Composition is usually understood as the syntagmatic organization of plot elements. Thus, the paradigmatic isolation of the elements of a given level must precede the study of their syntagmatic consistency.
However, as we have seen, the singling out of plot elements depends on the main oppositions, and these latter, in turn, can be singled out only within the limits of a pre-limited semantic field(selection of two mutually complementary subsets is possible only if there is a pre-given universal set). It follows from this that the problem of the frame - the boundary separating artistic text from non-text - is one of the fundamental ones.
The same words and sentences that make up the text of a work will be divided into plot elements in different ways, depending on where the line is drawn that delimits the text from the non-text. What is located on outside this feature is not included in the structure of this work: it is either not a work, or another work. For example, in theater XVIII V. benches of especially privileged spectators were installed on the stage so that the audience in the hall could simultaneously see both the spectators and the actors on the stage. But only the actors got into the artistic space of the play, located inside the bounding box, so the viewer saw the audience on the stage, but did not notice them.
The frame of a painting may be a work of art in its own right, but it is on the other side of the line that bounds the canvas, and we do not see it when we look at the painting. At the same time, as soon as we begin to consider the frame as some kind of independent text, for the canvas to disappear from the field of our artistic vision, it turns out to be on the other side of the border. A curtain painted specially for a given play is included in the text; a curtain that does not change does not.
The curtain of the Moscow Art Theater with a flying seagull for each of the plays staged on the stage of the theater, separately, is outside the text. But as soon as we present all the theater productions as a single text (this is possible if there is an ideological and artistic commonality between them), and individual plays as elements of this unity, and the curtain will be inside art space. It will become an element of the text, and we will be able to talk about its compositional role.
An example of the impenetrability of the frame for semantic connections is the famous Hermitage "Penitent Mary Magdalene" by Titian. The painting is set in a masterful frame depicting two half-naked men with curled mustaches. The combination of the plot of the picture and the plot of the frame generates comic effect. However, this connection does not occur, because, considering the picture, we exclude the frame from our semantic field - it is only the embodied border of the artistic space, which constitutes an integral universe.
As soon as we pay attention to the frame as an independent text, the picture turns into its border and in this sense does not differ from the wall. The frame of the picture, the stage of the stage, the boundaries of the screen constitute the boundaries of the artistic world, closed in its universality.
Associated with this are certain theoretical aspects art as a modeling system. Being spatially limited, a work of art is a model of a limitless world.
The frame of a picture, the ramp in a theater, the beginning and end of a literary or musical work, the surfaces that delimit a sculpture or architectural structure from the space artistically excluded from it - all these are different forms of the general regularity of art: a work of art is the final model of an infinite world. Just because a work of art, in principle, is a reflection of the infinite in the finite, the whole in the episode, it cannot be built as a copy of the object in its inherent forms. It is a reflection of one reality into another, that is, always a translation.
Let us give only a single example, taken not from the sphere of art, showing the connection between the boundary problem and the conventionality of the language for displaying an object in some other way.
The initial position of Lobachevsky's geometry is the negation of the fifth postulate of Euclid, according to which through a point that does not lie on a given line, it is impossible to draw more than one line parallel to the given one. The reverse assumption completely breaks with the usual visual representations and, as it seems, by means of "common" (in Lobachevsky's terminology) methods of geometry on a plane cannot be depicted. However, it is worth, as the German mathematician Klein did, to plot a circle on an ordinary Euclidean plane and begin to consider only its interior, excluding the circle and the outside region from consideration, as it will be possible to visually model the positions of Lobachevsky's geometry.
It is enough to look at the drawing to make sure that inside the circle (which, in its delimitation, acts as a reflection of the entire Lobachevsky space, and the chords drawn in it are substitutes for straight lines), Lobachevsky’s position on the possibility of drawing two straight lines parallel to the third through one point (here - the chord ) performed. It is the nature of the delimitation of space that allows us to consider ordinary geometry inside a circle as a model of Lobachevsky's geometry.
This example is directly related to the problem of the frame in art. Modeling a limitless object (reality) by means of a finite text, a work of art with its space replaces not a part (or rather, not only a part) of the depicted life, but all this life in its entirety. Each individual text simultaneously models both a particular and a universal object.
Thus, the plot of Anna Karenina, on the one hand, reflects a certain narrowing object: the fate of the heroine, which we can well compare with the fate of the individual people around us in everyday reality. This object, endowed own name and all other signs of individuality, is only a part of the universe displayed in art. Next to the fate of the heroine in this sense, you can put countless other destinies. However, the same plot, on the other hand, is a reflection of another object that tends to expand without limit.
The fate of the heroine can be imagined as a reflection of the fate of every woman of a certain era and a certain social circle, every woman, every person. Otherwise, the vicissitudes of her tragedy would arouse purely historical interest, and for the reader, who is far from the special tasks of studying customs and life, which have already become the property of history, they would simply be boring.
It is possible, therefore, to single out two aspects in the plot (and, more broadly, in any narrative). One of them, in which the text models the entire universe, can be called mythological, the second, reflecting some episode of reality, can be called plot. It can be noted that literary texts related to reality only according to the mythological principle are possible. These will be texts that display everything not through individual episodes, but in the form of pure essences, such as myths.
However, literary texts constructed only according to the plot principle are apparently impossible. They will not be perceived as a model of some object, perceived as the very object. Even when “literature of fact”, Dziga Vertov’s chronicle or “cinema-verite” seek to replace art with pieces of reality, they inevitably create models of a universal nature, mythologize reality, if only by the very fact of editing or not including certain aspects of the object in the field of view of the movie camera.
Thus, it is the mythological aspect of the text that is associated primarily with the frame, while the plot tends to destroy it. A modern literary text is built, as a rule, on the conflict between these tendencies, on the structural tension between them.
In practice, this conflict is most often perceived as a dispute between the idea that a work of art is a conditional display of an object (“generalization”), as both romantics and realists XIX century, or the object itself (“thing”), as, for example, the futurists and other trends in the art of the 20th century associated with avant-garde thought.
The aggravation of these disputes, that is, in fact, disputes about the nature of convention in art, will invariably exacerbate the problem of the boundaries of the text. A baroque statue that does not fit on a pedestal, Stern's "Sentimental Journey" defiantly ending with "not the end", Pirandello's plays or Meyerhold's productions that move the action beyond the ramp, "Eugene Onegin" that ends without a plot denouement, or "a book about a fighter" "Vasily Terkin", which opposes clerical "cases" just like life, with its infinity :)
Without beginning, without end
Not good for the job! -
all this different forms conflict between the mythological and plot aspects of the text.
