Regarding aesthetic orientations to past eras, it should be noted that the classicists and enlighteners absolutized the role of antiquity, its transparency, harmonious simplicity and well-thought-out symmetry (like the colonnades of famous ancient temples). They usually ignored the Middle Ages, and spoke openly against the Baroque. The Middle Ages were perceived by them as an era of continuous barbarism. Moreover, they also considered the folklore of their own peoples: the French, Germans, British, Russians to be barbaric. So, N. Boileau wrote: “It happens: we only find a barbaric name, / And the whole poem seems barbaric to us.” So, according to this leading theorist of classicism, even the names of the characters in the works must be Greek or Roman: Antigone, Caesar, Cicero, etc., otherwise the work will immediately look like a barbarian.
This vision also took place in other forms of art. Odessa has famous monument Richelieu, Armand-Emmanuel du Plessis (Governor-General of New Russia), made in the style of Classicism. The sculptor knew very well how Richelieu actually dressed (this is the period of the Napoleonic warriors), but he depicted a Russian official French descent in ancient Roman fashion. That is, thanks to the canons of classicism, the Russian Frenchman “turned” into a Roman. For the classicists, antiquity was the highest, once and for all chosen ideal. Yes, this is not surprising, if we take into account that the heroes classic works there were mostly Greeks and Romans, mythological and historical characters (Phaedra, Oedipus, Julius Caesar, etc.). The classicists even created the harmony formula “Greek taste and Roman spirit”, and the Napoleonic generals (and not only them), brought up on the examples of classicism, wore hairstyles “a la Titus”, that is, like the Roman emperor Titus - barely wavy hair, which covered the forehead and temples.
Romantics, on the contrary, paid less attention to the clarity and transparency of antiquity and the Renaissance, preferring the nebula, allegorical complexity, mysticism and fantasy, as well as the gloomy tone (which was so in harmony with the romantic “world sorrow”) of the Middle Ages and Baroque. And if the romantics did turn to antiquity, they rather favored the song-inspired Greeks, rather than the strictly normative Romans. Therefore, it is not surprising that Virgil, dominant in classicism, lost the palm to Homer.
It was the Romantics who placed Calderon above Shakespeare and resolutely abandoned the ancient cultural heritage as a single and unchanging standard for art. They said: even if someone drinks only the juice of a tall palm tree, they still will not reach its height, and the modern artist and art itself will not become outstanding, even if they feed exclusively on the developments of “high antiquity”.
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Literary direction- often identified with artistic method. Designates a set of fundamental spiritual and aesthetic principles of many writers, as well as a number of groups and schools, their programmatic and aesthetic principles, and the means used. In the struggle and change of direction, the laws of the literary process are most clearly expressed.
Classicism(French and Latin - exemplary) - art style And aesthetic direction in European art XVII-XIX centuries Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with those in the philosophy of Descartes. Piece of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual signs. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art(Aristotle, Horace).
Classicism establishes a strict genre hierarchy, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined features, mixing of which is not allowed.
As a certain direction, it was formed in France in the 17th century. French classicism freed a person from religious and church influence, asserting the individual as the highest value of being. Russian classicism not only adopted the Western European theory, but also enriched it with national characteristics.
Founder of the poetics of classicism The Frenchman Francois Malherbe (1555-1628) is considered to have reformed the French language and verse and developed poetic canons. The leading representatives of classicism in dramaturgy were the tragedians Corneille and Racine (1639-1699), whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. "Low" genres also reached high development - fable (J. La Fontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Molière 1622-1673).
Boileau became famous throughout Europe as the "legislator of Parnassus", the largest theoretician of classicism, who expressed his views in the poetic treatise "Poetic Art". Under his influence in Great Britain were the poets John Dryden and Alexander Pope, who made the alexandrine the main form of English poetry. For English prose era of classicism (Addison, Swift) is also characterized by latinized syntax.
Classicism XVIII century develops under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The work of Voltaire (1694-1778) is directed against religious fanaticism, absolutist oppression, filled with the pathos of freedom. The purpose of creativity is to change the world in better side, construction in accordance with the laws of classicism of the society itself. From the positions of classicism, the Englishman Samuel Johnson surveyed contemporary literature, around whom a brilliant circle of like-minded people formed, including the essayist Boswell, the historian Gibbon and the actor Garrick.
