova Soshnikov |
Omelchenko Sinkevich |
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Burmistrova Gavrilova Gridasov Prasolov |
Salnikova Simankova Soshnikov |
Breeders |
Baramykin |
The material of the tables allows us to draw the following conclusion: most of the surnames of the class are formed from names, declined and with the suffix -ov-.
Thus, as a result of our research work we can draw the following conclusions:
- Russian surnames by origin and formation can be divided into the following groups:
− from proper names;
- from nicknames (descendants sometimes received a surname from the everyday name of a person, which displayed a property of character, appearance And. etc.);
- from the area where one of the ancestors came from (the names of cities, villages, villages, rivers, lakes were taken as the basis of the surname);
- from professions or professional nicknames;
− from religious institutions, parishes or church holidays;
- from the names of plants and animals.
- The emergence of Russian common surnames is mainly associated with nicknames. Rare surnames, not all have survived to this day, some have survived only on paper. Rare surnames are not always funny and ridiculous. Among them there are many euphonious and beautiful - such that their carriers are rightfully proud of.
- Most The surnames of the class are formed from names, declined and with the suffix -ov-.
- Surname translated from Latin - family. It is passed down from generation to generation. To find out what the meaning of a surname is, you need to turn to its origins. It is a reflection of the history of the family and the country. It is necessary to treat all surnames with respect, not to allow their distortions.
There are no last names:
Funny, proud, serious,
With a double meaning and with a secret,
Screaming, sullen, funny!
There are a lot of tasty surnames:
There is borschov, Smetanin and Pancake,
There are a lot of sad surnames:
There are Plaksin, Bezzubov, Innocent.
Surnames are also colored:
And Black, and White, and Red.
Surnames are nominal:
Petrov, Ivanov or Grishin.
Surnames roam the world
And they are looking for the taste of the owners ...
Surnames that don't exist:
And good, and evil, and desperate!
Literature:
- Vedina T.F. Encyclopedia of Russian Surnames. Secrets of origin and meaning. Publishing House: Astrel, AST: 2008
- Ganzhina I. M. Dictionary of modern Russian surnames. M.: Astrel, AST, 2001
- Gorbanevsky M.V., Maksimov V.O. Onomastics for everyone. M .: IIC "History of Surnames". 2008
- Dal V.I. Dictionary of the living Russian language vols. 1–4 M.: 1978
- Medvedev Yu. M. 10000 Russian names and surnames. encyclopedic Dictionary. M.. 2009
- Nikonov V. A. Dictionary of Russian surnames / comp. e.L. Krushelnitsky; foreword M.: 1993
- Ozhegov S.I. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. Together with N. Yu. Shvedova. - M.: 1992
- Olenin N. B. Why Fedor's children became Fedorovs. Electronic journal"Research in Russia". 2002. 171/021118, pp. 1896–1909
- Superanskaya A.V., Suslova A.V. About Russian surnames. M.: 2008
- Fedosyuk Yu. A. Russian surnames: a popular etymological dictionary. M.: 2006
- Sheiko N. I. Russian names and surnames. M., 2005
- http://famcentre.ru/page96.php research center for the origin of surnames.
- http://historylib.org historical library.
Our answer to the false Western propaganda that the Russians "have never created anything, and are not in a position to create anything," and that "the best and most necessary things were created by the Americans and Europeans"...
"Three heroes". Viktor Vasnetsov, 1898
***
Pavel Yablochkov - inventor of the first electric light bulb
1. P.N. Yablochkov and A.N. Lodygin - the world's first electric light bulb.
2. A.S. Popov is the inventor of the radio.
3. V.K. Zworykin (the world's first electron microscope, television and broadcasting).
4. A.F. Mozhaisky is the inventor of the world's first aircraft.
5. I.I. Sikorsky - a great aircraft designer, created the world's first helicopter, the world's first bomber.
6. A.M. Ponyatov - the world's first video recorder.
7. S.P. Korolev - the world's first ballistic missile, spaceship, the first satellite of the Earth.
8. A.M. Prokhorov and N.G. Basov - the world's first quantum generator - a maser.
9. S.V. Kovalevskaya (the world's first female professor).
10. S.M. Prokudin-Gorsky - the world's first color photograph.
11. A.A. Alekseev - the creator of the needle screen.
12. F.A. Pirotsky - the world's first electric tram.
13. F.A. Blinov is the world's first caterpillar tractor.
14. V.A. Starevich is a three-dimensional animated film.
15. E.M. Artamonov - invented the world's first bicycle with pedals, a steering wheel, a turning wheel.
16. O.V. Losev is the world's first amplifying and generating semiconductor device.
17. V.P. Mutilin is the world's first mounted construction harvester.
18. A. R. Vlasenko - the world's first grain harvester.
19. V.P. Demikhov was the first in the world to perform a lung transplant and the first to create a model of an artificial heart.
20. A.P. Vinogradov - created a new direction in science - isotope geochemistry.
21. I.I. Polzunov - the world's first heat engine.
22. G.E. Kotelnikov - the first backpack rescue parachute.
Academician Igor Kurchatov under his leadership developed the world's first hydrogen bomb
23. I.V. Kurchatov is the world's first nuclear power plant (Obninsk), also under his leadership, the world's first hydrogen bomb with a capacity of 400 kt was developed, detonated on August 12, 1953. It was the Kurchatov team that developed the RDS-202 thermonuclear bomb (Tsar bomb) with a record power of 52,000 kt.