What has been said is especially significant in connection with the problem of the frame in a verbal artistic text. Frame literary work consists of two elements: beginning and end. The special modeling role of the categories of the beginning and end of the text is directly related to the most common cultural models. So, for example, for a very wide range of texts, the most general cultural models will give a sharp emphasis on these categories.
For many myths or texts early medieval the increased role of the beginning as the main boundary will be characteristic. This will correspond to the opposition of the existing as created to the non-existent as uncreated. The act of creation - creation - is the act of beginning. Therefore, there is something that has a beginning. In this regard, the assertion of one's land as culturally, historically, and state-existing in medieval chronicles will often take the form of a narrative about the "beginning" of one's land. Thus, the Kievan chronicle defines itself as follows:
“This is the story of bygone years, where did the Russian land come from, who in Kyiv began the first princedom, and where did the Russian land come from.” The Tale of Bygone Years itself is a story about beginnings. Not only lands, but also clans, surnames exist if they can point to their original.
The beginning has a defining modeling function - it is not only evidence of existence, but also a replacement for the later category of causality. To explain a phenomenon means to point out its origin. So, the explanation and evaluation of any fact, for example, the murder of a brother by a prince, will be carried out in the form of an indication of who first committed this sin. A similar system of ideas will be reproduced by Gogol in The Terrible Revenge, where every new crime appears not as a consequence of the original sin, but as this growing first act of murder itself. Therefore, all the crimes of the descendants increase the sin of the founder of events.
This can be compared with Grozny's statement that Kurbsky, by his flight abroad, destroyed the souls of his - already deceased - ancestors. It is significant that we are talking not about descendants, but about ancestors. The text is directed not to the end, but to the beginning. The main question is not “what ended”, but “where did it come from”.
One should not think that this type of "mythologization" is characteristic only of "The Tale of Bygone Years" or, say, "The Tale of Woe-Misfortune", where fate " good fellow” is preceded by this introduction:
And at the beginning of this perishable age
Created heaven and earth
God created Adam and Eve...
... Ino evil human tribe:
In the beginning it went rough...
The desire to explain the phenomenon by pointing to its origins is characteristic of a very wide range of quite modern cultural models, for example, the evolutionary-genetic stage of science, which replaced, say, the study of language as a structure with the history of language, and the analysis of the functions of a literary text in a collective - with searches for the origin of texts. The foregoing does not call into question the importance of such studies, but only indicates their connection with certain types of delimitations of cultural models.
Models of culture with a high mark of the beginning are connected in a certain way with the appearance of texts delimited from only one, the initial point of view.
You can name texts that are considered "delimited" if they have a beginning. The end is fundamentally excluded - the text needs to be continued. These are the chronicles. These are texts that cannot end. If the text breaks off, then either its successor must be found, or the text begins to be perceived as incomplete, defective. By getting "end", the text becomes incomplete. Fundamentally open character have lyrics such as topical noel-type couplets that must go on as events unfold. Zhukovsky's Singer in the Camp of Russian Warriors and Voeikov's House of Lunatics were built on the same principle.
One could also point to works published in chapters, issues, which are continued by the author after part of the text has become known to the reader: “Eugene Onegin” or “Vasily Terkin”. It is characteristic that at the time of the transformation of the “collection of motley chapters” published over a number of years into a book, a single text, Pushkin did not give it signs of “finality”, but weakened the function of the beginning: in the seventh chapter he gave a parody of the classic introduction to poem (“at least late, but there is an introduction”), Pushkin emphasized the “beginninglessness” of the poem. Terkin also experienced a similar transformation.
Features of the same constructive principle can be seen in the composition of series of short stories, novels or films, continued because the authors cannot decide to “kill” the hero already beloved by the reader or exploit the commercial success of the initial works.
Since it is indisputable that a modern literary journal is to a certain extent perceived as a single text, here we are also dealing with a structure that gives a fixed beginning and an “open” end.
If the beginning of the text is in one way or another connected with the modeling of the cause, then the end activates the sign of the goal.
From eschatological legends to utopian teachings, we can trace the wide representation of cultural models with a marked end, with a sharply reduced modeling function of the beginning.
Due to the varying degree of marked beginning or end in cultural models different type birth or death are put forward as the main moments of being, plots such as "The Birth of a Man", "Three Deaths", "The Death of Ivan Ilyich" arise. It is the strengthening of the modeling function of the end of the text (a person's life, as well as its description, are perceived as special texts containing information of great importance) that causes a protest against considering the end as the main carrier of meaning. There is an oxymoron in this system the expression "meaningless end", "meaningless death", plots dedicated to the meaningless death, the unsolved destiny of the characters:
Sing about what he didn't do
Why did he hurry away from us ...
(A. A. Blok)
In Lermontov's letter to M.A. Lopukhina dated August 28, 1832, two poems are placed side by side. One speaks of the desire to abandon the meaningful and purposeful existence of man for the sake of the elemental life of nature:
Why I wasn't born
This blue wave -
…………………
I would not be afraid of the torment of hell,
Paradise would not be seduced;
…………………
Would be free from birth
Live and end my life! -
In another, there is an open polemic with the idea that the meaning of life lies at its end:
End! How does this word sound?
How many - few thoughts in it!
With this, one could compare the emphasis on the modeling function of the end in each of the short stories of A Hero of Our Time and its mutedness in the text of the novel as a whole. Pechorin's personal fate "ends" long before the end of the text: the death of the hero is reported in the "preface" to his "journal", that is, in the middle of the text, and the novel ends, as it were, in mid-sentence: "I could not get anything more from him: he does not like metaphysical discussions at all. The poem "Sashka" is deliberately created as a passage that has no end.
Meanwhile, it is obvious that, for example, for modern everyday thinking, the modeling function of the end is very significant (cf. the desire to read books from the end or “peek” at the end).
This is especially significant in connection with the problem of the frame in a verbal artistic text. The frame of a literary work consists of two elements - the beginning and the end. Here is an example of the end function as a text frame. In the literary work of the new time, certain plot situations are associated with the concept of "end". So, Pushkin in the passage “You advise for Onegin, others ...” defined typical “end” situations:
You advise for Onegin, friend,
To take me back to my autumn leisure.
You tell me: he is alive and unmarried.
So the story is not over yet...
This does not rule out that the text may defiantly end with "no end" (Stern's Sentimental Journey) and that certain types of cliché violations may, in turn, turn into clichés.
Consider the most clichéd representation of the “end” of a text, such as a happy end. If the hero dies, we perceive the work as ending tragically. If he marries, makes a great discovery, or improves the performance of his enterprise, as having a happy ending. At the same time, it is not without interest that the experience of the end of the text as happy or unhappy includes completely different indicators than if it were a genuine event.