In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the transformations of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse, developed the theory of "three calms", which was essentially an adaptation of French classical rules to the Russian language. Images in classicism are deprived individual traits, as they are called, first of all, to capture stable generic, not passing over time signs, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces. Classicism in Russia developed under great influence Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been the focus of attention of Russian classic writers. Therefore, in Russian classicism, genres that imply a mandatory author's assessment historical reality: comedy (D. I. Fonvizin), satire (A. D. Kantemir), fable (A. P. Sumarokov, I. I. Khemnitser), ode (Lomonosov, G. R. Derzhavin).
In connection with the call proclaimed by Rousseau to closeness to nature and naturalness, crisis phenomena are growing in the classicism of the late 18th century; the cult of tender feelings is replacing the absolutization of reason - sentimentalism. The transition from classicism to pre-romanticism was most clearly reflected in German literature the era of "Sturm und Drang", represented by the names of J. W. Goethe (1749-1832) and F. Schiller (1759-1805), who, following Rousseau, saw in art main force upbringing of a person. The pathos of literature of the era of classicism was associated with enlightenment.
Romanticism(fr. romanticisme) - a phenomenon of European culture in XVIII-XIX centuries, representing a reaction to the Enlightenment and the scientific and technological progress stimulated by it; ideological and artistic direction in European and American culture late 18th century - first half of the 19th century. It is characterized by the assertion of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the image of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature. Spread to various areas human activity. In the 18th century, everything that was strange, fantastic, picturesque, and existing in books, and not in reality, was called romantic. IN early XIX century, romanticism became the designation of a new direction, opposite to classicism and Enlightenment.
Romanticism replaces the Age of Enlightenment and coincides with the industrial revolution, marked by the appearance of the steam engine, the steam locomotive, the steamboat, photography, and factory outskirts. If the Enlightenment is characterized by the cult of reason and civilization based on its principles, then romanticism affirms the cult of nature, feelings and the natural in man. It was in the era of romanticism that the phenomena of tourism, mountaineering and picnics were formed, designed to restore the unity of man and nature. The image of the “noble savage”, armed “ folk wisdom and not spoiled by civilization.
Romanticism first arose in Germany, among the writers and philosophers of the Jena school (W. G. Wackenroder, Ludwig Tieck, Novalis, the brothers F. and A. Schlegel). The philosophy of romanticism was systematized in the works of F. Schlegel and F. Schelling. IN further development german romanticism is distinguished by an interest in fairy tales and mythological motives, which was especially clearly expressed in the work of the brothers Wilhelm and Jacob Grimm, Hoffmann. Heine, starting his work within the framework of romanticism, later subjected him to a critical revision. England is largely due to German influence. In England, its first representatives are the poets of the Lake School, Wordsworth and Coleridge. They set theoretical basis of his direction, having become acquainted during a trip to Germany with the philosophy of Schelling and the views of the first German romantics. English romanticism is characterized by an interest in public issues: they oppose to modern bourgeois society the old, pre-bourgeois relations, the glorification of nature, simple, natural feelings. A prominent representative of English romanticism is Byron, who, in the words of Pushkin, "clothed in dull romanticism and hopeless egoism." His work is imbued with the pathos of struggle and protest against modern world, the chanting of freedom and individualism. Also, English romanticism includes the work of Shelley, John Keats, William Blake.
