Classical Literature. Classicism in Russian literature

1. Literary direction - often identified with artistic method. Designates a set of fundamental spiritual and aesthetic principles of many writers, as well as a number of groups and schools, their programmatic and aesthetic principles, and the means used. In the struggle and change of direction, the laws of the literary process are most clearly expressed.

It is customary to single out the following literary directions:

a) Classicism
b) sentimentalism,
c) naturalism,
d) romanticism,
e) Symbolism,
e) realism.

1. Literary movement - often identified with a literary group and school. Denotes a collection creative people, which are characterized by ideological and artistic affinity and programmatic and aesthetic unity. Otherwise, literary movement- this is a kind (as it were, a subclass) of a literary movement. For example, in relation to Russian romanticism, one speaks of a "philosophical", "psychological" and "civil" trend. In Russian realism, some distinguish between "psychological" and "sociological" trends.

Classicism

Artistic style and direction in European literature and art of the XVII-beginning. XIX centuries. The name is derived from the Latin "classicus" - exemplary.

Features of classicism:

1. Appeal to images and forms antique literature and art as an ideal aesthetic standard, advancing on this basis the principle of “imitation of nature”, which implies strict adherence to unshakable rules drawn from ancient aesthetics (for example, in the person of Aristotle, Horace).
2. Aesthetics is based on the principles of rationalism (from the Latin “ratio” - mind), which affirms the view of a work of art as an artificial creation - consciously created, reasonably organized, logically constructed.
3. The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, as they are called upon, first of all, to capture stable, generic, enduring features over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.
4. Social and educational function of art. Education of a harmonious personality.
5. A strict hierarchy of genres has been established, which are divided into "high" (tragedy, epic, ode; their sphere is public life, historical events, mythology, their heroes - monarchs, generals, mythological characters, religious ascetics) and "low" (comedy, satire, fable, which depicted a private everyday life middle class people). Each genre has strict boundaries and clear formal features; no mixing of the sublime and the base, the tragic and the comic, the heroic and the mundane was allowed. The leading genre is tragedy.
6. Classical dramaturgy approved the so-called principle of "unity of place, time and action", which meant: the action of the play should take place in one place, the duration of the action should be limited by the duration of the performance (possibly more, but the maximum time that the play should have narrated was one day), the unity of action meant that the play should reflect one central intrigue, not interrupted by side actions.

Classicism originated and developed in France with the establishment of absolutism (classicism, with its concepts of "exemplary", a strict hierarchy of genres, etc., is generally often associated with absolutism and the flourishing of statehood - P. Corneille, J. Racine, J. La Fontaine, J. B. Moliere, etc. Having entered a period of decline at the end of the 17th century, classicism was revived in the Enlightenment - Voltaire, M. Chenier and others. After the Great french revolution with the collapse of rationalistic ideas, classicism falls into decay, romanticism becomes the dominant style of European art.

Classicism in Russia:

Russian classicism originated in the second quarter of the 18th century in the work of the founders of new Russian literature - A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Trediakovsky and M. V. Lomonosov. In the era of classicism, Russian literature mastered the genre and style forms that had developed in the West, joined the pan-European literary development, while retaining its national identity. Characteristic features of Russian classicism:

A) satirical orientation - important place occupy such genres as satire, fable, comedy, directly addressed to specific phenomena of Russian life;
b) The predominance of national-historical themes over ancient ones (the tragedies of A. P. Sumarokov, Ya. B. Kniazhnin, and others);
V) High level the development of the ode genre (by M. V. Lomonosov and G. R. Derzhavin);
G) General patriotic pathos of Russian classicism.

At the end of XVIII - early. XIX century Russian classicism is influenced by sentimentalist and pre-romantic ideas, which is reflected in the poetry of G. R. Derzhavin, the tragedies of V. A. Ozerov and the civil lyrics of the Decembrist poets.

Sentimentalism

Sentimentalism (from English sentimental - “sensitive”) - a trend in European literature and art XVIII century. It was prepared by the crisis of enlightenment rationalism, was the final stage of the Enlightenment. Chronologically, it basically preceded romanticism, passing on a number of its features to it.

The main signs of sentimentalism:

1. Sentimentalism remained true to the ideal of the normative personality.
2. In contrast to classicism with its enlightening pathos, the dominant of “human nature” was declared by feeling, and not by reason.
3. He considered the condition for the formation of an ideal personality not "a reasonable reorganization of the world", but the release and improvement of "natural feelings".
4. The hero of the literature of sentimentalism is more individualized: by origin (or convictions), he is a democrat, the rich spiritual world of a commoner is one of the conquests of sentimentalism.
5. However, unlike romanticism (pre-romanticism), “irrational” is alien to sentimentalism: he perceived the inconsistency of moods, the impulsiveness of spiritual impulses as accessible to rationalistic interpretation.

Sentimentalism took its most complete expression in England, where the ideology of the third estate was formed the earliest - the works of J. Thomson, O. Goldsmith, J. Crabb, S. Richardson, JI. Stern.

