INTRODUCTION

Subject thesis"Features of the spatio-temporal organization of the plays of Botho Strauss".

Relevance and novelty works are that the German playwright, novelist and essayist Boto Strauss, representative new drama, practically unknown in Russia. One book has been published with translations of 6 of his plays ("So big - and so small", "Time and Room", "Ithaca", "Hypochondriacs", "Spectators", "Park") and an introductory word by Vladimir Kolyazin. Also in the dissertation work of I.S. Roganova, Strauss is mentioned as the author with whom the German postmodern drama begins. The production of his plays in Russia was carried out only once - by Oleg Rybkin in 1995 in the Red Torch, the play "Time and Room". Interest in this author began with a note about this performance in one of the Novosibirsk newspapers.

Target- identification and description of the features of the spatio-temporal organization of the author's plays.

Tasks: analysis of the spatial and temporal organization of each play; identification of common features, patterns in the organization.

object are the following plays by Strauss: "The Hypochondriacs", "So Big - and So Small", "Park", "Time and Room".

Subject are the features of the spatio-temporal organization of the plays.

This work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a bibliography.

The introduction indicates the topic, relevance, object, subject, goals and objectives of the work.

The first chapter consists of two paragraphs: the concept of artistic time and space, artistic time and artistic space in drama, the changes in the reflection of these categories that arose in the 20th century are considered, and part of the second paragraph is devoted to the influence of cinema on the composition and spatio-temporal organization of the new drama.

The second chapter consists of two paragraphs: the organization of space in plays, the organization of time. The first paragraph reveals such features of the organization as the closedness of space, the relevance of indicators of the boundaries of this closeness, the shift in emphasis from external to internal space - memory, associations, installation in the organization. In the second paragraph, the following features of the organization of the category of time are revealed: montage, fragmentation associated with the relevance of the motive of recollection, retrospectiveness. Thus, montage becomes the main principle in the spatio-temporal organization of the plays under study.

In the study, we relied on the work of Yu.N. Tynyanov, O.V. Zhurcheva, V. Kolyazina, Yu.M. Lotman, M.M. Bakhtin, P. Pavi.

The volume of work - 60 pages. The list of sources used includes 54 names.

CATEGORIES OF SPACE AND TIME IN DRAMA

SPACE AND TIME IN A ARTWORK

Space and time - categories that include ideas, knowledge about the world order, the place and role of a person in it, give grounds for describing and analyzing the ways of their speech expression and representation in the fabric of a work of art. Understood in this way, these categories can be considered as means of interpreting a literary text.

IN literary encyclopedia we will find the following definition for these categories, written by I. Rodnyanskaya: “artistic time and artistic space are the most important characteristics of an artistic image, organizing the composition of a work and ensuring its perception as an integral and original artistic reality. <…>Its very content [of the literary and poetic image] necessarily reproduces the spatio-temporal picture of the world (transmitted by indirect means of storytelling) and, moreover, in its symbolic and ideological aspect” [Rodnyanskaya I. Artistic Time and Artistic Space. http://feb-web.ru/feb/kle/Kle-abc/ke9/ke9-7721.htm].

In the space-time picture of the world, reproduced by art, including dramaturgy, there are images of biographical time (childhood, youth), historical, cosmic (the idea of ​​eternity and universal history), calendar, daily, as well as ideas about movement and immobility, about the relationship between past, present and future. Spatial pictures are represented by images of closed and open space, terrestrial and cosmic, really visible and imaginary, ideas about objectivity near and far. At the same time, any indicator, as a rule, a marker of this picture of the worlds in work of art acquires a symbolic character. According to D.S. Likhachev, from epoch to epoch, as the understanding of the changeability of the world becomes wider and deeper, the images of time become increasingly important in literature: writers are more and more clearly aware of the “variety of forms of movement”, “mastering the world in its time dimensions”.

Artistic space can be dotted, linear, planar or volumetric. The second and third can also have a horizontal or vertical orientation. Linear space may or may not include the concept of directionality. In the presence of this sign (the image of a linear directed space, characterized by the relevance of the sign of length and the irrelevance of the sign of width, in art is often the road), linear space becomes convenient. artistic language for modeling temporal categories (" life path”, “road” as a means of deploying character in time). To describe a point space, one has to turn to the concept of delimitation. Art space in literary work is the continuum in which the characters are placed and the action is performed. Naive perception constantly pushes the reader to identify artistic and physical space.

