Regarding aesthetic orientations to past eras, it should be noted that the classicists and enlighteners absolutized the role of antiquity, its transparency, harmonious simplicity and well-thought-out symmetry (like the colonnades of famous ancient temples). They usually ignored the Middle Ages, and spoke openly against the Baroque. The Middle Ages were perceived by them as an era of continuous barbarism. Moreover, they also considered the folklore of their own peoples: the French, Germans, British, Russians to be barbaric. So, N. Boileau wrote: “It happens: we only find a barbaric name, / And the whole poem seems barbaric to us.” So, according to this leading theorist of classicism, even the names of the characters in the works must be Greek or Roman: Antigone, Caesar, Cicero, etc., otherwise the work will immediately look like a barbarian.
This vision also took place in other forms of art. In Odessa there is a famous monument to Richelieu, Armand-Emmanuel du Plessis (Governor-General of Novorossiya), made in the style of Classicism. The sculptor knew very well how Richelieu actually dressed (this is the period of the Napoleonic warriors), but he depicted a Russian official French descent in ancient Roman fashion. That is, thanks to the canons of classicism, the Russian Frenchman “turned” into a Roman. For the classicists, antiquity was the highest, once and for all chosen ideal. Yes, this is not surprising, if we take into account that the heroes classic works there were mostly Greeks and Romans, mythological and historical characters (Phaedra, Oedipus, Julius Caesar, etc.). The classicists even created the harmony formula “Greek taste and Roman spirit”, and the Napoleonic generals (and not only them), brought up on the examples of classicism, wore hairstyles “a la Titus”, that is, like the Roman emperor Titus - barely wavy hair, which covered the forehead and temples.
Romantics, on the contrary, paid less attention to the clarity and transparency of antiquity and the Renaissance, preferring the nebula, allegorical complexity, mysticism and fantasy, as well as the gloomy tone (which was so in harmony with the romantic “world sorrow”) of the Middle Ages and Baroque. And if the romantics did turn to antiquity, they rather favored the song-inspired Greeks, rather than the strictly normative Romans. Therefore, it is not surprising that Virgil, dominant in classicism, lost the palm to Homer.
It was the Romantics who put Calderon above Shakespeare and resolutely abandoned the ancient cultural heritage as a single and unchanging standard for art. They said: even if someone drinks only the juice of a tall palm tree, they still will not reach its height, and the modern artist and art itself will not become outstanding, even if they feed exclusively on the developments of “high antiquity”.
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Classicism, sentimentalism and romanticism in Russian literature. Formation and development of realism
Goals: to acquaint students with the main features of classicism, sentimentalism and romanticism as actively fighting literary movements; to show the formation of realism in Russian and world literature, as well as the origin and development of Russian and professional literary criticism.
Course of lessons
I. Checking homework.
2-3 questions are analyzed (at the choice of students) from homework.
II. Teacher's lecture (summary).
Students in notebooks write down the main features of classicism, sentimentalism and emerging romanticism as literary movements. Literary origins of Russian realism.
The last third of the 18th - early 19th centuries. - an important period in the development of Russian fiction. Among the writers and the highest nobility, headed by Catherine II, and representatives of the middle and petty nobility, and the townspeople. The works of N. M. Karamzin and D. I. Fonvizin, G. R. Derzhavin and M. V. Lomonosov, V. A. Zhukovsky and K. F. Ryleev occupy “the minds and hearts of readers”* .
On the pages of newspapers and magazines, literary salons there is an irreconcilable struggle of supporters of different literary trends.
Classicism(from lat. classicus - exemplary) - an artistic direction in literature and art of the 18th-early 19th centuries, which is characterized by high civic themes, strict adherence to certain creative norms and rules.
The founders and followers of classicism considered the highest example of artistic creativity (perfection, classics) to be the works of antiquity.
Classicism arose (during the era of absolutism), first in France in the 17th century, then spread to other European countries.
In the poem "Poetic Art" N. Boileau created a detailed aesthetic theory classicism. He argued that literary works are created without inspiration, but "in a rational way, after strict deliberation." Everything in them should be precise, clear and harmonious.
Classicist writers considered the goal of literature to be the education of people in loyalty to the absolutist state, and the fulfillment of duties to the state and the monarch as the main task of a citizen.
According to the rules of the aesthetics of classicism, strictly adhering to the so-called "hierarchy of genres", tragedy, ode, epic belonged to the "high genres" and had to develop especially significant social problems. "High genres" were opposed by "low" ones: comedy, satire, fable, "designed to reflect modern reality".
Dramatic works in the literature of classicism obeyed the rules of the "three unities" - time, place and action.
1. Features of Russian classicism
Russian classicism was not a simple imitation of Western.
In it, more than in the West, there was criticism of the shortcomings of society. The presence of a satirical stream gave the works of the classicists a truthful character.
From the very beginning, in Russian classicism, the connection with modernity, Russian reality, which was illuminated in the works from the point of view of advanced ideas, was strongly affected.
Classical writers "created images goodies, unable to come to terms with social injustice, developed the patriotic idea of serving the motherland, promoted high moral principles civic duty and humane treatment of people** .
Sentimentalism(from fr. sentiment - feeling, sensitive) - an artistic direction in literature and art that arose in Western Europe in the 20s of the 18th century. In Russia, sentimentalism spread in the 70s of the 18th century, and in the first third of the 19th century it occupied a leading position.