Sentimentalism in Russia:

In Russia, representatives of sentimentalism were: M. N. Muravyov, N. M. Karamzin (naib, famous work - “ Poor Lisa”), I. I. Dmitriev, V. V. Kapnist, N. A. Lvov, young V. A. Zhukovsky.

Characteristic features of Russian sentimentalism:

a) Rationalist tendencies are quite clearly expressed;
b) The didactic (moralizing) attitude is strong;
c) Enlightenment trends;
d) Improving literary language, Russian sentimentalists turned to colloquial norms, introduced vernacular.

The favorite genres of sentimentalists are elegy, epistle, epistolary novel (novel in letters), travel notes, diaries and other types of prose, in which confessional motifs predominate.

Romanticism

One of the largest destinations in Europe and American literature the end of the 18th - the first half of the 19th century, which gained worldwide significance and distribution. In the 18th century, everything fantastic, unusual, strange, found only in books, and not in reality, was called romantic. At the turn of the XVIII and XIX centuries. "romanticism" begins to be called a new literary movement.

The main signs of romanticism:

1. An anti-Enlightenment orientation (that is, against the ideology of the Enlightenment), which manifested itself in sentimentalism and pre-romanticism, and reached its highest point in romanticism. Socio-ideological prerequisites - disappointment in the results of the Great French Revolution and the fruits of civilization in general, a protest against the vulgarity, routine and prosaic nature of bourgeois life. The reality of history turned out to be beyond the control of "reason", irrational, full of secrets and unforeseen, and the modern world order - hostile to human nature and his personal freedom.
2. The general pessimistic orientation is the ideas of "cosmic pessimism", "world sorrow" (heroes of the works of F. Chateaubriand, A. Musset, J. Byron, A. Vigny, etc.). The theme of "lying in evil" scary world” was especially clearly reflected in the “drama of rock” or “the tragedy of rock” (G. Kleist, J. Byron, E. T. A. Hoffman, E. Poe).
3. Belief in the omnipotence of the human spirit, in its ability to renew itself. Romantics discovered the extraordinary complexity, the inner depth of human individuality. Man is a microcosm for them, small universe. Hence - the absolutization of the personal principle, the philosophy of individualism. In the center romantic work there always stands a strong, exceptional personality, opposing society, its laws or moral standards.
4. "Two worlds", that is, the division of the world into real and ideal, which are opposed to each other. Spiritual insight, inspiration, which are subject to a romantic hero, is nothing more than penetration into this ideal world (for example, the works of Hoffmann, especially vividly in: "The Golden Pot", "The Nutcracker", "Little Tsakhes, nicknamed Zinnober") . Romantics opposed the classic "imitation of nature" creative activity artist with his right to transformation real world: the artist creates his own, special world, more beautiful and true.
5. "Local color" A person who opposes society feels spiritual closeness to nature, its elements. That is why romantics so often have exotic countries and their nature (the East) as the scene of action. The exotic wild nature was quite in line with the spirit of a romantic personality striving beyond the ordinary. Romantics are the first to draw close attention on the creative heritage of the people, and on its national, cultural and historical features. National and cultural diversity, according to the philosophy of the Romantics, was part of one big single whole - the "universe". This was clearly realized in the development of the historical novel genre (such authors as W. Scott, F. Cooper, V. Hugo).

Romantics, absolutizing the creative freedom of the artist, denied rationalistic regulation in art, which, however, did not prevent them from proclaiming their own romantic canons.

Genres developed: fantasy story, historical novel, a lyrical-epic poem, the lyric reaches an extraordinary flowering.

Classical countries of romanticism - Germany, England, France.

Beginning in the 1840s, romanticism in the main European countries cedes a leading position critical realism and fades into the background.

Romanticism in Russia:

The birth of romanticism in Russia is associated with the socio-ideological atmosphere of Russian life - a nationwide upsurge after the war of 1812. All this led not only to the formation, but also to the special character of the romanticism of the Decembrist poets (for example, K.F. Ryleev, V.K. fight.

Characteristic features of romanticism in Russia:

A) The accelerated development of literature in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century led to the “running in” and the combination of various stages that were experienced in stages in other countries. In Russian romanticism, pre-romantic tendencies intertwined with the tendencies of classicism and the Enlightenment: doubts about the omnipotent role of reason, the cult of sensitivity, nature, elegiac melancholy combined with the classic orderliness of styles and genres, moderate didacticism (edification) and the fight against excessive metaphor for the sake of "harmonic accuracy" (expression A. S. Pushkin).

b) A more pronounced social orientation of Russian romanticism. For example, the poetry of the Decembrists, the works of M. Yu. Lermontov.