Romanticism spread to other European countries, for example, in France (Chateaubriand, J. Stahl, Lamartine, Victor Hugo, Alfred de Vigny, Prosper Merimee, George Sand), Italy (N. W. Foscolo, A. Manzoni, Leopardi), Poland (Adam Mickiewicz, Juliusz Slovak , Zygmunt Krasiński, Cyprian Norwid) and in the USA (Washington Irving, Fenimore Cooper, W.K. Bryant, Edgar Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry Longfellow, Herman Melville). Stendhal also considered himself a French romantic, but he meant by romanticism something different than most of his contemporaries. In the epigraph of the novel "Red and Black", he took the words "True, bitter truth", emphasizing his vocation for a realistic study of human characters and actions. The writer was addicted to romantic outstanding natures, for which he recognized the right to "go hunting for happiness." He sincerely believed that it depends only on the way of society whether a person can realize his eternal craving for well-being, given by nature itself. The heroes did not have an average appearance (Quasimodo)
It is usually believed that in Russia romanticism appears in the poetry of V. A. Zhukovsky (although some Russians often refer to the pre-romantic movement that developed from sentimentalism). poetic works 1790-1800s). In Russian romanticism, freedom from classical conventions appears, a ballad, a romantic drama, is created. A new idea of the essence and meaning of poetry is affirmed, which is recognized as an independent sphere of life, an expression of the highest, ideal aspirations of man; the old view, according to which poetry was an empty pastime, something completely serviceable, is no longer possible. The early poetry of A. S. Pushkin also developed within the framework of romanticism. The poetry of M. Yu. Lermontov, the “Russian Byron”, can be considered the pinnacle of Russian romanticism. The philosophical lyrics of F. I. Tyutchev are both the completion and the overcoming of romanticism in Russia.
Classicism and Romanticism are trends in literature and art. Each of them has its own principles and means. artistic expressiveness. Let us find out how classicism differs from romanticism by comparing their characteristic features.
General information
Classicism historically replaced the baroque. His era spans more than 150 years. Classicism owes its birth in the 17th century French writers and poets. The leading representatives of this trend were Francois de Malherbe, Pierre Corneille, Molière and others. In Russia, classicism developed later - in the 18th century. M. Lomonosov, D. Fonvizin, A. Kantemir are the names of famous Russian classicists.
Russian and Western European classicism were based on the same principles, but a certain specificity is clearly traced in the works. In particular, Western European classicists relied on the art of antiquity, considering it an ideal aesthetic model, while Russian writers more often turned to national history.
The first associations of representatives of another direction - romanticism(the harbinger in this case was sentimentalism) - began to be created in Germany in the 18th century. Soon, romanticism began to spread to other European countries (England, France), and then reached the United States and Russia.
Among the famous romantics should be called G. Heine, V. Hugo, J. Byron, V. Zhukovsky, K. Ryleev. The dominant role of romanticism in literature did not last long - about thirty years, but its significance for world culture is enormous.
Comparison
First of all, one should compare the ideological attitudes of each of the directions. So, at the heart of classicism lies the principle of rationalism. Reason dominates both in public and private life. Civil and moral duty is above egoistic feelings and passions. In the works of classicism, reason and feelings constitute the main conflict, and reason certainly wins.
Romanticism highest value recognizes the inner world, the individuality of a person. In the confrontation "society - personality" the emphasis is shifted towards the individual, self-sufficient, feeling, thirsting for freedom. Romanticism depicts exceptional characters and desperate (often rebellious) passions. It has a cult of nature, everything natural.
To better understand the difference between classicism and romanticism, we list the signs of both directions, which are completely different from each other. Classicism is characterized by the following:
- Only the eternal is valuable. Only the essential, the typological is important; everything accidental has no meaning.
- pyramid concept. In each phenomenon there is a center - the top of the "pyramid", to which the entire "building" is subordinated. For example, in relation to the state, the classicists recognized as such a center a reasonable monarchy, fertile for all citizens. Man was considered as a link in the pyramid of the universe.
- Man is a function, his external deeds are important. For example, Peter I was portrayed as an ideal monarch, strengthening the state, taking care of its welfare. And the fact that he was a very complex and not attractive person in everything was not given any importance.
- In creativity, one-linearity of characters is visible, the presence in them of one dominant feature (courage or cowardice, nobility or insidiousness, etc.). Each hero, depending on his attitude to civic duty, is clearly characterized as positive or negative.
- The works are built according to the rules of rigor and logic. The principle of three unities is used: the action takes no more than a day (unity of time), unfolds in one place (unity of place), represents one conflict involving all the characters (unity of action).
- Hierarchy of genres. High genres, such as tragedy and ode, described grandiose events in which prominent figures, generals, and monarchs took part. Low genres (comedy, fable) outlined life ordinary people, ridiculed everyday phenomena, some character traits.