If we are told about a real historical fact that took place in the last century, we are told that the main character has already died at the present time, we will not perceive this message as sad: we know in advance that the person who acted a hundred years ago is now cannot be dead. However, it is worth choosing the same event as an object artwork how the situation changes radically. The text ends with the victory of the hero - and we perceive the story as having a happy ending, the text brings the story to his death - and our impression changes.
What is the matter here?
In a work of fiction, the course of events stops at the moment when the narrative breaks off. Then nothing happens, and it is understood that the hero, who is alive at this moment, will not die at all, the one who has achieved love will not lose it, the winner will not be defeated in the future, because any further action excluded.
This reveals the dual nature art model: displaying a single event, it simultaneously displays the whole picture of the world, talking about tragic fate heroines - tells about the tragedy of the world as a whole. Therefore, a good or bad ending is so significant for us: it testifies not only to the completion of a particular plot, but also to the construction of the world as a whole.
It is significant that in cases where the final episode becomes the starting point for a new narrative (the end of life for a Christian is the beginning of the afterlife; the happy end of The Barber of Seville becomes the starting dramatic situation for The Marriage of Figaro, etc.), it is clearly recognized as new story. The frequent endings of narrative plots such as: “but this is a completely different story”, “but more on that next time” are not accidental.
However, in modern narration, the categories of the beginning and end of the text play another role. Starting to read a book, watching a movie or a play in the theater, the reader or viewer may not be fully aware or completely unaware of the system in which the text offered to him is encoded. He, of course, is interested in getting the most complete idea of the genre, style of the text, those typical artistic codes that he should activate in his mind in order to perceive the text. He draws information about this, mainly at the beginning.
Of course, this question, sometimes turning into a struggle between the text and the cliché, can stretch over the entire work, and very often the end acts as an “anti-beginning”, a point, parodic or in some other way rethinking the entire text coding system. This, in particular, achieves the constant de-automation of the codes used and the maximum reduction in the redundancy of the text.
And yet, the coding function in the modern narrative text is relegated to the beginning, and the plot-“mythologising” function is relegated to the end. Of course, since rules exist in art to a large extent in order to create the possibility of their artistically significant violation, then in this case, too, this typical distribution of functions creates the possibility of numerous variant deviations.
Lotman Yu.M. The structure of the artistic text - M., 1970
In the story "After the Ball" L.N. Tolstoy restores the past to show that his horrors live in the present, only slightly changing their forms, that the past - with its social inequality, cruelty, inhumanity - holds Russia in a tenacious embrace, and that the renewal of life is urgently needed.
The composition of a work is understood as the arrangement and interconnection of its parts, the order in which events are presented. It is the composition that helps the reader to better understand the intention and idea of the author, the thoughts and feelings that inspired him.
The story is based on two scenes opposed to each other. IN overall structure The second scene of the work (the massacre of the soldier) obviously has a special meaning, because it is not for nothing that the work is called “After the Ball”.
There are two narrators in the work: one is the one who introduces the reader to Ivan Vasilyevich, the other is Ivan Vasilyevich himself. The first cannot be identified with Tolstoy: this is, apparently, a young man from the company of those people whom Ivan Vasilyevich addresses and argues with (the conversation was “between us”, “we asked”, “it's you, today's youth ... well, yes you won't understand"). Before us, in essence, a kind of story within a story. It is impossible to identify with Tolstoy and Ivan Vasilyevich. Therefore, the position of the author should be judged only on the basis of a thoughtful analysis of the story.
Another compositional feature is the peculiar role of the introduction. It, as it were, sets the reader up for the perception of subsequent events and introduces the narrator.
Interestingly, the narrative begins immediately, even suddenly, without a detailed exposition. And it also ends without any conclusions. Before us is, as it were, a fragment of life: here is an incident that happened a long time ago, but answers the questions of modern reality, as the writer says.
The story "After the Ball" is compositionally divided into two parts, completely different in mood.
The first is devoted to the description of the ball - bright, cheerful, unforgettable. The protagonist of the story is young and handsome, in love and enjoys the favor of the lovely girl Varenka. Bright and joyful feelings overwhelm the young man, making the first part of the story festive and wonderful.
The second part of the story, both in events and in mood, is an absolute contrast to the first. The scene of the terrible punishment of the soldier extremely shocked the young man, in whose soul there was no place for evil and violence, cruelty. Reality, harsh reality burst into the young man's dreams, sweeping away joy and happiness. It turned out that next to the holiday and fun there is tragedy, misfortune, injustice.
The composition of the story gives the reader the opportunity to feel all the horror, all the injustice of what is happening, precisely because it is shown after the amazing, full of love and the joys of the ball. By arranging the events in this order, L. N. Tolstoy helped us better and deeper understand the idea and meaning of the story.
Creativity of which poet of the second half of the 20th century is interesting to you and why? (On the example of at least two poems by one of the poets of your choice.)
Poems entered the life of Nikolai Rubtsov very early, at about 18-19 years of age.
The "village" theme became important for the poet after entering the Literary Institute, he turned to this topic already being mature man.
In the early 60s, Rubtsov said with humor:
... I suffered like an infection,
Love to big cities!
Nikolai Rubtsov offers his vision of the city. In 1962, he wrote very interesting poems "Away". The image of the big city, Petersburg, is revealed in a very peculiar way. In Rubtsov's perception, Petersburg is the city of Dostoevsky:
Slum yard. Figure on the corner.
It seems that this is Dostoevsky.
And the yellow light in the window without a curtain
It burns, but does not dispel the mist.
In his poems, there are often special characteristics of the village. For example, “The whole mother of Russia is a village”; “And this village seemed to me / Something holiest on earth...”
Rubtsov has practically no description of the beauty of nature. Nature exists in inseparable connection with a person. It does not occur to him to separate nature and man, in this case harmony seems to be the most correct and reasonable way of existence. In the bosom of nature, the poet indulges in philosophical reflection: nature completely “understands” and “accepts” him. Emotional condition the poet is perceived depending on the state of nature, depending on the season. Rubtsov humanizes nature, draws a parallel between himself and the world around him. For example, he sees himself as a living "expression of autumn."
... I'm with a bowed head.
Like the living expression of autumn,
Imbued with her longing and friendship
I wander along the slopes of my homeland ...
Nature can be presented as a bearer of historical meaning. The existence of a people, its past and present, as well as the awareness of oneself, one's true purpose - all this is a connection between nature and man. Rubtsov has amazing poem"About the Moscow Kremlin":
In your destiny - O Russian land!