In Russian romanticism, such genres as elegy and idyll are especially developed. Very important for the self-determination of Russian romanticism was the development of the ballad (for example, in the work of V. A. Zhukovsky). The contours of Russian romanticism were most sharply defined with the emergence of the genre of the lyrical-epic poem (the southern poems of A. S. Pushkin, the works of I. I. Kozlov, K. F. Ryleev, M. Yu. Lermontov, etc.). The historical novel is developing as a great epic form (M. N. Zagoskin, I. I. Lazhechnikov). A special way to create a large epic form is cyclization, that is, the unification of apparently independent (and partially published separately) works (“The Double or My Evenings in Little Russia” by A. Pogorelsky, “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka” by N. V. Gogol, “A Hero of Our time" by M. Yu. Lermontov, "Russian Nights" by V. F. Odoevsky).

Naturalism

Naturalism (from the Latin natura - “nature”) is a literary trend that has developed in the last thirds of XIX century in Europe and the USA.

Characteristic features of naturalism:

1. The desire for an objective, accurate and dispassionate depiction of reality and human character, due to the physiological nature and environment, understood primarily as a direct domestic and material environment, but not excluding socio-historical factors. The main task of naturalists was to study society with the same completeness with which a naturalist studies nature, artistic knowledge like scientific.
2. A work of art was considered as a “human document”, and the main aesthetic criterion was the completeness of the cognitive act carried out in it.
3. Naturalists refused to moralize, believing that reality depicted with scientific impartiality was in itself expressive enough. They believed that literature, like science, has no right in choosing material, that there are no unsuitable plots or unworthy topics for a writer. Hence, plotlessness and public indifference often arose in the works of naturalists.

Naturalism received particular development in France - for example, naturalism includes the work of such writers as G. Flaubert, the brothers E. and J. Goncourt, E. Zola (who developed the theory of naturalism).

In Russia, naturalism did not become widespread; it played only a certain role at the initial stage of the development of Russian realism. Naturalistic tendencies can be traced among the writers of the so-called " natural school”(see below) - V. I. Dal, I. I. Panaev and others.

Realism

Realism (from late Latin realis - real, real) - literary and artistic direction XIX-XX centuries It originates in the Renaissance (the so-called "Renaissance realism") or in the Enlightenment (" enlightenment realism"). Features of realism are noted in ancient and medieval folklore, ancient literature.

The main features of realism:

1. The artist depicts life in images that correspond to the essence of the phenomena of life itself.
2. Literature in realism is a means of man's knowledge of himself and the world around him.
3. Cognition of reality proceeds with the help of images created by typifying the facts of reality (“typical characters in a typical setting”). The typification of characters in realism is carried out through the "truthfulness of details" in the "concreteness" of the conditions of the characters' existence.
4. Realistic art is life-affirming art, even in the tragic resolution of the conflict. The philosophical basis for this is gnosticism, the belief in knowability and an adequate reflection of the surrounding world, unlike, for example, romanticism.
5. Realistic art is inherent in the desire to consider reality in development, the ability to detect and capture the emergence and development of new forms of life and social relations, new psychological and social types.

Realism as a literary trend was formed in the 30s of the XIX century. The immediate forerunner of realism in European literature was romanticism. Having made the unusual the subject of the image, creating an imaginary world of special circumstances and exceptional passions, he (romanticism) at the same time showed a personality richer in spiritual, emotional terms, more complex and contradictory than was available to classicism, sentimentalism and other trends of previous eras. Therefore, realism developed not as an antagonist of romanticism, but as its ally in the struggle against the idealization of social relations, for national historical originality. artistic images(color of place and time). It is not always easy to draw clear boundaries between romanticism and realism in the first half of the 19th century; in the work of many writers, romantic and realistic features merged together - for example, the works of O. Balzac, Stendhal, V. Hugo, partly C. Dickens. In Russian literature, this was especially clearly reflected in the works of A. S. Pushkin and M. Yu. Lermontov (Pushkin’s southern poems and Lermontov’s Hero of Our Time).

In Russia, where the foundations of realism were still in the 1820s and 30s. laid down by the work of A. S. Pushkin (“Eugene Onegin”, “Boris Godunov”, “The Captain's Daughter”, late lyrics), as well as some other writers (“Woe from Wit” by A. S. Griboyedov, fables by I. A. Krylov ), this stage is associated with the names of I. A. Goncharov, I. S. Turgenev, N. A. Nekrasov, A. N. Ostrovsky and others. socio-critical. The aggravated socially critical pathos is one of the main distinguishing features of Russian realism - for example, The Inspector General, Dead Souls by N.V. Gogol, the activities of the writers of the "natural school". The realism of the second half of the 19th century reached its peak precisely in Russian literature, especially in the works of L. N. Tolstoy and F. M. Dostoevsky, who became late XIX century central figures world literary process. They enriched world literature new principles for constructing a socio-psychological novel, philosophical and moral issues, new ways of revealing the human psyche in its deepest layers.

The European direction of classicism was based on the ideas of rationalism and the canons of ancient art. It implies strict rules for creating a work of art, which give it conciseness and logic. Attention is paid only to a clear elaboration of the main part, without spraying on the details. The priority goal of this direction is the fulfillment of the social and educational function of art.