While the heroes of classicism were commanders, leaders, kings, nobles, sentimentalist writers showed a sincere interest in the personality, character of a person (ignorant and not rich), his inner world. The ability to feel was considered by sentimentalists as a decisive feature and high dignity of the human personality. The words of N. M. Karamzin from the story "Poor Liza" "and peasant women know how to love" pointed to the relatively democratic orientation of sentimentalism. Perceiving human life as fleeting, writers glorified eternal values - love, friendship and nature.
Sentimentalists enriched Russian literature with such genres as travel, diary, essay, story, household novel, elegy, correspondence, and “tearful comedy”.
The events in the works took place in small towns or villages. Lots of descriptions of nature. But the landscape is not just a background, but wildlife, as if rediscovered by the author, felt by him, perceived by the heart. Progressive sentimentalist writers saw their calling in comforting people in their suffering and sorrows, turning them to virtue, harmony and beauty.
The brightest representative of Russian sentimentalists - N. M. Karamzin.
From sentimentalism "threads spread" not only to romanticism, but also to psychological realism.
2. The originality of Russian sentimentalism
Russian sentimentalism is gentry-conservative.
Noble writers in their works portrayed a man from the people, his inner world, feelings. For sentimentalists, the cult of feeling became a means of escaping from reality, from those sharp contradictions that existed between the landlords and the serfs, into the narrow world of personal interests, intimate experiences.
Russian sentimentalists developed the idea that all people, regardless of their social status, are capable of the highest feelings. So, according to N. M. Karamzin, “in any state a person can find roses of pleasure.” If the joys of life are also available to ordinary people, then “not through a change in the state and social system, but through moral education of people lies the path to the happiness of the whole society.
Karamzin idealizes the relationship between landowners and serfs. The peasants are satisfied with their lives and glorify their landlords.
Romanticism(from fr. romantique - something mysterious, strange, unreal) - artistic direction in literature and art, which replaced sentimentalism in the late 18th and early 19th centuries and fiercely opposed classicism with its strict rules that hampered the freedom of creativity of writers.
Romanticism is a literary trend brought to life by important historical events and social changes. For Russian romantics, such events were the Patriotic War of 1812 and the Decembrist uprising. The views of romantic writers on historical events, on society, on their positions in society were sharply dissimilar - from rebellious to reactionary, therefore, in romanticism, two main directions or currents should be distinguished - conservative and progressive.
Conservative romantics took plots for their works from the past, indulged in dreams of the afterlife, poeticized the life of the peasants, their humility, patience and superstition. They "led" readers away from social struggles into the world of imagination. V. G. Belinsky wrote about conservative romanticism that “this is desire, aspiration, impulse, feelings, sigh, groan, complaint about imperfect hopes that had no name, sadness for lost happiness .., this is a world .. inhabited by shadows and ghosts, charming and sweet, of course, but elusive nonetheless; it is a dull, slow-flowing, never-ending present that mourns the past and sees no future ahead of it; finally, it is love that feeds on sadness ... "
Progressive romantics sharply criticized their contemporary reality. Heroes of romantic poems lyric poems, ballads had a strong character, did not put up with social evil, called for the struggle for the freedom and happiness of people. (Poets-Decembrists, young Pushkin.)
The struggle for complete freedom of creativity united both progressive and conservative romantics. In romanticism, the basis of the conflict is the discrepancy between dream and reality. Poets and writers sought to express their dream. They created poetic images that corresponded to their ideas about the ideal.
The main principle of constructing images in romantic works was the personality of the poet. The romantic poet, according to V. A. Zhukovsky, looked at reality "through the prism of the heart." So, civil poetry was for him deeply personal poetry.
Romantics were interested in everything bright, unusual and unique. romantic heroes- exceptional personalities, embraced by generosity and violent passion. The setting in which they were depicted is also exceptional and mysterious.
Romantic poets discovered for literature the wealth of oral folk art, as well as literary monuments of the past, which had not previously received a correct assessment.
The rich and complex spiritual world of the romantic hero required broader and more flexible artistic and speech means. “In the romantic style, the emotional coloring of the word, its secondary meanings, begin to play the main role, while the objective, primary meaning recedes into the background.” Various figurative and expressive means of artistic language are subject to the same stylistic principle. Romantics prefer emotional epithets, vivid comparisons, unusual metaphors.
Realism(from lat. realis - real) is an artistic direction in the literature and art of the 19th century, which is characterized by the desire for a truthful depiction of reality.
Only from the second half of the XVIII century. we can talk about the formation of Russian realism. Literary criticism defined the realism of this period as enlightenment realism with its citizenship, interest in man, a tendency towards democratization, with tangible features of a satirical attitude to reality.
In the formation of Russian realism, D. I. Fonvizin, N. I. Novikov, A. N. Radishchev, I. A. Krylov and other writers. In satirical magazines I. Novikova, in comedies by D. I. Fonvizin, in "Journey from Petersburg to Moscow" by A. N. Radishchev, in the fables of I. A. Krylov, the focus is "not just facts, people and things, but those patterns that acted in life."
The main feature of realism is the writer's ability to give "typical characters in typical circumstances." Typical characters (images) are those in which the most important features characteristic of a particular historical period for a particular social group or phenomenon.
A new type of realism emerged in the 19th century critical realism, depicting the relationship between man and the environment in a new way. Writers "rushed" to life, discovering in its ordinary, habitual course the laws of the existence of man and society. The subject of deep social analysis was the inner world of man.