The main signs of romanticism:
- The removal of heroes from reality due to dissatisfaction with it. The image of the picture of the world, consonant with the ideals of the author. Events can take place in a mystical past, in a future with a restructured society, in an otherworldly, fantastic world.
- Interest in unusual personalities (noble robber) and high passions ( fatal love). Heroes - strong, desperate natures - can sacrifice themselves for the sake of the happiness of their neighbor or actively rebel against the existing conditions of life.
- The element of nature is opposed to civilization, which often appears as a prison for a free person. Events often take place against the backdrop of exotic landscapes, countryside.
- Emotional, upbeat tone of works. The predominance of the lyrical beginning.
- intricate plot scheme: paradoxical moves, exciting secrets, unforeseen outcomes.
- The difference between classicism and romanticism can also be seen in the presented genre palette. Romanticism is embodied in a romantic drama, a novel composed in a special way, an elegy, a sublime poem.
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Classicism or neoclassicism of the beginning of the 20th century is also called the Empire style (from the French empire - empire) or the style of the Empire. He completed the evolution of classicism and demonstrated the triumph of state power. Empire absorbed ancient Egyptian motifs (geometry of Egyptian ornament, stylized sphinxes), motifs of Pompeii paintings, Etruscan vases, which were used in the interiors of palaces. The architecture is distinguished by massive porticos with Doric (sometimes Tuscan) columns, military emblems (eagles, laurel wreaths, military armor, announcer bundles). During this period, memorial structures were erected ( triumphal arches, memorial columns). If we consider the evolution of painting in France from classicism to Empire as a single line, it turns out that if classicism glorified the magnificent splendor palace life French kings, then the Empire - the military exploits of Napoleon and the tastes of the emerging bourgeoisie. The goals of glorifying the successes of the state were served by memorial architecture (triumphal arches, commemorative columns), repeating ancient Roman designs.
At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries in Germany and other European countries, a new direction arose in the spiritual and artistic culture called Romanticism. Romanticism became a kind of reaction to classicism with its cult of reason and rationalism. Romanticism was the first trend in art that recognized the artist as the subject of creativity and proclaimed the unconditional priority of individual tastes. creative personality. greatest development romanticism reached in France (T. Gericault, E. Delacroix, G. Dore). Its largest representatives in Germany are F.O. Runge, K.D. Friedrich, P. Cornelius, in the UK: - J. Constable, W. Turner. In Russia, the features of romanticism manifested themselves in the work of O.A. Kiprensky, partly - V.A. Tropinina, S.F. Shchedrin, M.I. Lebedeva, K.P. Bryullov, F.A. Bruni, F.P. Tolstoy.
Romanticism contrasted the utilitarianism and materiality of the nascent bourgeois society with a break with everyday reality, leaving for the world of dreams and fantasies, idealization of the past. Romanticism is a world in which melancholy, irrationality, and eccentricity reign. Its traces appeared in the European consciousness as early as the 17th century, but were regarded by doctors as a sign of mental disorder. But romanticism opposes rationalism, not humanism. On the contrary, he creates a new humanism, offering to consider a person in all his manifestations.
The first signs of romanticism appear almost simultaneously in different countries, but each contributed to its development. Germany is considered the birthplace of romanticism; the foundations of romantic aesthetics were laid here. From Germany, a new trend quickly spread throughout Europe. Romanticism embraced literature, music, theater, humanitarian sciences, plastic arts.
Philosophical and aesthetic theory early romanticism developed in Germany by A. V. and F. Schlegel, Novalis, I. Fichte, F. W. Schelling, F. Schleiermacher, L. Tieck, creative association which, which existed in 1798-1801, was called the Jena Romantics. The circle of German romantics created an aesthetic concept of a new universal culture and helped to form romantic philosophy in the first half of the 19th century, whose representatives include Friedrich Wilhelm Schelling (1775-1854), Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860), Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855).
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Baroque - historical art style, which was originally distributed in Italy in the middle. XVI-XVII centuries, and then in France, Spain, Flanders and Germany in the XVII-XVIII centuries. More broadly, this term is used to define the ever-renewing tendencies of a restless, romantic worldview, thinking in expressive, dynamic forms. Finally, in every time, in almost every historical artistic style, one can find its own "baroque period" as a stage of the highest creative upsurge, tension of emotions, explosiveness of forms.