The formation of classicism takes place in each united territory, but in different time periods. The need for this direction is felt in historical period transition from feudal fragmentation to territorial statehood under an absolute monarchy. In Europe, the formation of classicism took place primarily in Italy, but one cannot but note the significant influence of the emerging French and English bourgeoisie.

Classicism in painting

(Giovanni Battista Tiepolo "The Feast of Cleopatra")

In creative searches, sculptors and artists turned to ancient art and transferred its features into their works. This generated a wave of public interest in art. Despite the fact that the views of classicism imply a natural depiction of everything that is presented in the picture, the masters of the Renaissance, like the ancient creators, idealized human figures. The people captured in the paintings are more like sculptures: they “freeze” in eloquent poses, male bodies athletic, and female figures are exaggeratedly feminine, even in elderly heroes the skin is toned and elastic. This trend, borrowed from the ancient Greek sculptors, is explained by the fact that in ancient times a person was presented as an ideal creation of God without flaws and shortcomings.

(Claude Lorrain "Noon. Rest on the Flight into Egypt")

Ancient mythology also had a significant impact on the formation of style. On early stages it was expressed literally, in the form of mythical plots. Over time, manifestations became more veiled: mythology was represented by ancient buildings, creatures or objects. The later period was marked by a symbolic interpretation of myths: artists conveyed their own thoughts, emotions and moods through individual elements.

(Fyodor Mikhailovich Matveev "View of Rome. Colosseum")

The function of classicism in the bosom of world artistic culture is moral public education, the formation of ethical norms and rules. Regulation creative laws held a strict hierarchy of genres, each of which contained formal boundaries:

• Low(still life, landscape, portrait);
• High(historical, mythological, religious).

(Nicolas Poussin "The Arcadian Shepherds")

The painter Nicolas Poussin is considered to be the founder of the style. His works are built on sublime philosophical subjects. From a technical point of view, the structure of the canvases is harmonious and complemented by rhythmic coloring. Vivid examples of the master's works: "The Finding of Moses", "Rinaldo and Armida", "The Death of Germanicus" and "The Arcadian Shepherds".

(Ivan Petrovich Argunov "Portrait of an unknown woman in a dark blue dress")

In the Russian art of classicism, portrait images predominate. Admirers this style are A. Agrunov, A. Antropov, D. Levitsky, O. Kiprensky, F. Rokotov.

Classicism in architecture

The fundamental features of the style are the clarity of lines, clear, uncomplicated forms, and the lack of an abundance of details. Classicism sought to rationally use each square meter space. Over time, the style has been influenced by different cultures and worldviews of masters from all over Europe. In the architecture of classicism, the following areas are distinguished:

• Palladianism

The initial form of manifestation of classicism, the founder of which is the architect Andrea Palladio. In the absolute symmetry of the buildings, the spirit of architecture is guessed. Ancient Greece and Rome;

• empire

The direction of high (late) classicism, whose birthplace is considered to be France during the reign of Napoleon I. The royal style combines theatricality and classical elements (columns, stucco, pilasters), arranged in accordance with clear rules and perspective;

• neo-Greek

"Return" of ancient Greek images with features Italian Renaissance in the 1820s. The founders of the direction are Henri Labrust and Leo von Klenze. The uniqueness lies in the detailed reproduction of the classics on the parliament buildings, museums, temples;

• regency style

In 1810-1830. developed a style that combines classical trends with French design. Particular attention is paid to the decoration of facades: geometrically correct patterns and ornaments of the walls are complemented by decorated window openings. Emphasis is placed on decorative elements framing the front door.

(Stupinigi is a country residence of the monarchs of the House of Savoy, province of Turin, Italy)

The main features of classicism in architecture:

• Majestic simplicity;
• The minimum number of parts;
• Conciseness and rigor of both external and internal decoration of buildings;
• Soft color palette, which is dominated by milky, beige, light gray shades;
• High ceilings decorated with stucco;
• The interior included items exclusively carrying a functional purpose;
• Of the decor elements, royal columns, arches, exquisite stained-glass windows, openwork railings, lamps, carved fireplace grates, light curtains made of plain materials were used.

(Bolshoi Theatre, Moscow)

Classicism is recognized as one of the most common styles throughout the world. In Europe, the vector of development of this direction was influenced by the works of the masters Palladio and Scamozzi. And in France, the architect Jacques-Germain Soufflot was the author of the basic structural solutions for the style. Germany acquired several administrative buildings in the classical style thanks to the masters Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel. Andrey Zakharov, Andrey Voronikhin and Karl Rossi made an invaluable contribution to the development of this direction in Russia.

Conclusion

The era of classicism left behind many magnificent creations of artists and architects, which can be seen throughout Europe to this day. The most ambitious projects of the late 17th and early 19th centuries took place under the auspices of classicism: city parks, resorts and even new cities were rebuilt. By the 20s of the 19th century, the strict style was diluted with elements of luxurious baroque and renaissance.