Thus, realism (its various forms) has become a broad and powerful literary movement. The true "ancestor of the Russian realistic literature who gave perfect examples of realistic creativity, "was Pushkin, the great people's poet. (For the first third of the 19th century, the organic coexistence of different styles in the work of one writer is especially characteristic. Pushkin was both a romantic and a realist, just like other outstanding Russian writers.) The great realists wereL. Tolstoy and F. Dostoevsky, M. Saltykov-Shchedrin and A. Chekhov.
Homework.
Answer the questions :
How is romanticism different from classicism and sentimentalism? What are the moods of romantic characters? Tell us about the formation and literary origins of Russian realism. What is the nature of realism? Tell us about its different forms.
Bolshoi Theater in Warsaw.
Classicism(fr. classicisme, from lat. classicus- exemplary) - artistic style and aesthetic direction in the European art XVII-XIX centuries
Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual features. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).
Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined features, mixing of which is not allowed.
As a certain direction, it was formed in France in the 17th century. French classicism asserted the personality of a person as highest value being, freeing him from the religious-ecclesiastical influence. Russian classicism not only adopted the Western European theory, but also enriched it with national characteristics.
Painting
Nicholas Poussin. "Dance to the Music of Time" (1636).
Interest in the art of ancient Greece and Rome emerged as early as the Renaissance, which, after centuries of the Middle Ages, turned to the forms, motifs and plots of antiquity. The greatest theorist of the Renaissance, Leon Batista Alberti, back in the 15th century. expressed ideas that foreshadowed certain principles of classicism and were fully manifested in the fresco of Raphael " Athenian school» (1511).
The systematization and consolidation of the achievements of the great Renaissance artists, especially the Florentine ones led by Raphael and his student Giulio Romano, made up the program of the Bologna school of the late 16th century, the most characteristic representatives which were the Carracci brothers. In their influential Academy of Arts, the Bolognese preached that the path to the heights of art lay through a scrupulous study of the heritage of Raphael and Michelangelo, imitation of their mastery of line and composition.
At the beginning of the 17th century, young foreigners flocked to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent among them was the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on topics ancient antiquity and mythology, which gave unsurpassed examples of geometrically accurate composition and thoughtful correlation of color groups. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antiquity landscapes of the environs of the "eternal city" streamlined the pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing peculiar architectural scenes.
Jacques-Louis David. "The Oath of the Horatii" (1784).
Poussin's coldly rational normativism aroused the approval of the court of Versailles and was continued by court painters like Lebrun, who saw in classic painting an ideal artistic language to praise the absolutist state of the "sun king". Although private customers preferred various options Baroque and Rococo, the French monarchy kept Classicism afloat by funding academic institutions such as the School of Fine Arts. The Rome Prize provided the most talented students with the opportunity to visit Rome for a direct acquaintance with the great works of antiquity.
The discovery of “genuine” ancient painting during the excavations of Pompeii, the deification of antiquity by the German art critic Winckelmann, and the cult of Raphael, preached by the artist Mengs, who was close to him in terms of views, in the second half of the 18th century breathed new breath into classicism (in Western literature this stage is called neoclassicism). The largest representative of the "new classicism" was Jacques-Louis David; his extremely laconic and dramatic artistic language served with equal success to promote the ideals of the French Revolution ("Death of Marat") and the First Empire ("Dedication of Emperor Napoleon I").
In the 19th century, classicism painting enters a period of crisis and becomes a force holding back the development of art, not only in France, but also in other countries. Artistic line David was successfully continued by Ingres, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, he often turned to romantic stories With oriental flavor("Turkish baths"); his portrait work is marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (like, for example, Karl Bryullov) also imbued classically shaped works with the spirit of reckless romanticism; this combination is called academism. Numerous art academies served as its breeding grounds. IN mid-nineteenth century, against the conservatism of the academic establishment, the young generation gravitating towards realism rebelled, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers.
Sculpture
Antonio Canova. Cupid and Psyche(1787-1793, Paris, Louvre)
The impetus for the development of classical sculpture in the middle of the 18th century was the works of Winckelmann and archaeological excavations of ancient cities, which expanded the knowledge of contemporaries about ancient sculpture. On the verge of baroque and classicism, such sculptors as Pigalle and Houdon fluctuated in France. Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the field of plastic art in the heroic and idyllic works of Antonio Canova, who drew inspiration mainly from the statues of the Hellenistic era (Praxiteles). In Russia, Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos gravitated toward the aesthetics of classicism.
Public monuments, which became widespread in the era of classicism, gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize the military prowess and wisdom of statesmen. Loyalty to the ancient model required the sculptors to depict models naked, which was in conflict with accepted moral standards. To resolve this contradiction, the figures of modernity were initially depicted by sculptors of classicism in the form of naked ancient gods: Suvorov - in the form of Mars, and Polina Borghese - in the form of Venus. Under Napoleon, the issue was resolved by moving to the image of contemporary figures in antique togas (such are the figures of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the Kazan Cathedral).
Bertel Thorvaldsen. "Ganymede Feeding Zebes' Eagle" (1817).
Private customers of the era of classicism preferred to perpetuate their names in tombstones. The popularity of this sculptural form was facilitated by the arrangement of public cemeteries in the main cities of Europe. In accordance with the classical ideal, the figures on tombstones, as a rule, are in a state of deep rest. Sculpture of classicism is generally alien jerky movements, external manifestations emotions such as anger.