In your wilderness with forests and hills,
Where a vague sadness blows the elder,
Where was everything: humility and pride
Forever heard, forever illuminated,
The Moscow stronghold has been approved!
In the verses "Hello, Russia ..." we again encounter a mention of "old times". It appears inextricably linked with the heavenly and earthly spaces.
... The whole expanse, heavenly and earthly,
Breathed in the window of happiness and peace,
And the glorious breath of antiquity,
And rejoiced under the showers and heat!
The significance of Nikolai Rubtsov's work is enormous. His poems not only make you think about the place of man in the world, about the meaning human life, but also allow you to feel a special mood, make it possible to forget about the hustle and bustle of everyday life and think about true human values.
In modern literary criticism, the term frame (or frame) is used in two related meanings.
Firstly, its use emphasizes the special status of a work of art as an aesthetic reality, opposed to the primary reality. Like a frame in painting, a stage in a theater, a black screen in a movie, the frame of a literary work is one of the main conditions for creating an artistic illusion. A device that emphasizes this - always implied - frame may be exposure of convention, such as, for example, introducing information about the author’s biography and the history of the work’s creation, reflections on characters, etc. into a literary text. Such deviations from the plot are numerous in Pushkin’s Eugene Onegin: “Onegin, my good friend, / Was born on the banks of the Neva ...", "...For the time being of my novel / I finished the first chapter...". Here the narrator is present not only as a voice, he appears as a person, emphasizing his function as an intermediary between the world where his characters “live” (Onegin, Tatyana, Zaretsky) and the intended readers (addressee).
However, in the text of a work there is always another "frame" - those components that graphically separated from the main text of the work and whose main function is to create a reader's attitude to his aesthetic perception. The most comprehensive list of framework text components includes:
Frame text can be like external(referring to the whole work), and internal(forming the beginning and end of its parts: chapters, songs, etc.).
The equivalent of a frame text can be the placement of a work in the heading of a magazine (“Prose”, “Poetry”) or a thematic collection (“Moscow Story”, “Day of Poetry”).
Compound framework components in the text of a work is largely determined by its genre. The most important of them for epic and dramatic works, lyrics " large forms”, lyric epic - title. In poems, it is often absent (in this case, its function is taken over by the first line). The text of the play is hard to imagine without a list of characters and an indication of who owns the corresponding remarks. The composition of the framework text is also influenced by literary conventions that prevail in one or another historical era development national literature. So, in Western European literature of the XIV-XVIII centuries. solemn and magnificent dedications (often of a purely formal, etiquette nature) are very common. Until the middle of the XIX century. there is a strong tradition to preface works with lengthy prefaces, which explain the author's intention and the features of its implementation. A kind of identification mark of romantic poems - epigraphs that create a certain emotional mood in the reader.
In the process of literature development, not only the composition of the frame text changes, but also its functions. At first, each of its components performs primarily a service role (the title “names” the text and informs the reader about its content, the notes comment on it, etc.). But with the complication of the principles of artistic thinking, the previously "neutral" components of the text become more and more aesthetically significant, "drawn" into figurative system works participate in the formation of meaning. The connection of the frame components with the main text of the work in some cases turns out to be so strong that with their removal the work loses a significant part of its semantic and figurative potential (for example, the preface "From the Publisher" to Pushkin's "The Tales of the Late Ivan Petrovich Belkin", the author's notes in "Life and opinions of Tristram Shandy, gentleman” L. Stern.
The most important "timeless" function of the frame text is structure-forming. The presence of frame components gives the work the character of completeness, emphasizes its external and internal unity. Their organizing role is especially evident in works with a complex composition, including stylistically heterogeneous components (for example, inserted genres). Thus, the story of the misadventures of a knight-errant and his faithful squire, short stories about shepherds in love and beautiful shepherdesses, the sonnets of Amadis of Gaul and his horse Barbieki would simply cease to be perceived by the reader as parts of one whole, if they were not united by Cervantes under the common title - “The Cunning Hidalgo Don Quixote of La Mancha. In the author's cycles, where each individual text (lyrical poem, story or essay) can be considered as a relatively independent work, it is the presence of a common “frame” that most clearly reveals the interconnection of all parts, their subordination to a single plan (“Mirgorod” by Gogol, lyrical cycles, books: “Free iambs” by A. Blok, “My sister is life” by B. Pasternak).
Framework components emphasize dialogical the nature of the work, its appeal to the perceiving subject. This is most clearly revealed in the initiations. Big role in establishing contact between the reader and the book as a whole, it belongs to the heading complex, which creates a certain setting for the perception of the work.
But the literary text, functioning both as a separate work and as part of a single whole called Literature, enters into "dialogical relations" not only with the reader, but also with other texts. Epigraphs (most of which are quotations), genre subtitles (implying the presence of a certain literary series) emphasize the openness of the boundaries of the text, its correlation (sometimes through irony and denial) with the works of other authors and other eras.
Krzhizhanovsky about the poetics of titles and other components of the frame text.
These are excerpts from his book, which Chernets herself did
A dozen or two letters, leading thousands of characters of the text, are usually called the title. The words on the cover cannot but communicate with the words hidden under the cover. Not only that: the title, since it is not separated from a single book body and since it, in parallel with the cover, encloses the text and meaning, has the right to pretend to be the main thing of the book.
The title is limited by area. Moreover: the signs of titular blat, from century to century, are drawn together, naturally condensing the phraseology.
... In most cases, the name of the author can be excluded from the concept of "title" only artificially. The fact is that the writer's name, as it becomes famous, turns from its own into a common noun, thereby participating in the denunciation, i.e. the naming of the book; having settled down among the titles, the name, as it were, receives from them a heading power and a special predicative meaning: to Augustine, Rousseau, Leo Tolstoy, in contrast to the writers of a series of books, whose titles, often very long, also began with the word "Confession", it is unnecessary to add to it anything… except a name.
The original title page is untitled. The book is conceived as if self-written - it is curious that even the philosopher of a rather late time, I. Fichte, who published his first work unsigned, repeatedly returns to the statement that "the subject must expound itself, using the writer as its own body."
Indeed: initially the author is only an "organ" in the body of the book, and his name, if it appears on the title page, then somewhere in the end of the title, squeezed in small letters. Alias In. Annensky's "Nobody" is only a reminiscence of those times when the writer was nobody, and did not even claim a dozen letters in the title. True, a few gigantic names - Aristotle, Augustine - serve as a shelter for many nameless, hiding inside colossus names, like the Achaeans inside Trojan horse, - only to connect their writings with the old philosophy and theological tradition.