24. M.O. Dolivo-Dobrovolsky - invented a three-phase current system, built a three-phase transformer, which put an end to the dispute between supporters of direct (Edison) and alternating current.
25. V.P. Vologdin, the world's first high-voltage liquid cathode mercury rectifier, developed induction furnaces for the use of high-frequency currents in industry.
26. S.O. Kostovich - created the world's first gasoline engine in 1879.
27. V.P. Glushko - the world's first electric / thermal rocket engine.
28. V.V. Petrov - discovered the phenomenon of an arc discharge.
29. N.G. Slavyanov - electric arc welding.
30. I.F. Alexandrovsky - invented a stereo camera.
31. D.P. Grigorovich - the creator of the seaplane.
32. V.G. Fedorov - the world's first automatic machine.
33. A.K. Nartov - built the world's first lathe with a movable caliper.
34. M.V. Lomonosov - for the first time in science formulated the principle of conservation of matter and motion, for the first time in the world he began to teach a course in physical chemistry, for the first time he discovered the existence of an atmosphere on Venus.
35. I.P. Kulibin - a mechanic, developed the project of the world's first wooden arched single-span bridge, the inventor of the searchlight.
36. V.V. Petrov - physicist, developed the world's largest galvanic battery; opened an electric arc.
37. P.I. Prokopovich - for the first time in the world invented a frame hive, in which he used a store with frames.
38. N.I. Lobachevsky - mathematician, creator of "non-Euclidean geometry".
39. D.A. Zagryazhsky - invented the caterpillar.
40. B.O. Jacobi - invented electroforming and the world's first electric motor with direct rotation of the working shaft.
41. P.P. Anosov, a metallurgist, revealed the secret of making ancient damask steel.
42. D.I. Zhuravsky - for the first time developed the theory of calculations of bridge trusses, which is currently used throughout the world.
43. N.I. Pirogov - for the first time in the world compiled an atlas "Topographic Anatomy", which has no analogues, invented anesthesia, gypsum and much more.
44. I.R. Hermann - for the first time in the world compiled a summary of uranium minerals.
45. A.M. Butlerov - for the first time formulated the main provisions of the theory of structure organic compounds.
46. I.M. Sechenov, the creator of evolutionary and other schools of physiology, published his main work, Reflexes of the Brain.
47. D.I. Mendeleev - discovered the periodic law of chemical elements, the creator of the table of the same name.
48. M.A. Novinsky - a veterinarian, laid the foundations of experimental oncology.
49. G.G. Ignatiev - for the first time in the world developed a system of simultaneous telephony and telegraphy over one cable.
50. K.S. Dzhevetsky - built the world's first submarine with an electric motor.
51. N.I. Kibalchich - for the first time in the world developed a scheme of a rocket aircraft.
52. N.N. Benardos - invented electric welding.
53. V.V. Dokuchaev - laid the foundations of genetic soil science.
54. V.I. Sreznevsky - Engineer, invented the world's first aerial camera.
55. A.G. Stoletov - a physicist, for the first time in the world created a photoelectric cell based on an external photoelectric effect.
56. P.D. Kuzminsky - built the world's first radial gas turbine.
57. I.V. Boldyrev - the first flexible light-sensitive non-combustible film, formed the basis for the creation of cinema.
58. I.A. Timchenko - developed the world's first movie camera.
59. S. M. Apostolov-Berdichevsky and M. F. Freidenberg - created the world's first automatic telephone exchange.
60. N.D. Pilchikov, a physicist, created and successfully demonstrated a wireless control system for the first time in the world.
61. V.A. Gassiev - engineer, built the world's first phototypesetting machine.
62. K.E. Tsiolkovsky is the founder of astronautics.
63. P.N. Lebedev - a physicist, for the first time in science experimentally proved the existence of light pressure on solids.
64. I.P. Pavlov is the creator of the science of higher nervous activity.
65. VI Vernadsky - naturalist, founder of many scientific schools.
66. A.N. Scriabin, a composer, was the first in the world to use lighting effects in symphonic poem"Prometheus".
67. N.E. Zhukovsky is the creator of aerodynamics.
68. S.V. Lebedev - for the first time received artificial rubber.
69. G.A. Tikhov, an astronomer, was the first in the world to establish that the Earth, when observed from space, should have a blue color. Later, as you know, this was confirmed when shooting our planet from space.