Late, Empire classicism, represented primarily by the prolific Danish sculptor Thorvaldsen, is imbued with a rather dry pathos. The purity of lines, the restraint of gestures, the impassivity of expressions are especially valued. In the choice of role models, the emphasis shifts from Hellenism to the archaic period. Religious images are coming into fashion, which, in the interpretation of Thorvaldsen, make a somewhat chilling impression on the viewer. The tomb sculpture of late classicism often bears a slight touch of sentimentality.
Architecture
An example of British Palladianism is the London mansion Osterley Park (architect Robert Adam).
Charles Cameron. The project of decoration in the Adam's style of the green dining room of the Catherine Palace.
The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as the standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by the regularity of planning and the clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.
The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture so much that they applied them even in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladio's precepts with varying degrees of fidelity up to mid-eighteenth century.
Andrea Palladio. Villa Rotunda near Vicenza
By that time, the surfeit of the "whipped cream" of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Born by the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, the baroque thinned into rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and arts and crafts. For solving major urban problems, this aesthetics was of little use. Already under Louis XV (1715-74) urban planning ensembles in the “ancient Roman” style were being built in Paris, such as Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble laconicism" is already becoming the main architectural trend.
The most significant interiors in the style of classicism were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In the interpretation of Adam, classicism was a style that was hardly inferior to rococo in terms of sophistication of interiors, which gained him popularity not only among democratic-minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of a constructive function.
A fragment of the ideal city of Arc-et-Senan (architect Ledoux).
The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Saint-Genevieve church in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of Napoleonic Empire and late Classicism. In Russia, Bazhenov was moving in the same direction as Soufflet. The Frenchmen Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boulet went even further towards the development of a radical visionary style with an emphasis on the abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little use; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by modernists of the 20th century.
The architects of Napoleonic France drew inspiration from the majestic images of military glory left by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form triumphal arch Carruzel and Vendôme Column. In relation to the monuments of military greatness of the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term "imperial style" - Empire style is used. In Russia, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov showed themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. In Britain, the Empire corresponds to the so-called. "Regency style" (the largest representative is John Nash).
Valhalla - a repetition of the Athenian Parthenon by the Bavarian architect Leo von Klenze.
The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban development projects and led to the ordering of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many county towns were replanned in accordance with the principles of classic rationalism. Such cities as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have turned into genuine open-air museums of classicism. The whole space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia was dominated by a single architectural language dating back to Palladio. Ordinary building was carried out in accordance with the albums of standard projects.
In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, classicism had to get along with romantically colored eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neogothic. In connection with the discoveries of Champollion, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“Neo-Greek”), which was especially pronounced in Germany and the United States. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel are building up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon. In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque.
Artists:
Romanticism
Ideological and artistic direction in European and American spiritual culture. 18 - 1st floor. 19th centuries As a style of creativity and thinking, it remains one of the main aesthetic and worldview models of the 20th century.
Origin. Axiology
Romanticism arose in the 1790s. first in Germany and then spread throughout the Western European cultural region. His ideological ground was the crisis of rationalism of the Enlightenment, the artistic search for pre-romantic trends (sentimentalism, "storming"), the Great French Revolution, German classical philosophy. Romanticism is an aesthetic revolution that, instead of science and reason (the highest cultural authority for the Enlightenment), puts the artistic creativity of the individual, which becomes a model, a "paradigm" for all kinds cultural activities. The main feature of romanticism as a movement is the desire to oppose the burgher, "philistine" world of reason, law, individualism, utilitarianism, the atomization of society, a naive belief in linear progress - new system values: the cult of creativity, the primacy of imagination over reason, criticism of logical, aesthetic and moral abstractions, a call for the emancipation of a person’s personal powers, following nature, myth, symbol, the desire for synthesis and discovery of the relationship of everything with everything. Moreover, rather quickly, the axiology of romanticism goes beyond art and begins to determine the style of philosophy, behavior, clothing, as well as other aspects of life.
Paradoxes of Romanticism
Paradoxically, romanticism combined the cult of the personal uniqueness of the individual with the attraction to the impersonal, elemental, collective; increased reflectivity of creativity - with the discovery of the world of the unconscious; play, understood as the highest meaning of creativity, with calls for the introduction of the aesthetic into “serious” life; individual rebellion - with dissolution in the folk, tribal, national. This original duality of romanticism is reflected in his theory of irony, which elevates to the principle the non-coincidence of conditional aspirations and values with the unconditional absolute as the goal. The main features of the romantic style include the playful element, which dissolved the aesthetic framework of classicism; heightened attention to everything peculiar and non-standard (moreover, the special was not simply given a place in the universal, as the baroque style or pre-romanticism did, but the very hierarchy of the general and the individual was turned over); interest in myth and even understanding of myth as an ideal of romantic creativity; symbolic interpretation of the world; striving for the ultimate expansion of the arsenal of genres; reliance on folklore, preference for an image over a concept, aspirations for possession, dynamics for statics; experiments in synthetic unification of the arts; aesthetic interpretation of religion, the idealization of the past and archaic cultures, often resulting in social protest; aestheticization of everyday life, morality, politics.