In Russian, for example, the old original and translated book prevails, pushing aside individual names, general designation religion, people, class, sometimes even cities, in which the author includes himself, dissolving as a particular in general: "Advice to my soul, the creation of a Christian woman yearning for her mountainous homeland. Last ed. 1816." Or "Plow and plow, written by a steppe nobleman. M.1806". In the latter case, when the class or estate of the author is closely associated with the theme, the theme forces the sometimes half-disclosed name to full disclosure.
The pseudonym at first tries to hide the author, but, obeying common destiny name on the title page, gradually evolves from concealing, latent forms to forms of the possible full disclosure of the future "potentate" (The history of the author's name - all this is almost an adventurous biography of the "potentate", only gradually revealing its potency). Its protective color gradually changes to a signal color. If at first the "potentate" of the book uses a pseudonym as a gray cloak that hides it, then later he puts on a pseudo-name over his name, like bright and cleverly tailored clothes, sometimes even emphasizing certain features. After all, the simple feeling of the title should remind the heading that the title is a blat, where all the letters count, and the letters of his name can only be admitted after passing through comprehension: on the title page, which should be a solid meaning, the condensation of the text into a phrase, pseudo- the names are not pseudonyms, but "real" names that do not literally express anything. The young writers Glikberg and Bugaev, who turned themselves into Black and White at the request of the titular blat, quite rightly used the place allotted by the printing house for names to convey that inner illumination, more precisely, that genuine name that sounds through all their lines.
Bookish speech, laconizing the phraseology of life, giving it in the press, achieves this through logical and artistic selection. Thus, the heading technique has to deal not with verbal raw material, with artistically processed material: what has passed through a larger sieve of text must once again be filtered through the title page. It is clear: this kind of art, aimed at art, the completion of art requires great sophistication and complex craftsmanship.
15. The world of the heroes of the work in the epic, drama and lyric-epic. Its conditionality and system.
Character (lat. persona - person, face, mask) - a type of artistic image, the subject of action, experience, statements in the work. It is synonymous with such concepts as a literary hero, a character, but is the most neutral. The concept of a character is the most important in the analysis of epic and dramatic works, where it is the characters that form the basis objective world. In the epic, the narrator (narrator) can also be a hero if he participates in the plot (Grinev in " Captain's daughter"). In the lyrics, which primarily recreate the inner world of a person, the characters are depicted in fragments, in close connection with the experiences of the lyrical subject. Illusion own life characters in the lyrics in comparison with the epic and drama is drastically weakened. No matter how broadly one interprets the subject of knowledge in fiction, its center is “human essences, i.e. primarily social. In relation to epic and drama, these are characters (Greek character - a sign, a distinctive feature), i.e. socially significant features that are manifested with sufficient clarity in the behavior of people. Highest Degree characteristic - type (Greek typos - imprint, imprint). The character appears, on the one hand, as a character, on the other, as artistic image, embodying a given character with varying degrees of aesthetic perfection.
In accordance with their status in the structure of the work, the character and character have different evaluation criteria. Unlike characters that evoke an ethically colored attitude towards themselves, characters are evaluated primarily from an ethical point of view, i.e. depending on how brightly, fully they embody the characters.
Various components and details of the objective world act as means of revealing the character in the work: the plot, speech characteristics, portrait, costume, interior… Out-of-stage heroes are distinguished by special savings in image resources. The character sphere of literature consists not only of isolated individuals, but also collectible heroes(their prototype is the choir in ancient drama).
Another way to study a character is exclusively as a participant in the plot, a character (but not as a character).
The basis of the objective world of epic and dramatic works is usually a system of characters (consists of elements - characters and structures - "a relatively stable way of connecting elements) and the plot. The character system is a certain correlation of characters.
To understand the main problematic character, secondary characters can play a big role, shading the various properties of his character. To create a system of characters, you need at least two characters, but the equivalent of this can be a bifurcation of a character, which marks different beginnings in a person, as well as his transformation (into an animal, an insect - Kafka's "Transformation").
The principle of "economy" in building a system of characters can be combined with the use of doubles or collective images, crowd scenes, in general with the multi-heroic nature of works.
Epic and drama have much in common and are opposed to lyrics. In epic and drama, a world of heroes is created, which is located in a different time and space than the author and reader. The most important thing in the world of the hero is the system of characters and the system of events. The subjective organization of speech is the difference between epic and drama. Drama is characterized by the speech of the characters. Here it is impossible not to touch on the issue of off-stage time and space, because the characters in their speech inform us about off-stage and pre-stage events. (example - "Woe from Wit": Maxim Petrovich - the century of Catherine, a Frenchman from Bordeaux).
The organization of the speech of the characters in the drama
Dialogue between servants or minor characters about the main characters (maybe about off-stage events). The dialogue is gradually replacing the monologue - it is more lifelike, natural. Types of dialogues: dialogue-duel (in a drama based on an acute conflict, when one of the characters must win - the rhetorical orientation of a dramatic remark).
Monologue
Solitary monologue on stage. A form of psychological analysis, an example is Katerina's monologue. A form of informing the reader about off-stage events, an example is Osip's monologue in The Government Inspector.
The ratio of the narrator's speech and the speech of the characters is different. epic work maybe without the speech of the characters. The speech can be bordered by the narrator's commentary, which is extremely important and can negate the speech of the characters.
Who is speaking? Narrator's point of view. Typology of narrators:
3. I am a narrator (1st person narrator) - an eyewitness to all events, writes about my impressions. The self-consciousness of this narrator is close to the author (an example is Turgenev's Notes of a Hunter). I-narrator can express a completely alien consciousness - a tale as a form of narration (example - Leskov "The Enchanted Wanderer")
4. The speech of the narrator (3rd person), but the speech of the character is conveyed - a "sliding" point of view (example - "War and Peace" - the speech of the author, who conveys the state of Pierre - through the eyes of Pierre, from his point of view). Formally - the 3rd person, the author-narrator is almost omniscient, but in fact this is a "sliding" point of view.