70. N.D. Zelinsky - developed the world's first carbon highly effective gas mask.
71. N.P. Dubinin - geneticist, discovered the divisibility of the gene.
72. M.A. Kapelyushnikov - invented the turbodrill in 1922.
73. E.K. Zavoisky discovered electric paramagnetic resonance.
74. N.I. Lunin - proved that there are vitamins in the body of living beings.
75. N.P. Wagner - discovered the pedogenesis of insects.
76. Svyatoslav Fedorov - the first in the world to perform an operation to treat glaucoma.
77. S.S. Yudin - for the first time used in the clinic the blood transfusion of suddenly dead people.
78. A.V. Shubnikov - predicted existence and created piezoelectric textures for the first time.
79. L.V. Shubnikov - Shubnikov-de Haas effect (magnetic properties of superconductors).
80. N.A. Izgaryshev - discovered the phenomenon of passivity of metals in non-aqueous electrolytes.
81. P.P. Lazarev is the creator of the ion theory of excitation.
82. P.A. Molchanov - meteorologist, created the world's first radiosonde.
83. N.A. Umov - a physicist, the equation of energy movement, the concept of energy flow; By the way, he was the first to explain practically and without ether the fallacies of the theory of relativity.
84. E.S. Fedorov is the founder of crystallography.
85. G.S. Petrov is a chemist, the world's first synthetic detergent.
86. V.F. Petrushevsky - scientist and general, invented a range finder for artillerymen.
87. I.I. Orlov - invented a method for making woven banknotes and a method for single-pass multiple printing (Orlov printing).
88. Mikhail Ostrogradsky - mathematician, O. formula (multiple integral).
89. P.L. Chebyshev - mathematician, Ch. polynomials (orthogonal system of functions), parallelogram.
90. P.A. Cherenkov - physicist, Ch. radiation (new optical effect), Ch. counter (detector of nuclear radiation in nuclear physics).
91. D.K. Chernov - points Ch. (critical points of phase transformations of steel).
92. V.I. Kalashnikov is not the Kalashnikov, but the other one, who was the first in the world to equip river vessels steam engine with multiple steam expansion.
93. A.V. Kirsanov - organic chemist, reaction K. (phosphozoreaction).
94. A.M. Lyapunov, a mathematician, created the theory of stability, equilibrium, and motion of mechanical systems with a finite number of parameters, as well as L.'s theorem (one of the limiting theorems of probability theory).
95. Dmitry Konovalov - chemist, Konovalov's laws (elasticity of parasolutions).
96. S.N. Reformatsky - organic chemist, Reformatsky reaction.
97. V.A. Semennikov - metallurgist, the first in the world to carry out the semerization of copper matte and obtain blister copper.
98. I.R. Prigogine - physicist, P.'s theorem (thermodynamics of non-equilibrium processes).
99. M.M. Protodyakonov - a scientist, developed a scale of rock strength generally accepted in the world.
100. M.F. Shostakovsky - organic chemist, balm Sh. (vinylin).
101. M.S. Color - Color method (chromatography of plant pigments).
102. A.N. Tupolev - designed the world's first jet passenger aircraft and the first supersonic passenger aircraft.
103. A.S. Famintsyn, a plant physiologist, was the first to develop a method for carrying out photosynthetic processes under artificial lighting.
104. B.S. Stechkin - created two great theories - the thermal calculation of aircraft engines and air-breathing engines.
105. A.I. Leipunsky - a physicist, discovered the phenomenon of energy transfer by excited atoms and molecules to free electrons during collisions.
106. D.D. Maksutov - optician, telescope M. (meniscus system of optical instruments).
107. N.A. Menshutkin - chemist, discovered the effect of the solvent on the speed chemical reaction.
108. I.I. Mechnikov - the founders of evolutionary embryology.
109. S.N. Winogradsky - discovered chemosynthesis.
110. V.S. Pyatov - a metallurgist, invented a method for the production of armor plates by rolling.
111. A.I. Bakhmutsky - invented the world's first coal combine (for coal mining).
112. A.N. Belozersky - discovered DNA in higher plants.
113. S.S. Bryukhonenko - a physiologist, created the first heart-lung machine in the world (autojector).
114. G.P. Georgiev - biochemist, discovered RNA in the nuclei of animal cells.
115. E.A. Murzin - invented the world's first optical-electronic synthesizer "ANS".
116. P.M. Golubitsky is a Russian inventor in the field of telephony.
117. VF Mitkevich - for the first time in the world proposed to use a three-phase arc for welding metals.
118. L.N. Gobyato - colonel, the world's first mortar was invented in Russia in 1904.
119. V.G. Shukhov, an inventor, was the first in the world to use steel mesh shells for the construction of buildings and towers.
120. I.F. Kruzenshtern and Yu.F. Lisyansky - made the first Russian trip around the world, explored the islands Pacific Ocean, described the life of Kamchatka and Fr. Sakhalin.
121. F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev - discovered Antarctica.
122. The world's first icebreaker of the modern type - the steamer of the Russian fleet "Pilot" (1864), the first Arctic icebreaker - "Ermak", built in 1899 under the leadership of S.O. Makarov..
123. V.N. Sukachev is the founder of biogeocenology, one of the founders of the doctrine of phytocenosis, its structure, classification, dynamics, relationships with the environment and its animal population.
124. Alexander Nesmeyanov, Alexander Arbuzov, Grigory Razuvaev - creation of chemistry of organoelement compounds..
125. V.I. Levkov - under his leadership, for the first time in the world, air-cushion vehicles were created.
126. G.N. Babakin - Russian designer, creator of Soviet lunar rovers.
127. P.N. Nesterov - the first in the world to perform a closed curve in a vertical plane on an airplane, a "dead loop", later called the "Nesterov loop".