Poetry as a Philosopher's Stone
In a polemic with the Enlightenment, romanticism formulates a program for rethinking and reforming philosophy in favor of artistic intuition, in which at first it is very close early stage German classical philosophy (cf. the theses of the “First Program of the System of German Idealism” - a sketch belonging to Schelling or Hegel: “The highest act of reason is an aesthetic act Poetry becomes the mentor of mankind; there will be no more philosophy We must create a new mythology, this mythology must be the mythology of reason "). Philosophy for Novalis and F. Schlegel - the main theorists German romanticism- a kind of intellectual magic, with the help of which a genius, mediating nature and spirit, creates an organic whole from disparate phenomena. However, the absolute of romance restored in this way is interpreted not as an unambiguous unitary system, but as a constantly self-reproducing process of creativity, in which the unity of chaos and cosmos is achieved unpredictably every time. new formula. The emphasis on the playful unity of opposites in the absolute and the inalienability of the subject from the picture of the universe built by him makes the Romantics co-authors of the dialectical method created by German transcendentalism. Romantic “irony” with its method of “turning inside out” any positivity and the principle of denying the claims of any finite phenomenon to universal significance can also be considered a variety of dialectics. From the same attitude follows the preference of romanticism for fragmentation and “conciseness” as ways of philosophizing, which ultimately (along with criticism of the autonomy of reason) led to the demarcation of romanticism from German classical philosophy and allowed Hegel to define romanticism as the self-affirmation of subjectivity: "the true content of the romantic is the absolute inner life, and the corresponding form is spiritual subjectivity, comprehending its independence and freedom."
A new look at the inner world
The rejection of the Enlightenment axiom of rationality as the essence of human nature led romanticism to a new understanding of man: the atomic integrity of the “I”, which was obvious to past eras, was called into question, the world of the individual and collective unconscious was discovered, the conflict of the inner world with the person’s own “nature” was felt. The disharmony of personality and its alienated objectifications was especially richly thematized by symbols. romantic literature(a double, a shadow, an automaton, a doll, and finally, the famous Frankenstein, created by the imagination of M. Shelley).
Understanding past eras
In search of cultural allies, romantic thought turns to antiquity and gives its anti-classical interpretation as an era of tragic beauty, sacrificial heroism and magical comprehension of nature, the era of Orpheus and Dionysus. In this respect, romanticism immediately preceded the revolution in the understanding of the Hellenic spirit carried out by Nietzsche. The Middle Ages could also be viewed as a congenial, "romantic" culture par excellence (Novalis), but in general, the Christian era (including modernity) was understood as a tragic split between the ideal and reality. , the inability to harmoniously reconcile with the finite world of this world. The romantic experience of evil as an inescapable universal force is closely connected with this intuition: on the one hand, romanticism saw here the depth of the problem, from which the Enlightenment, as a rule, simply turned away, on the other hand, romanticism, with its poetization of everything that exists, partially loses the ethical immunity of the Enlightenment against evil. The latter explains the ambiguous role of romanticism in the birth of the totalitarian mythology of the 20th century.
Impact on science
Romantic natural philosophy, having updated the Renaissance idea of man as a microcosm and introduced into it the idea of similarity between the unconscious creativity of nature and the conscious creativity of the artist, played a certain role in the development of natural science in the 19th century. (both directly and through scientists - adherents of early Schelling - such as Carus, Oken, Steffens). Humanitarian sciences also receive from romanticism (from the hermeneutics of Schleiermacher, the philosophy of language Novalis and F. Schlegel) an impulse significant for history, cultural studies, and linguistics.
Romanticism and religion
In religious thought, romanticism can be divided into two directions. One was initiated by Schleiermacher (Speech on Religion, 1799) with his understanding of religion as an internal, pantheistically colored experience of "dependence on the infinite." It significantly influenced the formation of Protestant liberal theology. Other presented general trend late romanticism to orthodox Catholicism and the restoration of medieval cultural foundations and values. (See the work of Novalis "Christianity, or Europe", 1799, programmatic for this trend).
Stages
The historical stages in the development of romanticism were the birth in 1798-1801. the Jena circle (A. Schlegel, F. Schlegel, Novalis, Tiek, later Schleiermacher and Schelling), in the bosom of which the main philosophical and aesthetic principles of romanticism were formulated; appearance after 1805 of the Heidelberg and Swabian schools literary romanticism; publication of the book by J. de Stael "On Germany" (1810), with which the European glory of romanticism begins; the widespread spread of romanticism within Western culture in the 1820s-30s; crisis stratification of the romantic movement in the 1840s, 50s. into factions and their merging with both conservative and radical currents of "anti-burgher" European thought.