The lyrical subject is autopsychological or role-playing. The object of experiencing the lyrical subject is his own "I" - in this case he is called a lyrical hero. Subjects that can be an object of perception, experience of a lyrical subject (and a lyrical hero), by analogy with epic and dramatic works, can be called characters. The most important way the creation of images-characters in the lyrics are their nominations, often characterizing not so much the characters as the attitude of the lyrical subject towards them. The term nomination, which came from linguistics (lat. nomina - name), denotes the process of naming and its result (name). There are primary nominations (names, nicknames, pronouns), directly naming the character, and secondary, indicating his qualities, signs. The combination of various nominations is the way to create an image. Ontologically opposed to epic and drama in the aggregate. The main subject of knowledge in lyrics is the inner world of a person, his consciousness. Inner world can be described regardless of what led to such a state (“Both boring and sad”) Universal character: each reader can imagine himself in moments of spiritual adversity. The lyrics are far from naturalism. Stereotypical expressions of state are of little interest to anyone. However, the outside world of the lyrics also reflects. Lyrics:
1. Meditative (meditatio - reflection). "And boring and sad"
2. Descriptive (landscape). The lyrical subject exists as a voice (I may not be here)
3. Descriptive-narrative (lyrepic). The main thing is still feelings. "Reflections at the front door" Nekrasov. Nekrasov gravitates towards lyre-epic, he has characters.
Who is speaking? At lyrical works sometimes there is no title Lyric:
1. Autopsychological - the lyrical subject is psychologically close to the author, conveys his system of values. Most of the lyrics are autopsychological. (but this was not the case right away - Lomonosov and Kantemir do not yet have it). Derzhavin is one of the first to introduce biographical and personal details. "Lyrical diary" of the poet
In modern literary criticism, the term frame used in two related meanings. First, its use emphasizes the special status of a work of art as aesthetic reality, opposed to the primary reality, is one of the main conditions for creating an artistic illusion.
However, in the text of a work there is always another "frame" - those components that are graphically separated from the main text of the work and whose main function is to create a reader's attitude to his aesthetic perception. The most comprehensive list of framework text components includes: name (pseudonym) author, title, subtitle, dedication, epigraph(s), preface (introduction, introduction)(all these components of the "beginning" of the text are collectively referred to as header complex); copyright notes, copyright afterword, internal titles, constituents table of contents designations time And places creating a work. In dramatic works, frame text also includes author's remarks, stage directions(including verbal decoration), a list of actors etc. Frame text can be either external(referring to the whole work), and internal(forming the beginning and end of its parts: chapters, songs, etc.). The equivalent of a frame text can be the placement of a work in the heading of a magazine (“Prose”, “Poetry”) or a thematic collection (“Moscow Story”, “Day of Poetry”).
In the process of literature development, not only the composition of the frame text changes, but also its functions. At first, each of its components performs primarily a service role (the title "names" the text and informs the reader about its content, the notes comment on it, etc.). But with the complication of the principles of artistic thinking, the previously "neutral" components of the text become more and more aesthetically significant, "drawn" into the figurative system of the work, and participate in the formation of meaning. The connection between the framework components and the main text of the work in some cases turns out to be so strong that with their removal, the work loses a significant part of its semantic and figurative potential (for example, the preface "From the Publisher" to Pushkin's "Tales of the late Ivan Petrovich Belkin", the author's notes in "Life and the opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman" by L. Stern, the system of internal titles in "The Intricate Simplicius Simplicissimus" by G. Grimmelshausen).
The most important "timeless" function of the frame text is structure-forming. The presence of frame components gives the work the character of completeness, emphasizes its external and inner unity. Their organizing role is especially evident in the works of complex composition, including stylistically heterogeneous components ("Decameron" by Boccaccio; "Don Quixote" by Cervantes). In the author's cycles, it is the presence of a common "frame" that clearly reveals the interconnection of all the parts that make up the literary ensemble (poems, stories, essays, etc.), their subordination to a single plan ("Essays by Boz" by C. Dickens; "Flowers of Evil" by C. Baudelaire). Frame components, as a rule, most clearly reveal the presence of the author in the work, his orientation towards a specific addressee. A major role in "establishing contact" between the reader and the book belongs to the heading complex and the author's prefaces, which create a certain attitude of perception. But a literary text, functioning both as a separate work and as a part of literature in general, enters into "dialogical relations" not only with the reader, but also with other texts. Allusive titles, epigraphs (most of which are quotations), genre subtitles (implying the presence of a certain literary series) emphasize the openness of the boundaries of the text, its correlation (sometimes through irony and denial) with the texts of other authors and other eras.
The most important aspect of studying a frame text is the intratext functions of each of its components.
Title: gives completeness, composure; forms in the reader pre-understanding text, maybe sod. information about raised in production. problems, main characters, time and place d-i, emots. evaluation of the hero, etc. Internal titles listed in the title. Arrange the text space of the book, separating and marking it with rel. completed fragments. Sometimes they carry an advertising f-th. There are plot, chronotopic, character, titles-comments. Author's name. Enriches the title of the text, introducing additional words into it. meanings (a complex of literary and cultural-historical associations in the mind of the reader). Alias. Signal f-I(speaking pseudonyms like M. Gorky *hint to biography*). Epigraph. Predictive function. Maybe message. about the main theme or idea of the product. Created intertextual connections. Foreword. (Not to be confused with prologue). Description of the creative principles implemented in the production. Preparing the reader for adequate reproduction. innovations. Controversy with criticism. A special group - artistic, yavl. part of the world production. (“From the publisher” in Belkin’s Tales). Afterword.(Not the same as epilogue). Functions are similar to the preface. In modern lit-re meetings. rarely. Notes. They do not have a strictly fixed position in the structure of the text. Main f-i - serve as an explanation to the text. May be replicas in lit. writer's disputes with criticism, create a special ironic. context, to create an external point of view that is different from the writer's.
The frame of the work is the collective name of the components surrounding the main text of the work. The beginning of the text, as a rule, opens with a heading complex, the most complete list of components of which includes: the name (pseudonym) of the author, title, subtitle, dedication and epigraphs). The text of the work can be provided with the author's preface (introduction, introduction), as well as notes printed either in the margins or at the end of the book. In addition to notes, the end of the text may include the author's afterword (conclusion, postscript), table of contents, as well as designation of the place and date of creation of the work. In plays, the frame text also includes a “side” text: a list of actors and stage instructions. The frame text can be either “external” (referring to the entire work) or “internal” (decorating the beginning and end of individual chapters, parts, songs).
Mandatory – the optionality of certain framework components is largely determined by the genre of the work. The most important of them for epic and dramatic works, the lyrics of "large forms", lyre epic is the title. In lyrical poems, it is often absent (in this case, its function is taken over by the first line). The text of the play is hard to imagine without a list of characters and an indication of who owns the corresponding remarks. The composition, functions and external design of the frame components vary significantly depending on the literary conventions prevailing in a particular era. So, in Western European literature of the 14th-18th centuries, solemn and magnificent dedications (often of a purely formal nature) are widespread. Until the middle of the 19th century, there was a stable tradition to preface works with lengthy prefaces, which explain the idea of the work and the features of its implementation. Epigraphs play an important role in the poetics of romanticism.