128. B.B. Golitsyn - became the founder of a new science of seismology.
129. V.M. Bekhterev is a world-renowned scientist and encyclopedist with many discoveries in the field of the structure, pathways and functions of the brain and psyche, a morphologist nervous system and the brain, a psychophysiologist, a neurologist - a neurologist-clinician and a psychiatrist, a psychologist - the founder of a number of branches of psychological science.
And all this is only an insignificant part of the contribution of Russians to world science.
Russia is a country with rich history. Many noble personalities-discoverers glorified a great power with their achievements. One of these are the great Russian chemists.
Chemistry today is called one of the sciences of natural science, which studies the internal composition and structure of matter, the decomposition and changes of substances, the pattern of formation of new particles and their changes.
Russian chemists who glorified the country
If we talk about the history of chemical science, it is impossible not to recall the greatest people definitely deserving of everyone's attention. List famous people headed by great Russian chemists:
- Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov.
- Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev.
- Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov.
- Sergei Vasilievich Lebedev.
- Vladimir Vasilievich Markovnikov
- Nikolai Nikolaevich Semyonov.
- Igor Vasilievich Kurchatov.
- Nikolai Nikolaevich Zinin.
- Alexander Nikolaevich Nesmiyanov.
And many others.
Lomonosov Mikhail Vasilievich
Russian scientists and chemists would not have been able to work in the absence of Lomonosov's work. Mikhail Vasilievich was from the village of Mishaninskaya (St. Petersburg). The future scientist was born in November 1711. Lomonosov - the founding chemist who gave chemistry the correct definition, a natural scientist with capital letter, world physicist and famous encyclopedist.
The scientific work of Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov in the middle of the 17th century was close to the modern program of chemical and physical research. The scientist deduced the theory of molecular-kinetic heat, which in many respects surpassed the then ideas about the structure of matter. Lomonosov formulated many fundamental laws among which was the law of thermodynamics. The scientist founded the science of glass. Mikhail Vasilyevich was the first to discover the fact that the planet Venus has an atmosphere. He became professor of chemistry in 1745, three years after he had received an analogous title in physical science.
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev
An outstanding chemist and physicist, Russian scientist Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev was born at the end of February 1834 in the city of Tobolsk. The first Russian chemist was the seventeenth child in the family of Ivan Pavlovich Mendeleev, the director of schools and gymnasiums in the Tobolsk Territory. Until now, the parish book with a record of the birth of Dmitry Mendeleev has been preserved, where the names of the scientist and his parents appear on the old page.
Mendeleev was called the most brilliant chemist of the 19th century, and this was the right definition. Dmitry Ivanovich - author important discoveries in chemistry, meteorology, metrology, physics. Mendeleev was engaged in research of isomorphism. In 1860, the scientist discovered the critical temperature (boiling point) for all types of liquids.
In 1861, the scientist published the book Organic Chemistry. He examined gases and deduced correct formulas. Mendeleev designed the pycnometer. Great chemist became the author of many works on metrology. He was engaged in research of coal, oil, developed systems for irrigation of land.
It was Mendeleev who discovered one of the main natural axioms - the periodic law of chemical elements. We use them even now. He gave characteristics to all chemical elements, theoretically determining their properties, composition, dimensions and weight.
Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov
A. M. Butlerov was born in September 1828 in the city of Chistopol (Kazan province). In 1844 he became a student at Kazan University, faculty natural sciences, after which he was left there to receive a professorship. Butlerov was interested in chemistry and created a theory chemical structure organic matter. Founder of the School of Russian Chemists.
Markovnikov Vladimir Vasilievich
The list of “Russian chemists” undoubtedly includes another well-known scientist. Vladimir Vasilyevich Markovnikov, born Nizhny Novgorod province, was born on December 25, 1837. A scientist-chemist in the field of organic compounds and the author of the theory of the structure of oil and the chemical structure of matter in general. His labors played important role in the development of science. Markovnikov laid down the principles of organic chemistry. He did a lot of research at the molecular level, establishing certain patterns. Subsequently, these rules were named after their author.
At the end of the 60s of the 18th century, Vladimir Vasilievich defended his thesis on the mutual action of atoms in chemical compounds. Shortly thereafter, the scientist synthesized all the isomers of glutaric acid, and then - cyclobutane dicarboxylic acid. Markovnikov discovered naphthenes (a class of organic compounds) in 1883.
For his discoveries he was awarded a gold medal in Paris.
Sergei Vasilievich Lebedev
S. V. Lebedev was born in November 1902 in Nizhny Novgorod. The future chemist was educated at the Warsaw Gymnasium. In 1895 he entered the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of St. Petersburg University.
In the early 20s of the 19th century, the Council of the National Economy announced international competition for the production of synthetic rubber. It was proposed not only to find an alternative method of its manufacture, but also to provide the result of the work - 2 kg of finished synthetic material. The raw materials for the manufacturing process also had to be cheap. Rubber needed to be obtained High Quality, not worse than natural, but cheaper than the latter.
Needless to say, Lebedev took part in the competition, in which he became the winner? He developed a special chemical composition rubber, affordable and cheap for everyone, having won the title of a great scientist.