However, the idea that an artistic space is always a model of some natural space is not always justified. The space in a work of art models different connections of the picture of the world: temporal, social, ethical, etc. This can happen because in one or another model of the world the category of space is intricately merged with certain concepts that exist in our picture of the world as separate or opposite. However, there may be another reason: art model"space" of the world sometimes metaphorically assumes the expression of completely non-spatial relations in the modeling structure of the world.

Thus, the artistic space is a model of the world this author, expressed in the language of its spatial representations. At the same time, as often happens in other matters, this language, taken by itself, is much less individual and belongs to a greater extent to the time, era, social and artistic groups than what the artist says in this language - than his individual model of the world.

In particular, artistic space can be the basis for interpreting the artistic world, since spatial relationships:

They can determine the nature of the "resistance of the environment of the inner world" (D.S. Likhachev);

They are one of the main ways of realizing the worldview of the characters, their relationships, the degree of freedom / lack of freedom;

They serve as one of the main ways of embodying the author's point of view.

Space and its properties are inseparable from the things that fill it. Therefore, the analysis of artistic space and the artistic world is closely connected with the analysis of the features of the material world that fills it.

Time is introduced into the work by a cinematic technique, that is, by dividing it into separate moments of rest. This is a common technique in the visual arts, and none of them can do without it. The reflection of time in the work is fragmentary due to the fact that continuously flowing homogeneous time is not able to give a rhythm. The latter involves pulsation, condensation and rarefaction, deceleration and acceleration, steps and stops. Consequently, the visual means that give rhythm must have a certain dissection, with some of its elements holding attention and the eye, while others, intermediate, advancing one and the other from element to another. In other words, the lines that form the main scheme pictorial work, it is necessary to permeate or lower the alternating elements of rest and jump.

But it is not enough to decompose time into resting moments: it is necessary to link them into a single series, and this presupposes a certain internal unity of individual moments, which makes it possible and even necessary to move from element to element and, in this transition, to recognize in the new element something from an element that has just been abandoned. . Dismemberment is a condition for facilitated analysis; but the condition of facilitated synthesis is also required.

It can be said in another way: the organization of time is always and inevitably achieved by dismemberment, that is, by discontinuity. With the activity and synthetic nature of the mind, this discontinuity is given clearly and decisively. Then the synthesis itself, if it can only be within the power of the spectator, will be extremely full and sublime, it will be able to embrace great times and be full of movement.

The simplest and at the same time the most open method of cinematic analysis is achieved by a simple sequence of images whose spaces physically have nothing in common, are not coordinated with each other and are not even connected. In essence, this is the same cinematographic tape, but not cut in many places and therefore does not in the least condone the passive linking of images to each other.

An important characteristic of any art world is statics/dynamics. In its embodiment, the most important role belongs to space. Statics assumes time to be stopped, frozen, not turning forward, but statically oriented towards the past, that is, there can be no real life in a closed space. Movement in a static world has the character of "mobile immobility". Dynamics is living, absorbing the present into the future. The continuation of life is possible only outside of isolation. And the character is perceived and evaluated in unity with his location, he, as it were, merges with space into an indivisible whole, becomes a part of it. The dynamics of a character depends on whether he has his own individual space, his own path relative to the world around him, or whether he remains, according to Lotman, the same type of environment. Kruglikov V.A. even makes it possible "to use the designations of individuality and personality as an analogue of space and time of a person." “Then it is appropriate to present individuality as a semantic image of the unfolding of the “I” in the space of a person. At the same time, individuality designates and indicates the location of personality in a person. In turn, a personality can be represented as a semantic image of the development of the “I” in a person’s time, as that subjective time in which movements, displacements and changes in individuality take place.<…>The absolute fullness of individuality is tragic for a person, as well as the absolute fullness of the personality ”[ Kruglikov V.A. Space and time of the "man of culture"//Culture, man and picture of the world. Ed. Arnoldov A.I., Kruglikov V.A. M., 1987].

V. Rudnev singles out three key parameters of the characteristics of artistic space: closedness/openness, straightness/curvature, greatness/smallness. They are explained in the psychoanalytic terms of Otto Rank's theory of birth trauma: at birth, there is a painful transition from the closed, small, crooked space of the mother's womb to the vast, direct and open space of the external world. In the pragmatics of space, the most important role play the concepts of "here" and "there": they model the position of the speaker and listener in relation to each other and in relation to the outside world. Rudnev proposes to distinguish here, there, nowhere with a capital and small letter:

“The word “here” with a small letter means the space that is in relation to the sensory reachability of the speaker, that is, the objects located “here” he can see, hear or touch.