Classicism

Classicism (- first-class, exemplary) - a trend in art and literature, which received such a name because it considered classical antique (ancient Greek and ancient Roman) art to be ideal, exemplary, perfect, harmonious. The supporters of classicism saw their goal in getting closer to antique models by imitating them (antique motifs, plots, images, elements of mythology are widely used in the work of the classicists).

Classicism arose at the end of the Renaissance, took shape in France in the middle of the 17th century under Louis XIV. The emergence of classicism is associated with the formation centralized state, with the strengthening of the monarchy, the ideals of "enlightened" absolutism.

The code (set of rules) of classicism was compiled by the French poet and critic N. Boileau in the poetic treatise Poetic Art (1674). This work was first translated into Russian by Sumarokov in 1752, proving its applicability to Russian literature.

Classicism flourished in France in the tragedies of P. Corneille (“Sid”, “Horace”, “Cinna”), J. Racine (“Britannique”, “Mithridates”, “Phaedra”), F. Voltaire (“Brutus” , "Tancred"), in the comedies of J. B. Molière ("The Miser", "The Tradesman in the Nobility", "The Misanthrope", "Tartuffe, or the Deceiver", "The Imaginary Sick"), in the fables of J. de La Fontaine, in in the prose of F. La Rochefoucauld, J. La Bruyère, in Germany in the works of the Weimar period by J. W. Goethe (“Roman Elegies”, drama “Egmont”) and J. F. Schiller (“Ode to Joy”, dramas “Robbers” , "The Fiesco Conspiracy", "Deceit and Love").

Classicism as an artistic movement has its own features, its own principles.

Cult, the dominance of reason as the highest criterion of truth and beauty, the subordination of personal interests lofty ideas civic duty, state laws. The philosophical basis of classicism was rationalism (from the Latin gaIo - reason, rationality, expediency, rational validity of everything, the harmony of the Universe, due to its spiritual beginning), the founder of which was R. Descartes.

Exposure from the positions of statehood and enlightenment of ignorance, selfishness, despotism of the feudal order; the glorification of the monarchy, wisely governing the people, caring about education; affirmation of human dignity, civic and moral duty. In other words, classicism formulated the goal of literature as an impact on the mind to correct vices and education of virtue, and this clearly expressed the author's position (for example, Corneille praises the heroes who defend the state, the absolute monarch; Lomonosov praises Peter the Great as an ideal monarch).

Heroes of the works of classicism, mainly tragedies were "high": kings, princes, generals, leaders, nobles, higher clergy, noble citizens who care about the fate of the fatherland and serve it. In comedies, not only high-ranking persons were depicted, but also commoners, serf servants.

The characters were divided strictly into positive and negative, into virtuous, ideal, devoid of individuality, acting at the behest of the mind, and carriers of vice, who are in the grip of selfish passions. However, in the outline goodies there was schematism, reasoning, that is, a tendency to moralizing reasoning from the author's positions.

The characters were unilinear: the hero personified any one quality (passion) - intelligence, courage, courage, nobility, honesty or greed, deceit, stinginess, cruelty, flattery, hypocrisy, boasting (Pushkin remarked: “Molière has a mean stingy - and only...”; the leading feature of Mitrofan in “Undergrowth” is laziness).

Heroes were portrayed statically, without the evolution of characters. In fact, these were only images-masks (in Belinsky's words, "images without faces").

"Talking" names of characters (Tartuffe, Skotinin, Pravdin).

The conflict of good and evil, reason and stupidity, duty and feeling, in which good, reason, and duty have always won. In other words, in the works of classicism, vice was always punished, and virtue triumphed (for example, in Fonvizin's "Undergrowth"). Hence the abstractness, conventionality of the image of reality, the conventionality of the method of the classicists.

The heroes spoke in high-sounding, solemn, upbeat language; such poetic means, as Slavicisms, hyperbole, metaphor, personification, metonymy, comparison, antithesis, emotional epithets (“cold corpse”, “pale forehead”), rhetorical questions and exclamations, appeals, mythological similes (Apollo, Zeus, Minerva, Neptune, Boreas) . Syllabic versification dominated, Alexandrian verse was used.

The actors uttered long monologues in order to more fully reveal their views, beliefs, principles. Such monologues slowed down the action of the play.

Strict gradation, hierarchy of genres. "High" genres (tragedy, heroic poem, ode) reflected public life, historical events, ancient stories. "Low" genres (comedy, satire, fable) were turned into the sphere of everyday modern private life. An intermediate place was occupied by the "middle" genres (drama, epistle, elegy, idyll, sonnet, song), depicting inner world individual person; they did not play a prominent role in literary process(the flowering of these genres will come later). The classification of genres was based on the theory of “three styles” (high, medium, low), known since ancient times. One of these styles was provided for each genre; deviations were not allowed.

It was not allowed to mix the sublime and the base, the tragic and the comic, the heroic and the ordinary.