The presence of frame components gives the work the character of completeness, enhances its internal unity. Their organizing role is especially evident in works with a complex composition, including stylistically heterogeneous components (Decameron, 1350-53 by Boccaccio; Don Quixote, 1605-15, by Cervantes). In the author's cycles, it is the presence of a common “frame” that clearly reveals the interconnection of all the parts that make up the literary ensemble (poems, stories, essays, etc.), their subordination to a single plan (“Essays by Boz”, 1836, C. Dickens; “Flowers of Evil”, 1857 , C. Baudelaire). Frame components, as a rule, most clearly reveal the presence of the author in the work, his orientation towards a specific addressee. A major role in "establishing contact" between the reader and the book belongs to the heading complex and the author's prefaces, which create a certain attitude of perception. But the literary text, functioning both as a separate work and as part of literature in general, enters into "dialogical relations" not only with the reader, but also with other texts. Allusive titles, epigraphs (most of which are quotations), genre subtitles (implying the presence of a certain literary series) emphasize the openness of the boundaries of the text, its correlation (sometimes through irony and denial) with the texts of other authors and other eras.
The most important aspect of studying a frame text is the intratext functions of each of its components. At the same time, it is advisable to consider the frame components not separately, but in their connection with each other and with the main text of the work, since in the artistic whole, the functions they perform can be redistributed. So, author's digressions can serve as a kind of analogue of dedications and "metaliterary" prefaces (conversations with the reader in the main text: "The Story of Tom Jones, a Foundling", 1749, G. Fielding; "What is to be done?", 1863, N.G. Chernyshevsky) . Intertextual connections are emphasized not only by direct quotations (both in the epigraph and in the text), but also by allusions, borrowings at the level of the plot, the system of characters. Explanations of words and phenomena unfamiliar to the reader can be given both in notes and in prefaces, as well as within the main text.
Title
The title is the first, graphically highlighted, line of text., containing the "name" of the work. By “naming” and identifying, the title not only separates, delimits “its” text from all others, but also presents it to the reader. It communicates the main theme, idea or moral conflict works (“Fathers and Sons”, 1862, I.S. Turgenev; “One Hundred Years of Solitude”, 1967, G. Garcia Marquez), characters (“Madam Bovary”, 1857, G. Flaubert; “Buddenbrooks”, 1901, T. Mann), plot (“Double Error”, 1833, P. Merime), time and place of action (“Evening on the Eve of Ivan Kupala”, 1830, N.V. Gogol; “Petersburg”, 1913-14, A. Bely ) etc. The title may contain an emotional assessment of the characters or the events described, which is confirmed (“Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District”, 1865, N.S. Leskova) or, conversely, refuted by the course of the narrative (“The Idiot”, 1868, F.M. Dostoevsky). The title is one of the "strong positions" of the text. Even in superficially neutral titles, the presence of the author is always palpable. That is why the title becomes the first step for the attentive reader to interpret the work. The fate of the book largely depends on how well the title is chosen.
In aspect historical poetics obvious changes in the types of titles, their role in the "dialogue" between the author and the reader. For a long time, the title is not perceived as a significant component of the structure of the work and performs only the technical function of a "sign - designation" of the text (ancient Egyptian scrolls, sacred texts of the Ancient East). In the Middle Ages, especially with the advent of printing, the role of the title increases dramatically. Detailed titles with a detailed list of the twists and turns of the plot and the obligatory indication of the genre not only inform the reader of the maximum information about the content of the work, but also warn him in advance about “in what “artistic key” the narration will be conducted” (Likhachev D.S. Poetics ancient Russian literature). In the new literature, the title gradually loses its descriptiveness and didactics and becomes more aesthetically significant. For the prose of the 19th-20th centuries, figurative titles with complicated semantics (titles of allusions, symbols, metaphors) turn out to be the most characteristic: “The Glass Bead Game”, 1943, G. Hesse; "All the King's Men", 1946, R.P. Warren. In many cases, “the name of the author can only be artificially excluded from the concept of “title”” (Krzhizhanovsky): the writer’s name (if the author is known) and the complex of literary and cultural-historical associations associated with it in the minds of the reading public enrich the title of the work. The most common: titles: “memoirs”, “letters”, “stories” - acquire their significance only when combined with the names of their creators (“Letters to the Son”, 1774, F.D. Chesterfield; “The Story of My Life”, 1791- 98, G. Casanova). A special, "sign" form of a writer's name is a pseudonym.
Subtitle
subtitle it additional information about the work, placed immediately after the title. The appearance of subtitles is the result of the functional division of the descriptive title of the era of traditional genres. The general tendency to minimize the title structure leads to an increase in the figurative beginning in it and, as a result, the loss of general information content. The title comes to the aid of the subtitle, which assumes the function of the main carrier of subject-logical information about the text. As a rule, the author's subtitle informs the reader about the genre and stylistic features of the work ("Father of the Family. Comedy in prose", 1758, D. Diderot; "Eugene Onegin. A novel in verse", 1823-31, Pushkin). Often the traditional genre subtitle is used by the author to emphasize the innovation of the newly created work, its creative dispute with the established literary canon. Such outwardly neutral subtitles in the new context inevitably acquire an element of evaluativeness (“ The Cherry Orchard. Comedy”, 1904, A.P. Chekhov; "Shepherd and shepherdess. Modern Pastoral, 1971, V.P. Astafyeva). In addition to specifying the genre, the author's subtitle may contain information about the thematic composition of the work(“What you follow, you will find. The marriage of Balzaminov”, 1861, A.N. Ostrovsky), the source of the plot or the narrator (“White Nights. sentimental romance. From the Memoirs of a Dreamer", 1848, Dostoevsky), the author's interpretation of the described characters and events ("Vanity Fair. A novel without a hero", 1848, W. Thackeray).