Romantic philosophers
The philosophical influence of romanticism is noticeable primarily in such an intellectual trend as the "philosophy of life." The works of Schopenhauer, Hölderlin, Kierkegaard, Carlyle, Wagner the theorist, Nietzsche can be considered a peculiar offshoot of romanticism. The historiosophy of Baader, the constructions of the “wise men” and Slavophiles in Russia, the philosophical and political conservatism of J. de Maistre and Bonald in France were also fed by the sentiments and intuitions of romanticism. Neo-romantic in nature was the philosophizing of the symbolists con. 19- beg. 20th century Close to romanticism is the interpretation of freedom and creativity in existentialism. The most important representatives of romanticism in art In the visual arts, romanticism was most clearly manifested in painting and drawing, less clearly in sculpture and architecture (for example, false Gothic). Majority national schools Romanticism in the visual arts developed in the struggle against official academic classicism. Romanticism in music developed in the 1920s. 19th century influenced by the literature of romanticism and developed in close connection with it, with literature in general (turning to synthetic genres, primarily to opera and song, to instrumental miniatures and musical programming). The main representatives of romanticism in literature are Novalis, Jean Paul, E. T. A. Hoffman, W. Wordsworth, W. Scott, J. Byron, P. B. Shelley, V. Hugo, A. Lamartine, A. Mitskevich, E. Poe, G. Melville, M. Yu. Lermontov, V. F. Odoevsky; in music - F. Schubert, K. M. Weber, R. Wagner, G. Berlioz, N. Paganini, F. Liszt, F. Chopin; in the fine arts - the painters E. Delacroix, T. Gericault, F. O. Runge, K. D. Friedrich, J. Constable, W. Turner, in Russia - O. A. Kiprensky, A. O. Orlovsky. I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, M. P. Mussorgsky, M. S. Shchepkin, K. S. Stanislavsky
Classicism (French classicisme, from Latin classicus - exemplary) is an artistic style and aesthetic trend in European culture of the 17th-19th centuries.
Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which found a vivid expression in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual features. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined features, mixing of which is not allowed.
Romanticism (fr. romantisme) is an ideological and artistic trend in European and American culture of the late 18th century - the first half of the 19th century. It is characterized by the assertion of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the image of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature. It spread to various spheres of human activity. In the 18th century, everything that was strange, picturesque, and existing in books, and not in reality, was called romantic. At the beginning of the 19th century, romanticism became the designation of a new direction, opposite to classicism and the Enlightenment.
Classicism of the 18th - early 19th centuries (in foreign art history it is often referred to as neoclassicism), which became a pan-European style, was also formed mainly in the bosom of French culture, under the strong influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. In architecture, new types of exquisite mansion, front public building, an open city square (Gabrielle Jacques Ange and Souflot Jacques Germain), the search for new, unordered forms of architecture, the desire for harsh simplicity in the work of Ledoux Claude Nicolas anticipated the architecture of the late stage of classicism - Empire. Civic pathos and lyricism combined in plastic (Pigalle Jean Baptiste and Houdon Jean Antoine), decorative landscapes (Robert Hubert). The courageous drama of historical and portrait images inherent in the works of the head of French classicism, the painter Jacques Louis David. In the 19th century, the painting of classicism, despite the activities of individual major masters, such as Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, degenerates into officially apologetic or pretentiously erotic salon art. international center European classicism In the 18th and early 19th centuries, Rome became dominated by the traditions of academism with their characteristic combination of nobility of forms and cold idealization (German painter Anton Raphael Mengs, sculptors: Italian Canova Antonio and Dane Thorvaldsen Bertel). The architecture of German classicism is characterized by the severe monumentality of the buildings of Karl Friedrich Schinkel, for the contemplative-elegiac mood of painting and plastic art - portraits of August and Wilhelm Tischbein, sculpture by Johann Gottfried Schadow. In English classicism, the antiquities of Robert Adam, the Palladian park estates of William Chambers, the exquisitely austere drawings of J. Flaxman and the ceramics of J. Wedgwood stand out. Own versions of classicism developed in the artistic culture of Italy, Spain, Belgium, Scandinavian countries, USA; an outstanding place in the history of world art is occupied by Russian classicism of the 1760s-1840s.
manticism as a method and direction in artistic culture was a complex and controversial phenomenon. In every country he had a bright national expression. Romantics occupied various public and political positions in society. They all rebelled against the results of the bourgeois revolution, but they rebelled in different ways, since each had his own ideal. But with all the many faces and diversity, romanticism has stable features:
All of them came from the denial of the Enlightenment and the rationalistic canons of classicism, which fettered the creative initiative of the artist.
They discovered the principle of historicism (enlighteners judged the past anti-historically for them there was "reasonable" and "not reasonable"). We saw human characters in the past, shaped by their time. Interest in the national past gave rise to a mass of historical works.
Interest in folk culture, folklore. In the era of romanticism, collections of folk songs, fairy tales (tales of the brothers Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm) were published.
Interest in a strong personality who opposes himself to the whole world around him and relies only on himself. - Attention to the inner world of man.
Developing in many countries, romanticism everywhere acquired a bright national identity due to local historical traditions and conditions.
Education
It is generally believed that neoclassicism is a consequence of the saturation that the baroque produces to a certain extent. In the case of the Canary Islands, it is appropriate to make some clarifications. From the second half of the XVIII century. the presence at the Court of an elite from the archipelago provided a cultural connection between the privileged minority of the Canary Islands and the erudite circles of Madrid, which was reflected in the renewal of the views of the elite towards cosmopolitanism. On the other hand, remoteness from the mother country influenced the fact that there was little ideological control in the Canary Islands; texts prohibited in the rest of the state were freely distributed here. To this must be added the mobility of the few but influential inhabitants of the islands, who came into contact with new trends that appeared outside of Spain, strengthening this connection upon returning from travel. Circles and societies (especially the Economic Societies of Friends of the Country) were the "engine" of change not only in the artistic, but also in the scientific, economic, agricultural and industrial aspects.
However, the Enlightenment has always been a minority culture in relation to the religious tradition consistent with the ideas of the Inquisition, which were influenced by the lower clergy and religious orders associated with the Baroque tradition.