Nikolai Nikolaevich Semyonov
Nikolai Semenov was born in 1896 in Saratov in the family of Elena and Nikolai Semenov. In 1913, Nikolai entered the St. Petersburg University in the Department of Physics and Mathematics, where, under the guidance of the famous Russian physics Ioffe Abram became the best student in the class.
Nikolai Nikolaevich Semenov studied electric fields. He conducted research on the passage of electric current through gases, on the basis of which the theory of thermal breakdown of a dielectric was developed. Later, he put forward the theory of thermal explosion and combustion of gas mixtures. According to this rule, the heat generated by a chemical reaction, under certain conditions, can lead to an explosion.
Nikolai Nikolaevich Zinin
August 25, 1812 in the city of Shushi ( Nagorno-Karabakh) was born Nikolai Zinin, the future organic chemist. Nikolai Nikolayevich graduated from the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics at St. Petersburg University. He became the first president of the Russian Chemical Society. which was blown up on August 12, 1953. This was followed by the development of the RDS-202 thermonuclear explosive, the power of which was 52,000 kt.
Kurchatov was one of the founders of the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.
Famous Russian chemists then and now
Modern chemistry does not stand still. Scientists from all over the world are working on new discoveries every day. But do not forget that the important foundations of this science were laid back in the 17th-19th centuries. Outstanding Russian chemists became important links in the subsequent chain of development of the chemical sciences. Not all contemporaries use in their research, for example, Markovnikov's regularities. But we still use the long-discovered periodic table, the principles of organic chemistry, the conditions for the critical temperature of liquids, and so on. Russian chemists of past years have left an important mark on world history, and this fact is indisputable.
Scientists have been able to full list true Russian surnames by regions of the country: Kuban turned out to be Russian
Unfortunately, the interpretations of family analysis that appeared in the media this summer (after the first publication of the data in a specialized scientific journal), could create a false impression of the goals and results of the enormous work of scientists, the main thing was not that the surname Smirnov turned out to be more common among Russian people than Ivanov, but that for the first time a complete list of truly Russian surnames was compiled by regions of the country. At the same time, scientists had to spend a lot of time collecting Russian surnames on their own.
The Central Election Commission and local election commissions flatly refused to cooperate with scientists, arguing that only if the voter lists are secret can they guarantee the objectivity and honesty of elections to federal and local authorities. The criterion for inclusion in the list of a surname was very lenient: it was included if at least five carriers of this surname lived in the region for three generations.
First, lists were compiled for five conditional regions - Northern, Central, Central-Western, Central-Eastern and Southern. In total, about 15 thousand Russian surnames were accumulated in all regions, most of which were found only in one of the regions and were absent in others. When regional lists were superimposed on each other, scientists identified a total of 257 so-called "all-Russian surnames".
Interestingly, on final stage research, they decided to add the names of residents to the list of the Southern Region Krasnodar Territory, expecting the dominance Ukrainian surnames descendants of the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks, evicted here by Catherine II, will significantly reduce the all-Russian list. But this additional restriction reduced the list of all-Russian surnames by only 7 units - to 250. From which the obvious and not pleasant conclusion followed that the Kuban was inhabited mainly by Russian people. And where did the Ukrainians go and were there at all here - the big question.
An analysis of Russian surnames generally provides food for thought. Even the simplest action - searching it for the names of all the leaders of the country - gave an unexpected result. Only one of them was included in the list of top 250 all-Russian surnames - Mikhail Gorbachev (158th place). The surname Brezhnev takes 3767th place in the general list (found only in the Belgorod region of the Southern region). The surname Khrushchev is in 4248th place (found only in the Northern region, Arkhangelsk region). Chernenko took 4749th place (only the Southern region). Andropov - 8939th place (only the Southern region). Putin took 14250th place (only the Southern region). But Yeltsin did not get into common list. Stalin's surname - Dzhugashvili - for obvious reasons was not considered. But on the other hand, the pseudonym Lenin got into the regional lists under the number 1421, second only to the first president of the USSR, Mikhail Gorbachev.
250 MOST RUSSIAN SURNAMES
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ALL PHOTOS
For three years, participants in the Russian Gene Pool project (in the photo - its leader Elena Balanovskaya) went around with a syringe and a test tube almost the entire European territory of the Russian Federation and made a very representative sample of Russian blood
Kommersant. POWER
Russian scientists have completed and are preparing for publication the first large-scale study gene pool of the Russian people. According to Kommersant-Vlast magazine, the publication of the results could have unpredictable consequences for Russia and the world order.
Anthropologists have been able, over several decades of intense research, to reveal the appearance of a typical Russian person. To do this, they had to translate into a single scale all the photographs from the photo library of the Museum of Anthropology with full-face and profile images. typical representatives of the population of the Russian regions of the country and, combining them in the pupils of the eyes, put them on top of each other. The final photo portraits turned out, of course, blurry, but they gave an idea of the appearance of the reference Russian people. This was the first truly sensational discovery. Indeed, similar attempts by French scientists led to a result that they had to hide from the citizens of their country: after thousands of combinations with the received photographs of the reference Jacques and Marianne, gray faceless ovals of faces looked. Such a picture, even among the French most distant from anthropology, could cause an unnecessary question: is there a French nation at all?