Michelangelo Caravaggio"The Beatitude of Saint Francis" 1595
Baroque is characterized by contrast, tension, dynamic images, affectation, striving for grandeur and pomp, for combining reality and illusion, for the fusion of arts (urban and palace and park ensembles, opera, cult music, oratorio); at the same time - a tendency towards autonomy of individual genres (concerto grosso, sonata, suite in instrumental music). The ideological foundations of the style were formed as a result of a shock, which for the 16th century was the Reformation and the teachings of Copernicus. The notion of the world, established in antiquity, as a rational and permanent unity, as well as the Renaissance idea of man as a most rational being, has changed. In the words of Pascal, a person began to realize himself "something in between everything and nothing", "one who catches only the appearance of phenomena, but is not able to understand either their beginning or their end."
Peter Paul Rubens "Venus in front of a mirror"
Baroque style in painting characterized by the dynamism of the compositions, the "flatness" and pomp of forms, the aristocracy and originality of the plots. Most character traits baroque - catchy flamboyance and dynamism; a prime example the work of Rubens and Caravaggio.
Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome
For baroque architecture (L. Bernini, F. Borromini in Italy, B. F. Rastrelli in Russia, Jan Christoph Glaubitz in the Commonwealth) are characterized by spatial scope, fusion, fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms. There are often deployed large-scale colonnades, an abundance of sculptures on facades and in interiors, volutes, big number rake-outs, arched facades with a rake-out in the middle, rusticated columns and pilasters. Domes acquire complex shapes, often they are multi-tiered, like at St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. The characteristic details of the Baroque are the telamon (atlas), the caryatid, the mascaron.
Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome. Interior
Sculpture- an integral part of the Baroque style. The greatest sculptor and the recognized architect of the 17th century was the Italian Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Among his most famous sculptures are the mythological scenes of the abduction of Proserpine by God. underworld Pluto and the miraculous transformation into a tree of the nymph Daphne, pursued by the god of light Apollo, as well as the altar group "The Ecstasy of St. Teresa" in one of the Roman churches. The last of them, with its clouds carved from marble and the clothes of characters fluttering in the wind, with theatrically exaggerated feelings, very accurately expresses the aspirations of the sculptors of this era.
Lorenzo Bernini "The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa"
Classicism- art style in western European art XVII - beginning. 19th century and Russian XVIII- early XIX, referring to the ancient heritage as an ideal to follow. It manifested itself in architecture, sculpture, painting, arts and crafts. Classicist artists considered antiquity to be the highest achievement and made it their standard in art, which they sought to imitate. Over time, it was reborn into academism.
Jacques - Louis David "Sappho and Phaon"
Romanticism- a trend in European and Russian art of the 1820s-1830s, which replaced classicism. Romantics brought individuality to the forefront, opposing the ideal beauty of the classicists to "imperfect" reality. Artists were attracted by bright, rare, extraordinary phenomena, as well as images of a fantastic nature. In the art of romanticism big role plays a sharp individual perception and experience. Romanticism liberated art from abstract classicistic dogmas and turned it towards national history and images of folklore.
Karl Bryullov "Dream of a young girl before dawn"
Romanticism in painting
Representatives: Francisco Goya, Antoine-Jean Gros, Theodore Géricault, Eugene Delacroix, Karl Bryullov, William Turner, Caspar David Friedrich, Karl Friedrich Lessing, Karl Spitzweg, Karl Blechen, Albert Bierstadt, Frederic Edwin Church.
The development of romanticism in painting proceeded in sharp controversy with adherents of classicism. Romantics reproached their predecessors for "cold rationality" and the absence of a "movement of life." In the 1920s and 1930s, the works of many artists were distinguished by pathos and nervous excitement; in them there has been a tendency to exotic motifs and a play of the imagination that can lead away from the "dim everyday life." The struggle against the frozen classicist norms lasted a long time, almost half a century. The first who managed to consolidate a new direction and "justify" romanticism was Theodore Géricault.
One of the branches of romanticism in painting is the Biedermeier style.
The material was prepared by Tatyana Nesvetaylo, art critic, senior researcher at the State Russian Museum