Heroes were portrayed only in verse and in a sublime style. Prose was considered humiliating, "despicable" for dignitaries.

Dominated in dramaturgy theory of "three unities"- place (all the action of the play took place in one place), time (events in the play developed during the day), action (what happened on the stage had its beginning, development and end, while there were no “extra” episodes or characters that were not directly related to the development of the main story).

Proponents of classicism usually borrowed plots for works from ancient history or mythology. The rules of classicism demanded a logical unfolding of the plot, harmony of composition, clarity and conciseness of language, rational clarity and noble beauty of style.

Russian classicism. In Russia, due to historical conditions (during the period of the establishment of the absolute monarchy), classicism appeared later, from the end of the 20s of the 18th century, surviving until the 20s of the 19th century. At the same time, you should see your periods in the development of Russian classicism and, accordingly, the representatives of these periods.

Early Classicism: A. D. Kantemir (poetic satires), V. K. Trediakovsky (poem “Tilemakhida”, ode “For the Surrender of Gdansk”).

The heyday of classicism (40-70s): M. V. Lomonosov (odes “On the day of accession to the throne of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna”, “On the capture of Khotin”; tragedy “Tamira and Selim”, poem “Peter the Great”, cycle poems “Conversation with Anacreon”, satire “Hymn to the Beard”, A. P. Sumarokov (tragedies “Khorev”, “Sinav and Truvor”, “Dmitry the Pretender”, “Semira”; comedies “Guardian”, “Likhoimets” , “The Cuckold by Imagination”; fables, satires; the theoretical treatise of the “Epistole on Poetry”, which is based on the “Poetic Art” of Boileau, while making certain changes associated with an increase in interest in inner life individual person).

Late classicism: D. I. Fonvizin (comedies "The Brigadier", "Undergrowth"), Ya. B. Knyazhnin (tragedies "Dido", "Rosslav", "Vadim Novgorodsky"; comedy "Bouncer"), V. A. Ozerov (tragedies "Oedipus in Athens", "Fingal", "Dmitry Donskoy"), P.A. "Venetian nun"), G. R. Derzhavin (odes "Felitsa", "Nobleman", "God", "Waterfall", "On the capture of Ishmael"; anacreontic poems), A. N. Radishchev (ode "Liberty", story "The Life of V. F. Ushakov").

In the work of representatives of late classicism, sprouts and tendencies of realism are already visible.(for example, recreating typical features negative characters conditioned by serf relations, realistic descriptions of life, satirical denunciation, mixing of genres, “calms”), there is a destruction of classicism, its conventionality; features of classicism are preserved rather outwardly.

Russian classicism expressed the worldview, psychology and tastes of the enlightened Russian nobility, who rose to prominence under Peter the Great.

The originality of Russian classicism. High civic-patriotic pathos, manifested in the appeal, mainly to national themes, to plots from Russian reality, from national history. In the preaching of national ideas, in the formation of socially useful, civic qualities of a person, in the development of an anti-despotic orientation, tyrannical motives, in educational tendencies (in the struggle for national culture, science, education) contained the objectively progressive significance of Russian classicism, its connection with life, the people, was more closely. (It is no coincidence that Pushkin called Fonvizin "a friend of freedom".).

A more pronounced accusatory-realistic tendency, expressed in satire, comedy, fable, which violated the principle of abstract depiction of reality inherent in classicism, that is, elements of realism were significant in Russian classicism.

Great connection with folk art, which gave the works of Russian classicism a democratic imprint, while Western European classicism avoided the inclusion of vernacular expressions, the use of folklore techniques (for example, Kantemir in his satires, Sumarokov widely used vernacular in satires and fables). Tonic and syllabotonic versification and free verse dominated.

Classicism — art style And aesthetic direction in European art XVII-XIX centuries

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in every phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual features. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined features, mixing of which is not allowed.

As a certain direction, it was formed in France in the 17th century. French classicism asserted the personality of a person as supreme value being, freeing him from the religious-ecclesiastical influence. Russian classicism not only adopted the Western European theory, but also enriched it with national characteristics.

The founder of the poetics of classicism is the Frenchman Francois Malherbe (1555-1628), who reformed French and verse and developed poetic canons. The leading representatives of classicism in dramaturgy were the tragedians Corneille and Racine (1639-1699), whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. The "low" genres also reached a high development - fable (J. Lafontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Molière 1622-1673).

Boileau became famous throughout Europe as the "legislator of Parnassus", the largest theoretician of classicism, who expressed his views in the poetic treatise "Poetic Art". Under his influence in Great Britain were the poets John Dryden and Alexander Pope, who made the alexandrine the main form of English poetry. The English prose of the era of classicism (Addison, Swift) is also characterized by Latinized syntax.