Epigraph
Epigraph (the word comes from the Greek epigraphe, which means inscription in translation) is exact or modified quotation from another text, preceded by the whole work or part of it. The sources of epigraphs can be the texts of the different nature: aphoristics, works of fiction or sacred literature, oral folk art, official documents, memoirs, autoquotes. As a rule, lines taken “for an epigraph” (B. Pasternak's expression) perform a predictive function. Even before the reader gets acquainted with the text, they inform about the main theme or idea of the work, the expected plot moves, the characteristics of the characters, the emotional dominant (the novels of W. Scott, E. Hemingway). A work (or part of it) can be preceded by several epigraphs, each of which in its own way correlates with the main text (epigraphs to individual chapters of "Red and Black", 1831, Stendhal; "The French Lieutenant's Woman", 1969, J. Fowles). An epigraph is always a text within a text that has its own semantics and figurative structure. In some cases, it is completely self-sufficient (an epigraph-proverb, saying or aphorism), but more often it acts as a sign - a substitute for the quoted text. It links the newly created work to the source of the quote. One of the characteristic examples of such a connection is the connection of a work to a certain literary tradition (“Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage”, 1809-18, J. Byron; “ Last son liberties”, 1831, M.Yu. Lermontov). But the epigraph can also serve literary and polemical purposes(“Tales of Belkin”, 1830, Pushkin). Appearing in the era late Renaissance, epigraphs remained relatively rare until the end of the 18th century. Romantic writers introduced them into wide literary circulation at the beginning of the 19th century.
dedication
Dedication is an indication of a person to whom this work is intended or in honor of which this work is written. Originating in the era of antiquity, dedication "for many centuries was an almost obligatory" decoration "of the first page of any book (both artistic and scientific content). Solemn and wordy praise of an important person was a kind of tribute that the author paid to his patrons and patrons. Most of these dedications were frankly "protocol" in nature and rarely had independent artistic merit. At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, the semantics of initiations became much more complicated. Literary use includes dedications that are extremely generalized, symbolic in nature. Such, often pompous, dedications are parodied by Swift in the Dedicatory Letter to His Royal Highness the Prince of Seeds, which opens The Tale of the Tub (1704). Theorists of classicism use the text of the dedication to present their literary views (in the dedication to Don Sancho of Aragon, 1650, Corneille outlines to readers the features of the genre of "heroic comedy" he invented). Over time, dedications become more intimate, they become an expression of sincere friendship and cordial affection, often a special sign literary continuity(Turgenev dedicates "The Song of Triumphant Love", 1881, to Flaubert; A. Belyi's book of poems "Ashes", 1909, to N.A. Nekrasov).
Foreword
Preface is introductory word of the author, preceded by the main text of the work. According to its purpose the preface is different from the prologue(Greek prologos, which means - preface) - short description events preceding those about which in question in the work itself. Since the time of Rabelais, prefaces have been and still remain a popular form of presentation by the author of the creative principles directly implemented in the work. Acting as an innovator in a particular genre or, conversely, using a traditional plot or technique, the writer considers it necessary to prepare the reader for a change in the “horizon of expectation”, to adequately perceive the author’s innovation (“Author’s Preface” to the fairy tale “The Deer King”, 1762, K. Gozzi; "Introduction to the Novel, or List of Dishes at a Feast" in The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling, 1749, Fielding). In some cases, such conceptual prefaces turn out to be almost more significant in the history of literature than the works themselves (“Germain Lacerte”, 1865, by the Goncourt brothers; “The Picture of Dorian Gray”, 1891, O. Wilde). Forewords can be created after the publication of the work for the purpose of controversy with criticism. One of the prefaces-autocommentaries known in the history of literature is Corneille's "Forewarning" to the re-edition of the tragicomedy "Sid" (1637). Averting the attacks of the "academicians" from himself, the playwright justifies in it the legitimacy of some deviations from the rules of the "three unities". Sometimes the author precedes the text of the book with a story about the history of the creation of the work, about the sources of the plot and its transformation (“Ivanhoe”, 1820, W. Scott). A special group of prefaces is artistic prefaces, directly related to the figurative world of the work. As a rule, they are created by authors in order to introduce a fake narrator-mask (the preface "From the Publisher" in Pushkin's Tales of Belkin) or to present an "external" (often shocking reader) point of view (the preface signed by Ph.D. John Ray to " Lolita, 1955, V.V. Nabokova). Such hoax prefaces deliberately emphasize the distance between the real author and the aesthetic reality he creates, and often expose the author's irony and sarcasm.
The table of contents is internal title system. Like the “external” title, the form and functions of the table of contents, its role in the organization of the reader's perception in the process of the formation of literature have changed significantly. In the era of the story narrative literature(until the middle of the 19th century), the table of contents, as a rule, presented the reader with a sequential list of all the events described and often the author's commentary on them (Gulliver's Travels, 1726, Swift; Candide, 1759, Voltaire). The “expanded” table of contents, “highlighting” the most spectacular scenes, intrigued the reader, aroused his interest in reading the book and at the same time clearly conveyed the logic of the text construction. In the literature of the 19th and 20th centuries, the traditional function of the table of contents as a kind of guide to the text is noticeably weakening. From auxiliary, ordering internal structure component of the text, it becomes meaningful. A modern table of contents not only allows the reader to know in advance which topics are covered in this work and how they are connected into a single whole, but also often “enlarges the scale”, translates the narrative from plot plan into figurative and symbolic (“Hard Times”, 1854, Dickens; “Berlin. Alexanderplatz”, 1929, A. Döblin).
Afterword
Afterword is final word the author, which is printed after the main text of the work. Afterword should be distinguished from epilogue(Greek epilogos, which means afterword in translation) - stories about how the fate of the heroes developed after the events told in the main part of the work. Afterwords, as a rule, are not related to the plot side of the work and are often used by authors for "non-artistic purposes" - explaining their aesthetic or ethical views, polemics with criticism ("The Decameron", 1350-53, G. Boccaccio; the first part of "The Adventures of the Good Soldier" Schweik”, 1921-23, J. Hasek). In general, in terms of their functions, the afterwords are similar to the author's prefaces. They are extremely rare in modern literature.
Notes
notes it explanations graphically separated from the main text of the work, necessary, in the opinion of the author, for a better understanding of it. Unlike other frame components, notes do not have a strictly fixed position in the text structure. They can be located both at the end of the entire text or part of it in the form of a certain system (which allows them to be considered collectively as a kind of “microtext”) (“Satires”, 1729-31, A. Kantemira), and in the space of the book parallel to the text ( the so-called marginal commentary) (“The Tale of the Old Sailor”, 1798, S.T. Coleridge). The thematic composition of the notes and the functions they perform are extremely diverse. The main purpose of the author's commentary is to serve as an explanation to the text. The notes may contain information of a historical and ethnographic nature., linguistic commentary, references to documentaries or literary sources. However, the author's commentary may also pursue other goals. The presence of a commentary may indicate the presence in the text of an external point of view other than that of the narrator or lyrical hero (“The Fountain of Bakhchisaray”, 1821-23, Pushkin, where the notes reveal the “mismatch” between the romantic narrative and life realities). In satirical works, notes are used to create a special "ironic context" that enhances the polemical sharpness of the commented places ("The Virgin of Orleans", 1735, Voltaire; "The Tale of the Barrel", 1704, Swift).