The word "there" with a small letter means a space "located beyond the border or on the border of sensory reach from the side of the speaker. The boundary can be considered such a state of affairs when an object can be perceived by only one sense organ, for example, it can be seen, but not heard (it is there, at the other end of the room) or, conversely, heard, but not seen (it is there, behind partition).

The word "Here" with a capital letter means the space that unites the speaker with the object in question. It can be really very far. “He is here in America” (in this case, the speaker may be in California, and the one in question may be in Florida or Wisconsin).

Extremely connected with the pragmatics of space interesting paradox. It is natural to assume that if an object is here, then it is not somewhere there (or nowhere). But if this logic is made modal, that is, the operator “maybe” is assigned to both parts of the statement, then the following will be obtained.

It is possible that the object is here, but perhaps not here. All plots connected with space are built on this paradox. For example, Hamlet in Shakespeare's tragedy kills Polonius by mistake. This error lurks in the structure of the pragmatic space. Hamlet thinks that there, behind the curtain, hides the king, whom he was going to kill. The space there is a place of uncertainty. But even here there can be a place of uncertainty, for example, when a double of the one you are waiting for comes to you, and you think that someone is here, but in fact he is somewhere there or he was completely killed (Nowhere) ”[ Rudnev V.P. Dictionary of culture of the twentieth century. - M.: Agraf, 1997. - 384 p.].

The idea of ​​the unity of time and space arose in connection with the advent of Einstein's theory of relativity. This idea is also confirmed by the fact that quite often words with a spatial meaning acquire temporal semantics, or have syncretic semantics, denoting both time and space. No object of reality exists only in space outside of time or only in time outside of space. Time is understood as the fourth dimension, the main difference of which from the first three (space) is that time is irreversible (anisotropic). Here is how Hans Reichenbach, a researcher of the philosophy of time of the 20th century, puts it:

1. The past does not return;

2. The past cannot be changed, but the future can;

3. It is impossible to have a reliable protocol about the future [ibid.].

The term chronotope, introduced by Einstein in his theory of relativity, was used by M.M. Bakhtin in the study of the novel [Bakhtin M.M. Epic and novel. St. Petersburg, 2000]. Chronotope (literally - time-space) - a significant relationship of temporal and spatial relations, artistically mastered in literature; the continuity of space and time, when time acts as the fourth dimension of space. Time condenses, becomes artistically visible; space is drawn into the movement of time, plot. Signs of time are revealed in space, and space is comprehended and measured by time. This intersection of rows and the merging of signs characterizes the artistic chronotope.

The chronotope determines the artistic unity of a literary work in its relation to reality. All temporal-spatial definitions in art and literature are inseparable from each other and are always emotionally-value-based.

The chronotope is the most important characteristic of an artistic image and at the same time a way of creating artistic reality. MM. Bakhtin writes that "every entry into the sphere of meanings is accomplished only through the gates of chronotopes." The chronotope, on the one hand, reflects the worldview of its era, on the other hand, the measure of the development of the author's self-awareness, the process of the emergence of points of view on space and time. As the most general, universal category of culture, artistic space-time is capable of embodying "the worldview of the era, people's behavior, their consciousness, the rhythm of life, their attitude to things" (Gurevich). The chronotopic beginning of literary works, - Khalizev writes, - is capable of giving them a philosophical character, "bringing" the verbal fabric to the image of being as a whole, to the picture of the world [Khalizev V.E. Theory of Literature. M., 2005].

In the spatio-temporal organization of the works of the twentieth century, as well as modern literature, various, sometimes extreme, tendencies coexist (and struggle) - an extraordinary expansion or, on the contrary, a concentrated compression of the boundaries of artistic reality, a tendency to increase the conventionality or, conversely, to the emphasized documentary nature of chronological and topographic landmarks, isolation and openness, deployment and illegality. Among these trends, the following are the most obvious:

Striving for nameless or fictitious topography: City, instead of Kyiv, at Bulgakov (this casts a certain legendary reflection on historically specific events); the unmistakably recognizable but never named Cologne in H. Böll's prose; the story of Macondo in García Márquez's carnivalized national epic One Hundred Years of Solitude. It is essential, however, that the artistic time-space here requires a real historical-geographical identification, or at least a rapprochement, without which the work cannot be understood at all; widely used is the artistic time of a fairy tale or parable, closed, excluded from the historical account - "The Trial" by F. Kafka, "The Plague" by A. Camus, "Watt" by S. Beckett. The fabulous and parable “once”, “once”, equal to “always” and “whenever” corresponds to the eternal “conditions human existence”, and is also used with the aim that the habitually modern coloring does not distract the reader in search of historical correlations, does not raise a “naive” question: “when did this happen?”; topography eludes identification, localization in the real world.