Unfortunately, anthropologists did not go further than creating photo portraits of typical representatives of the Russian population in different regions of the country and did not superimpose them on top of each other in order to get the appearance of an absolute Russian person, Vlast writes. They explained this to the publication by the supposedly scientific lack of information of such work, but in the end they were forced to admit that they could get into trouble at work for such a photograph. For them, this work was done by the artists of the magazine (see PHOTO). By the way, the "regional" sketches of Russian people were published in the general press only in 2002, and before that they were published in small editions only in scientific publications for specialists.
Unfortunately, mostly black and white old archival photos of the faces of Russian people do not allow us to convey the height, physique, skin color, hair and eyes of a Russian person. However, anthropologists have verbal portrait Russian men and women. These are of medium build and medium height, light brown-haired with light eyes - gray or blue. By the way, in the course of the research, a verbal portrait of a typical Ukrainian was also obtained. The reference Ukrainian differs from the Russian only in the color of his skin, hair and eyes - he is a swarthy brunette with regular features and brown eyes.
The snub nose turned out to be completely uncharacteristic for Eastern Slav(found only in 7% of Russians and Ukrainians), this sign is more typical for Germans (25%).
However, anthropological measurements of proportions human body- not even the last, but the century before last, of science, which has long received the most accurate methods at its disposal molecular biology, which allow you to read all human genes. And the most advanced methods of DNA analysis today are sequencing (spelling genetic code) mitochondrial DNA and human Y-chromosome DNA. Mitochondrial DNA has been passed down the female line from generation to generation, virtually unchanged since Eve, the progenitor of mankind, climbed down from a tree in East Africa. And the Y-chromosome is present only in men and, therefore, is also transmitted almost unchanged to male offspring, while all other chromosomes, when transmitted from father and mother to their children, are shuffled by nature, like a deck of cards before distribution. Thus, unlike indirect signs (appearance, body proportions), sequencing of mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosome DNA indisputably and directly indicates the degree of relationship between people, writes Vlast.
In the West, human population geneticists have been successfully using these methods for two decades. In Russia, they were used only once, in the mid-1990s, when identifying the royal remains. Turning the situation with the most modern methods for studying titular nation Russia occurred only in 2000. Russian fund fundamental research allocated about half a million rubles from the state budget for the study of the gene pool of the Russian people. It is impossible to implement a serious program with such funding. But it was more of a landmark than just a financial decision, indicating a change in the country's scientific priorities. RFBR grant-received scientists from the Laboratory of Human Population Genetics of the Medical Genetic Center Russian Academy medical sciences for the first time in national history were able for three years to fully focus on the study of the gene pool of the Russian people, and not small peoples. And limited funding only spurred their ingenuity. They supplemented their molecular genetic studies with an analysis of the frequency distribution of Russian surnames in the country. This method was very cheap, but its information content exceeded all expectations: a comparison of the geography of surnames with the geography of genetic DNA markers showed their almost complete coincidence.
Unfortunately, the interpretations of family analysis that appeared in the media this summer (after the first publication of the data in a specialized scientific journal) could give a false impression of the goals and results of the huge work of scientists. As Elena Balanovskaya, the head of the project, doctor of sciences, explained to Vlast, the main thing was not that the surname Smirnov turned out to be more common among Russian people than Ivanov, but that for the first time a complete list of truly Russian surnames was compiled by regions of the country. At the same time, scientists had to spend a lot of time collecting Russian surnames on their own.
The Central Election Commission and local election commissions flatly refused to cooperate with scientists, arguing that only if the voter lists are secret can they guarantee the objectivity and honesty of elections to federal and local authorities. The criterion for inclusion in the list of a surname was very lenient: it was included if at least five carriers of this surname lived in the region for three generations.
First, lists were compiled for five conditional regions - Northern, Central, Central-Western, Central-Eastern and Southern. In total, about 15 thousand Russian surnames were accumulated in all regions, most of which were found only in one of the regions and were absent in others. When regional lists were superimposed on each other, scientists identified a total of 257 so-called "all-Russian surnames".
Interestingly, at the final stage of the study, they decided to add the names of residents of the Krasnodar Territory to the list of the Southern Region, expecting that the predominance of Ukrainian surnames of the descendants of the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks evicted here by Catherine II would significantly reduce the all-Russian list. But this additional restriction reduced the list of all-Russian surnames by only 7 units - to 250. From which the obvious and not pleasant conclusion followed that the Kuban was inhabited mainly by Russian people. And where did the Ukrainians go and were there at all here - the big question.
An analysis of Russian surnames generally provides food for thought. Even the simplest action - searching it for the names of all the leaders of the country - gave an unexpected result. Only one of them was included in the list of top 250 all-Russian surnames - Mikhail Gorbachev (158th place). The surname Brezhnev takes 3767th place in the general list (found only in the Belgorod region of the Southern region). The surname Khrushchev is in 4248th place (found only in the Northern region, Arkhangelsk region). Chernenko took 4749th place (only the Southern region). Andropov - 8939th place (only the Southern region). Putin took 14,250th place (only the Southern region). But Yeltsin was not included in the general list at all. Stalin's surname - Dzhugashvili - for obvious reasons was not considered. But on the other hand, the pseudonym Lenin got into the regional lists under the number 1421, second only to the first president of the USSR, Mikhail Gorbachev.