Moreover, the Enlightenment themselves were far from accepting a truly academic reading of the neoclassical style; they were unable to base their ideas on theoretical and ideological convictions. In most cases, this was an imitation of what was called the neoclassical style. This is evidenced by the controversy regarding the order of the columns that Juan Nepomuseno Verdugo wanted to use in the future Cathedral of Los Remedios in La Laguna. The Marquis of Villanueva del Prado approved the decision to remove the base, as was done in Paris. And the senior priest Pedro Bencomo demanded to leave them, because Ventura Rodriguez did so. Basically, in the absence of a theoretical basis and firm convictions, we can talk about the existence of neoclassical architecture in the Canary Islands, but not as a product of ideology, but almost always as a result of imitation. One of the first buildings in this style is the Cathedral of Santiago de los Caballeros (Santiago de los Caballeros) in Galdara with a successful spatial solution, but its facade is more reminiscent of mannerism than the new trends of neoclassicism.
And yet, some architects at this time are already beginning to use new techniques. Diego Nicolás Eduardo, the builder who laid the foundations for the change of tastes, completed one of the finest buildings of the time. Creating a sketch of the future cathedral in Las Palmas, he was inspired by the Granada Cathedral - the work of Cano in the Baroque style. However, he decided to follow the path of abandoning all kinds of decorations and adopting strict and simple forms.
Of course, such creators were in the minority. The architectural panorama of the Canary Islands was mainly limited to the works of masters who did not have professional titles. There was a group of conservative orientation, their knowledge of the new style was very superficial. One example is Juan Pérez de Leon, who oversaw the construction of the Church of San Sebastian (Iglesia de San Sebastián) in Agüimes, designed by Diego Nicolás Eduardo. Where the architect showed his creativity, poor-quality execution of the work is found.
Military engineers played a decisive role in changing the style, but they worked only in certain places on the archipelago, where their influence is felt.
Of the great masters of that time, four names can be named, and none of them had an official title. The most important figure is Diego Nicolás Eduardo, who studied at the Academy of San Fernando and at the Artillery Academy of Segovia. He was well aware of the theories that existed at that time (there was a treatise of Tosca in his library) and applied them with complete freedom of embodiment. So, to emphasize the uniqueness of the interior of the cathedral in Las Palmas, he used the techniques of Atlantic Gothic.
Clarity of ideas distinguishes an architect like Juan Nepomuseno, a military man who studied at the Academy of Engineers. He played significant role in the construction of the facade of the cathedral in La Laguna, and a little later he completed the original and elegant facade of the building of the Municipality (Ayuntamiento) of the city.
Antonio José Eduardo and José Lujan Pérez are authors of less elegant works. The first, whose work can be seen in Galdar, brings to our attention too academic examples, the result of a shallow acquaintance with the architecture of that time. The second architect was primarily a sculptor; he finished the west facade cathedral Gran Canaria in a very meager solution. Choirs are interesting in his performance - in the freedom of compositional architectural thought, the influence of his teacher Eduardo is read.
Due to the trend towards the liberalization of the islands, at this time, the work of national-level professionals appeared in the local architectural panorama. The most famous example is, without a doubt, Ventura Rodriguez's project for the reconstruction of the Concepción Cathedral (Templo de la Concepción) in La Orotava. Also noteworthy are Manuel Martin and Joaquin Rodriguez, the designers of the new Cathedral in Candelaria (Templo de Candelaria). Probably the first also belongs to the magnificent project of the chapel for the La Laguna Cathedral created a little earlier. Together with the updates of the drawings, in which the influence of Ventura Rodriguez is guessed, the question of the location of the choir on the choir (one of the most controversial topics during the Enlightenment) becomes relevant at this time.
None of the above projects came to fruition, but worse, the planners had to destroy them, depriving subsequent generations of the necessary knowledge of the unbroken line of development and style continuity. Two educational centers have been established in the Canary Islands. One of them was formed by the commander of the army, the Marquis de la Cañada, in 1779 in Santa Cruz de Tenerife to train mid-level officials; due to the remoteness of the islands, they performed the functions of engineers, possessing initial knowledge. The second center was created with the support of the Academy by the priest of the Cathedral of the Canaries, Jeronimo de Roo, in 1782. Thanks to him, the islands received considerable autonomy in the field of construction, and the Academy met its needs in terms of the distribution of official titles in the field of public construction. Both schools did not last long: the first closed after five years, the second a year earlier, but then it turned into a Drawing School, which existed under the protection of the king and the Academy.
In Santa Cruz de Tenerife, the situation developed in such a way that the leadership of the engineering corps was located here. This was the reason for the presence of military engineers in the city, who over the years forged strong bonds of friendship with local families. Sometimes thanks to this, they were engaged in their professional construction activities with “non-military facilities”. An example is the friendship between Matias Rodriguez Carta and the engineer Francisco Rodriguez Gonzalez, which most likely influenced the architectural features of the Carta Palace (Palacio de Carta) in La Candelaria Square (Plaza de La Candelaria).
Houses such as the Almacenes El Globo house (Casa de los Almacenes El Globo) are different from traditional schemes. Undoubtedly, the influence of neoclassicism is here. The builders did not see the need to use Greco-Roman elements to implement new rational forms based on rigor and asceticism. This is what distinguishes the work of military engineers. If the work with stone in the construction of residential buildings in the Canary archipelago was not an innovation, then the very type of its use is changing. Broad links are now being established between the form of a building and its functions. Naturally, there remains the need to create different canons and comply with new rules. External monumentality is also associated with the laws of rationalism. Over the years, traditional architecture has become an example of rationalism.