Classicism of the 18th century develops under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The work of Voltaire (1694-1778) is directed against religious fanaticism, absolutist oppression, filled with the pathos of freedom. The purpose of creativity is to change the world in better side, construction in accordance with the laws of classicism of the society itself. From the positions of classicism, the Englishman Samuel Johnson surveyed contemporary literature, around whom a brilliant circle of like-minded people formed, including the essayist Boswell, the historian Gibbon and the actor Garrick.

In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the transformations of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse, developed the theory of "three calms", which was essentially an adaptation of the French classical rules to the Russian language. The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, as they are intended primarily to capture stable generic features that do not pass over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.

Classicism in Russia developed under great influence Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been the focus of attention of Russian classic writers. Therefore, in Russian classicism, genres that imply a mandatory authorial assessment of historical reality have received great development: comedy (D. I. Fonvizin), satire (A. D. Kantemir), fable (A. P. Sumarokov, I. I. Khemnitser), ode (Lomonosov, G. R. Derzhavin).

In connection with the call proclaimed by Rousseau to closeness to nature and naturalness, crisis phenomena are growing in the classicism of the late 18th century; the cult of tender feelings - sentimentalism - is replacing the absolutization of reason. The transition from classicism to pre-romanticism was most clearly reflected in German literature the era of "Sturm und Drang", represented by the names of J. W. Goethe (1749-1832) and F. Schiller (1759-1805), who, following Rousseau, saw in art main force upbringing of a person.

The main features of Russian classicism:

1. Appeal to the images and forms of ancient art.

2. Heroes are clearly divided into positive and negative.

3. The plot is usually based on love triangle: the heroine is the hero-lover, the second lover.

4. At the end of a classic comedy, vice is always punished and good triumphs.

5. The principle of three unities: time (action lasts no more than a day), place, action.

Romanticism as a literary movement.

Romanticism (fr. romanticisme) is a phenomenon European culture in the XVIII-XIX centuries, which is a reaction to the Enlightenment and stimulated by it scientific and technical progress; ideological and artistic direction in European and American culture late 18th century - first half of the 19th century. It is characterized by the assertion of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the image of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature.

Romanticism first arose in Germany, among the writers and philosophers of the Jena school (W. G. Wackenroder, Ludwig Tieck, Novalis, the brothers F. and A. Schlegel). The philosophy of romanticism was systematized in the works of F. Schlegel and F. Schelling. In further development german romanticism distinguishes interest in fairy-tale and mythological motifs, which is especially clearly expressed in the work of the brothers Wilhelm and Jacob Grimm, Hoffmann. Heine, starting his work within the framework of romanticism, later subjected him to a critical revision.

England is largely due to German influence. In England, its first representatives are the poets of the Lake School, Wordsworth and Coleridge. They set theoretical basis of his direction, having become acquainted during a trip to Germany with the philosophy of Schelling and the views of the first German romantics. English romanticism is characterized by an interest in social problems: they oppose to modern bourgeois society the old, pre-bourgeois relations, the glorification of nature, simple, natural feelings.

A prominent representative of English romanticism is Byron, who, in the words of Pushkin, "clothed in dull romanticism and hopeless egoism." His work is imbued with the pathos of struggle and protest against the modern world, the glorification of freedom and individualism.

Romanticism also spread in other European countries, for example, in France (Chateaubriand, J. Stael, Lamartine, Victor Hugo, Alfred de Vigny, Prosper Merimee, George Sand), Italy (N. W. Foscolo, A. Manzoni, Leopardi) , Poland (Adam Mickiewicz, Juliusz Slowacki, Zygmunt Krasiński, Cyprian Norwid) and in the USA (Washington Irving, Fenimore Cooper, W. K. Bryant, Edgar Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry Longfellow, Herman Melville).

It is usually believed that in Russia romanticism appears in the poetry of V. A. Zhukovsky (although some Russians often refer to the pre-romantic movement that developed from sentimentalism). poetic works 1790-1800s). In Russian romanticism, freedom from classical conventions appears, a ballad is created, romantic drama. A new idea of ​​the essence and meaning of poetry is affirmed, which is recognized as an independent sphere of life, an expression of the highest, ideal aspirations of man; the old view, according to which poetry was an empty pastime, something completely serviceable, is no longer possible.

The early poetry of A. S. Pushkin also developed within the framework of romanticism. The poetry of M. Yu. Lermontov, the “Russian Byron”, can be considered the pinnacle of Russian romanticism. The philosophical lyrics of F. I. Tyutchev are both the completion and the overcoming of romanticism in Russia.

Heroes are bright, exceptional personalities in unusual circumstances. Romanticism is characterized by an impulse, an extraordinary complexity, an inner depth of human individuality. Rejection of artistic authorities. There are no genre partitions, stylistic distinctions. Only the desire for complete freedom of creative imagination. For example, the greatest French poet and writer Victor Hugo and his world-famous novel Notre Dame Cathedral.