The result amazed even the scientists themselves, who believed that the main difference between the bearers of South Russian surnames was not in the ability to lead a huge power, but in the increased sensitivity of the skin of their fingers and palms. Scientific analysis of dermatoglyphics ( papillary patterns on the skin of the palms and fingers) of Russian people showed that the complexity of the pattern (from simple arcs to loops) and the accompanying sensitivity of the skin increases from north to south. "Man with simple patterns on the skin of his hands he can hold a glass of hot tea in his hands without pain,” Dr. Balanovskaya clearly explained the essence of the differences. “And if there are a lot of loops, then unsurpassed pickpockets came out of such people.”
However, cheap indirect methods for studying the genetics of the Russian people (by surnames and dermatoglyphics) were only auxiliary for the first study in Russia of the gene pool of the titular nationality. His main molecular genetic results are now being prepared for publication in the form of the monograph "Russian Gene Pool", which will be published at the end of the year by the Luch publishing house.
Unfortunately, due to the lack of state funding, scientists had to carry out part of the study jointly with foreign colleagues, who imposed a moratorium on many results until joint publications were published in the scientific press.
However, the journal provides some research data. So, according to the Y-chromosome, the genetic distance between Russians and Finns is 30 conventional units. And the genetic distance between a Russian person and the so-called Finno-Ugric peoples (Mari, Veps, etc.) living on the territory of the Russian Federation is 2-3 units. Simply put, genetically they are almost identical. And the harsh statement of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Estonia on September 1 at the EU Council in Brussels (after the Russian side denounced the state border treaty with Estonia) about discrimination against Finno-Ugric peoples allegedly related to Finns in the Russian Federation loses its meaningful meaning. But due to the moratorium of Western scientists, the Russian Foreign Ministry could not reasonably accuse Estonia of interfering in our internal, one might even say closely related, affairs.
The results of mitochondrial DNA analysis also fall under the same moratorium, according to which Russians from Tatars are at the same genetic distance of 30 conventional units that separate them from Finns, but between Ukrainians from Lvov and Tatars the genetic distance is only 10 units. And at the same time, Ukrainians from the left-bank Ukraine are genetically as close to Russians as Komi-Zyryans, Mordvins and Mari. You can react to these strictly scientific facts showing the natural essence of the reference electorates of Viktor Yushchenko and Viktor Yanukovych. But it will not be possible to accuse Russian scientists of falsifying these data: then the accusation will automatically extend to their Western colleagues, who have been delaying the publication of these results for more than a year, each time extending the moratorium.
“Huge megacities are, in fact, black holes that suck in the gene pool of the Russian people and destroy it without a trace,” says Dr. Balanovskaya. there, due to lack of money, mothers are giving birth to fewer and fewer children. financial assistance for children to these women can save the Russian gene pool from further degradation.
| 1 | Smirnov |
| 2 | Ivanov |
| 3 | Kuznetsov |
| 4 | Popov |
| 5 | Sokolov |
| 6 | Lebedev |
| 7 | Kozlov |
| 8 | Novikov |
| 9 | Morozov |
| 10 | Petrov |
| 11 | Volkov |
| 12 | Solovyov |
| 13 | Vasiliev |
| 14 | Zaitsev |
| 15 | Pavlov |
| 16 | Semenov |
| 17 | Golubev |
| 18 | Vinogradov |
| 19 | Bogdanov |
| 20 | Vorobyov |
| 21 | Fedorov |
| 22 | Mikhailov |
| 23 | Belyaev |
| 24 | Tarasov |
| 25 | Belov |
| 26 | Komarov |
| 27 | Orlov |
| 28 | Kiselev |
| 29 | Makarov |