On La Palma, despite long stay there is Juan Nepomuceno Verdugo, the key figure in the change of tastes is not him, but Presbyter José Joaquín Martín de Justa. The education he received in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria at the beginning of the 19th century allowed him to become intimately acquainted with the trends of the Enlightenment. Upon his return to Santa Cruz de La Palma, a versatile educated, he became here one of the best designers and initiators of the process of architectural renewal. His first work - the house of Jose García Carballo (Casa de Jose García Carballo) in 1811 represents neoclassical architecture: three levels, a pediment as almost the only decoration and much more ... Otherwise, his work is characterized by modesty (stone cornices, windows with gentle arches ...) ; traditional elements (balcony, Venetian window) are not on the main facade.
During the reconstruction of the church of El Salvador (El Salvador), the usual ornament was not used at all. Second major representative of classicism on La Palma, Presbyter Manuel Diaz, together with Martin de Justa, removed most of the Flemish and Baroque altarpieces, instead placing modest examples of neoclassicism in the church. The most striking stylistic changes can be observed in the transformation of the vaults of the cathedral: the Mudéjar style roof is becoming a thing of the past.
In the first half of the XIX century. Santa Cruz de La Palma is slowly turning into Big City in neoclassical style. Those residents who do not rebuild their houses change their facades; there is a tendency to straight straight lines. In general, this trend was in line with fashion trends. The interior decoration of the houses remained the same: the traditional Canarian courtyard was preserved. Only in late XIX century, with the advent of the use of new materials, such as iron and glass, alternatives to traditional methods appear in some houses.
Romantic classicism
The appearance of Manuel de Oraa in the Canaries in 1847 marked a change in the methods of building traditional dwellings. He received his first assignments in Santa Cruz de Tenerife and, as a municipal architect, he was able to innovate construction without any problems. Big role also played his personal authority, originality of personality and extensive connections with the upper class of Canarian society. If we trace the chronological order of Oraa's works, it is not always possible to speak of a direct progressive line of style evolution.
Romantic classicism- the style that prevailed in architecture in the second half of the 19th century had its own characteristics and variations in the Canary Islands:
In Santa Cruz de Tenerife:
The facade is a very modest work, with a minimum of ornamentation and austerity.
In some areas, special elements of the facade are distinguished (window and doorways).
The use of hewn stone becomes permanent, which before that was rather accidental.
To Las Palmas de Gran Canaria:
More expressive facades than in Tenerife, using ornamentation.
Fine work with stone, which even made it possible to call the masons of Gran Canaria to other islands.
Unhewn stone ornaments as decorative forms.
Common trends can be identified on both islands:
The canon of the execution of door and window openings acquires a unique harmony and stretches vertically.
The use of iron becomes ubiquitous - both in the structure of the building and for decoration.
Examples of the architecture of this time represent both adherence to strict academicism and free variations. Among the great engineers of the archipelago, there is a conceptual maturity, which gave great freedom in work.
In the second half of the XIX century. in the largest Canarian cities, there is a phenomenon of complete renovation in the field of building construction. Architecture enters the path of service to society; design features are now closely linked to the public function of the building. The new administrative center of the Canary archipelago - Santa Cruz de Tenerife - requires the construction of buildings that would house various government institutions and officials. The new bourgeoisie, in turn, also requires the creation of various centers. The new status of the city attracts a whole stream of migrants here, and also allows the implementation of new building models.
Therefore, in less than 40 years, all the necessary types of public institutions that meet the requirements of the bourgeoisie, as well as new administrative centers, appear here. In addition, a large-scale construction of private houses is unfolding - both on personal initiative and thanks to various construction organizations.
Las Palmas de Gran Canaria is a large city that also competed for the title of capital. Gradually, the infrastructure reaches the appropriate level here, and in some respects, in subsequent years, Las Palmas even surpasses Santa Cruz de Tenerife. At this time, the face of the city is changing, largely thanks to the engineer Manuel de Leon and Falcon. A successful policy leads to the renewal of the city: avenues, markets, theaters, squares, bridges and countless buildings appear on personal and administrative initiative.
On La Palma, the second period of classicism was not so brilliant. Romantic classicism it lacked those qualities that were inherent in architecture in the previous 50 years. In general, the masters supported their characteristic style, however on a smaller scale. The style turned out to be already outdated and repeated the old options without offering anything new. However, there were also transformations in the canon of door and window openings, and stone was used less and less, it was replaced by wood.
The most striking figure of this period is Felipe de Paz Perez. Self-taught, he built a considerable number of buildings on La Palma and even participated in the construction of the building of the Municipality (Ayuntamiento) in Santa Cruz de La Palma. The problem was that he had to withstand the onslaught of masters who were unfairly awarded titles and merits.
The quality of Felipe de Paz's work can be seen in the way he modified the sketches of the capital's market square, Plaza del Mercado, by Luis B. Pereira. Felipe de Paz proposed a very free classicism, close to the ideas of Manuel de Oraa. Later, in his work, classicism was replaced by eclecticism, as can be seen in the design of the Hospital de Dolores (Hospital de Dolores).