Classicism - an artistic style in European art

Classicism, an artistic style in European art of the 17th-early 19th centuries, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to the forms of ancient art as an ideal aesthetic and ethical standard. Classicism, which developed in sharply polemical interaction with the Baroque, developed into an integral stylistic system in the French artistic culture of the 17th century. The principles of rationalistic philosophy underlying it determined the view of theorists and practitioners of classicism on a work of art as a fruit of reason and logic, triumphing over the chaos and fluidity of sensually perceived life. Orientation to a reasonable beginning, to enduring patterns determined the firm normativity of ethical requirements (subordination of the personal to the general, passions - to reason, duty, the laws of the universe) and the aesthetic demands of classicism, the regulation of artistic rules; the consolidation of the theoretical doctrines of classicism was facilitated by the activities of the Royal Academies founded in Paris - painting and sculpture (1648) and architecture (1671).

In the architecture of classicism, which is distinguished by the logical planning and clarity of volumetric form, the order plays the main role, subtly and restrainedly shading the general structure of the structure (buildings by F. Mansard, C. Perrault, L. Levo, F. Blondel); From the second half of the 17th century, French classicism absorbed the spatial scope of Baroque architecture (works by J. Hardouin-Mansart and A. Le Nôtre at Versailles). In the 17th - early 18th centuries. classicism was formed in the architecture of Holland, England, where it was organically combined with Palladianism (I. Jones, K. Wren), Sweden (N. Tessin the Younger).

In classicist painting, the main elements of form modeling were line and chiaroscuro, local color clearly reveals the plasticity of figures and objects, separates spatial plans paintings (marked by the loftiness of the philosophical and ethical content, the general harmony of the work of N. Poussin, the founder of classicism and the greatest master of classicism of the 17th century; "ideal landscapes" by C. Lorrain). Classicism of the 18th - early 19th centuries. (in foreign art history it is often referred to as neoclassicism), which became a pan-European style, was also formed mainly in the bosom of French culture, under the strong influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. In architecture, new types of exquisite mansion, front public building, an open city square (J.A. Gabriel, J.J. Souflot), the search for new, unordered forms of architecture. striving for severe simplicity in the work of K.N. Ledoux anticipated the architecture of the late stage of classicism - Empire. Civic pathos and lyricism combined in the plasticity of J.B. Pigalya and J.A. Houdon, decorative landscapes Y. Robert.

The courageous drama of historical and portrait images inherent in the works of the chapter French classicism, painter Zh.L. David. In the 19th century classical painting, despite the activities of individual major masters, such as J.O.D. Ingres, degenerates into an official apologetic or pretentiously erotic salon art. The international center of European classicism of the 18th-early 19th centuries. became Rome, where the traditions of academism dominated, with their characteristic combination of nobility of forms and cold idealization ( German painter A.R. Mengs, plastic art by the Italian A. Canova and the Dane B. Thorvaldsen). The architecture of German classicism is characterized by the severe monumentality of the buildings of K.F. Shinkel, for contemplative-elegiac painting and plastic arts - portraits of A. and V. Tishbeinov, sculpture by I.G. Shadov. In English classicism, the antiquities of R. Adam, the Palladian park estates of W. Chambers, the exquisitely austere drawings of J. Flaxman and the ceramics of J. Wedgwood stand out. Own versions of classicism developed in the artistic culture of Italy, Spain, Belgium, the Scandinavian countries, the United States; an outstanding place in the history of world art is occupied by Russian classicism of the 1760s–1840s. By the end of the 1st third of the 19th century. the leading role of classicism almost everywhere is fading away, it is being replaced by various forms of architectural eclecticism. comes alive artistic tradition classicism in neoclassicism of the late 19th - early 20th centuries.

Conclusion

Baroque is a style and direction fundamental feature, which can be considered the desire for a synthesis of the arts, the unification of architecture, sculpture, painting and decorative art.

A person in baroque art is perceived as part of the world, as a complex personality experiencing conflicts.

There is no harmony in this style. Baroque art is characterized by: bold contrasts of scale, light and shadow, colors, a combination of reality and fantasy.

Main features: splendor, splendor, dynamism, life-affirming character. A religious composition typical of the Baroque shows saints or the Madonna surrounded by angels.

Classicism is a style and trend in art and literature of the 18th century, which marked the return to the ancient heritage as a norm and an ideal model.

This direction is characterized by: rationalism, normativity, gravitation towards harmony, clarity and simplicity of expression, balance of composition and at the same time a certain amount of schematization and idealization in works of art, which was expressed, for example, in the hierarchy of "high" and "low" styles in literature, the requirement of "three unities" - time, place and action - in dramaturgy, emphasized purism in the field of language, etc.

Under the influence of the rationalist philosophy of the great French thinker René Descartes, the principles of classicism are established in all forms of art.

The main aesthetic postulate of classicism is fidelity to nature, the natural rationality of the world with its objectively inherent beauty, which is expressed in symmetry, proportion, measure, harmony, which should be recreated in art in perfect form. By the middle of the 19th century, classicism, lagging behind the development of social aesthetic feeling, was reborn into a lifeless academicism.

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