| 30 | Andreev |
| 31 | Kovalev |
| 32 | Ilyin |
| 33 | Gusev |
| 34 | Titov |
| 35 | Kuzmin |
| 36 | Kudryavtsev |
| 37 | Baranov |
| 38 | Kulikov |
| 39 | Alekseev |
| 40 | Stepanov |
| 41 | Yakovlev |
| 42 | Sorokin |
| 43 | Sergeev |
| 44 | Romanov |
| 45 | Zakharov |
| 46 | Borisov |
| 47 | Korolev |
| 48 | Gerasimov |
| 49 | Ponomarev |
| 50 | Grigoriev |
| 51 | Lazarev |
| 52 | Medvedev |
| 53 | Ershov |
| 54 | Nikitin |
| 55 | Sobolev |
| 56 | Ryabov |
| 57 | Polyakov |
| 58 | Tsvetkov |
| 59 | Danilov |
| 60 | Zhukov |
| 61 | Frolov |
| 62 | Zhuravlev |
| 63 | Nikolaev |
| 64 | Krylov |
| 65 | Maksimov |
| 66 | Sidorov |
| 67 | Osipov |
| 68 | Belousov |
| 69 | Fedotov |
| 70 | Dorofeev |
| 71 | Egorov |
| 72 | Matveev |
| 73 | Bobrov |
| 74 | Dmitriev |
| 75 | Kalinin |
| 76 | Anisimov |
| 77 | Petukhov |
| 78 | Antonov |
| 79 | Timofeev |
| 80 | Nikiforov |
| 81 | Veselov |
| 82 | Filippov |
| 83 | Markov |
| 84 | Bolshakov |
| 85 | Sukhanov |
| 86 | Mironov |
| 87 | Shiryaev |
| 88 | Alexandrov |
| 89 | Konovalov |
| 90 | Shestakov |
| 91 | Kazakov |
| 92 | Efimov |
| 93 | Denisov |
| 94 | Gromov |
| 95 | Fomin |
| 96 | Davydov |
| 97 | Melnikov |
| 98 | Shcherbakov |
| 99 | pancakes |
| 100 | Kolesnikov |
| 101 | Karpov |
| 102 | Afanasiev |
| 103 | Vlasov |
| 104 | Maslov |
| 105 | Isakov |
| 106 | Tikhonov |
| 107 | Aksenov |
| 108 | Gavrilov |
| 109 | Rodionov |
| 110 | Kotov |
| 111 | Gorbunov |
| 112 | Kudryashov |
| 113 | Bykov |
| 114 | Zuev |
| 115 | Tretyakov |
| 116 | Saveliev |
| 117 | Panov |
| 118 | Rybakov |
| 119 | Suvorov |
| 120 | Abramov |
| 121 | Ravens |
| 122 | Mukhin |
| 123 | Arkhipov |
| 124 | Trofimov |
| 125 | Martynov |
| 126 | Emelyanov |
| 127 | Gorshkov |
| 128 | Chernov |
| 129 | Ovchinnikov |
| 130 | Seleznev |
| 131 | Panfilov |
| 132 | Kopylov |
| 133 | Mikheev |
| 134 | Galkin |
| 135 | Nazarov |
| 136 | Lobanov |
| 137 | Lukin |
| 138 | Belyakov |
| 139 | Potapov |
| 140 | Nekrasov |
| 141 | Khokhlov |
| 142 | Zhdanov |
| 143 | Naumov |
| 144 | Shilov |
| 145 | Vorontsov |
| 146 | Ermakov |
| 147 | Drozdov |
| 148 | Ignatiev |
| 149 | Savin |
| 150 | logins |
| 151 | Safonov |
| 152 | Kapustin |
| 153 | Kirillov |
| 154 | Moiseev |
| 155 | Eliseev |
| 156 | Koshelev |
| 157 | Kostin |
| 158 | Gorbachev |
| 159 | Orekhov |
| 160 | Efremov |
| 161 | Isaev |
| 162 | Evdokimov |
| 163 | Kalashnikov |
| 164 | Kabanov |
| 165 | Noskov |
| 166 | Yudin |
| 167 | Kulagin |
| 168 | Lapin |
| 169 | Prokhorov |
| 170 | Nesterov |
| 171 | Kharitonov |
| 172 | Agafonov |
| 173 | Ants |
| 174 | Larionov |
| 175 | Fedoseev |
| 176 | Zimin |
| 177 | Pakhomov |
| 178 | Shubin |
| 179 | Ignatov |
| 180 | Filatov |
| 181 | Kryukov |
| 182 | Horns |
| 183 | fists |
| 184 | Terentiev |
| 185 | Molchanov |
| 186 | Vladimirov |
| 187 | Artemiev |
| 188 | Guryev |
| 189 | Zinoviev |
| 190 | Grishin |
| 191 | Kononov |
| 192 | Dementiev |
| 193 | Sitnikov |
| 194 | Simonov |
| 195 | Mishin |
| 196 | Fadeev |
| 197 | Komissarov |
| 198 | Mammoths |
| 199 | Nosov |
| 200 | Gulyaev |
| 201 | balls |
| 202 | Ustinov |
| 203 | Vishnyakov |
| 204 | Evseev |
| 205 | Lavrentiev |
| 206 | Bragin |
| 207 | Konstantinov |
| 208 | Kornilov |
| 209 | Avdeev |
| 210 | Zykov |
| 211 | Biryukov |
| 212 | Sharapov |
| 213 | Nikonov |
| 214 | Schukin |
| 215 | Dyachkov |
| 216 | Odintsov |
| 217 | Sazonov |
| 218 | Yakushev |
| 219 | Krasilnikov |
| 220 | Gordeev |
| 221 | Samoilov |
| 222 | Knyazev |
| 223 | Bespalov |
| 224 | Uvarov |
| 225 | Shashkov |
| 226 | Bobylev |
| 227 | Doronin |
| 228 | Belozerov |
| 229 | Rozhkov |
| 230 | Samsonov |
| 231 | butchers |
| 232 | Likhachev |
| 233 | Burov |
| 234 | Sysoev |
| 235 | Fomichev |
| 236 | Rusakov |
| 237 | Strelkov |
| 238 | Gushchin |
| 239 | Teterin |
| 240 | Kolobov |
| 241 | Subbotin |
| 242 | Fokin |
| 243 | Blokhin |
| 244 | Seliverstov |
| 245 | Pestov |
| 246 | Kondratiev |
| 247 | Silin |
| 248 | Merkushev |
| 249 | Lytkin |
| 250 | Tours |