Having two different unmerged spaces in one the art world: real, that is, physical, surrounding the heroes, and "romantic", created by the imagination of the hero himself, caused by a collision romantic ideal with the advancing epoch of huckstering, brought forward by bourgeois development. Moreover, the emphasis from the space of the outer world moves to the inner space of human consciousness. Under the internal space of the development of events is meant the memory of the character; the intermittent, reverse and direct course of plot time is motivated not by the author's initiative, but by the psychology of recall. Time "stratifies"; in extreme cases (for example, in M. Proust), the narrative “here and now” is left with the role of a frame or a material reason for the excitation of a memory that freely flies through space and time in pursuit of the desired moment of the experienced. In connection with the discovery of the compositional possibilities of "remembering", the original correlation in importance between moving and "attached to the place" characters often changes: if earlier the leading characters, passing a serious spiritual path, were, as a rule, mobile, and the extras merged with the everyday background into a stationary whole, now, on the contrary, the "remembering" hero, who belongs to central characters, being endowed with its own subjective sphere, the right to demonstrate its inner world (the position "at the window" of the heroine of the novel by V. Wolfe "A trip to the lighthouse"). This position allows one to compress one's own time of action into a few days and hours, while the time and space of an entire human life. The content of the character's memory here plays the same role as the collective knowledge of the legend in relation to ancient epic, - it frees from the exposition, the epilogue, and in general any explanatory moments provided by the initiative intervention of the author-narrator.

The character also begins to be thought of as a kind of space. G. Gachev writes that “Space and Time are not objective categories of being, but subjective forms of the human mind: a priori forms of our sensibility, that is, orientation outward, outward (Space) and inward (Time)” [Gachev G.D. European images of Space and Time//Culture, man and picture of the world. Ed. Arnoldov A.I., Kruglikov V.A. M., 1987]. Yampolsky writes that "the body forms its own space," which, for clarity, he calls "place." This gathering of spaces into a whole, according to Heidegger, is the property of a thing. A thing embodies a certain collective nature, a collective energy, and it creates a place. The collection of space introduces boundaries into it, boundaries give life to space. The place becomes a cast from a person, his mask, the boundary in which he himself acquires being, moves and changes. “The human body is also a thing. It also deforms the space around it, giving it the individuality of the place. The human body needs a localization, a place where it can place itself and find a home in which it can stay. As Edward Casey noted, “the body as such is an intermediary between my consciousness of a place and the place itself, moving me between places and introducing me into the intimate cracks of each given place [Yampolsky M. The Demon and the Labyrinth].

Thanks to the elimination of the author as a narrator, wide possibilities opened up before the montage, a kind of spatio-temporal mosaic, when various "action theaters", panoramic and close-ups are juxtaposed without motivations and comments as a "documentary" face of reality itself.

In the twentieth century there were concepts of multidimensional time. They originated in the mainstream of absolute idealism, the British philosophy of the early twentieth century. 20th century culture was influenced by W. John Wilm Dunn's serial concept ("Experiment with Time"). Dunn analyzed the well-known phenomenon of prophetic dreams, when at one end of the planet a person dreams of an event that happens a year later in full reality at the other end of the planet. Explaining this mysterious phenomenon, Dunn came to the conclusion that time has at least two dimensions for one person. In one dimension a person lives, and in another he observes. And this second dimension is space-like, it is possible to move through it into the past and into the future. This dimension manifests itself in altered states of consciousness, when the intellect does not put pressure on a person, that is, first of all, in a dream.

The phenomenon of neo-mythological consciousness at the beginning of the 20th century actualized the mythological cyclic model of time, in which not a single postulate of Reichenbach works. This cyclical time of the agrarian cult is familiar to everyone. After winter, spring comes, nature comes to life, and the cycle repeats itself. In the literature and philosophy of the twentieth century, the archaic myth of the eternal return becomes popular.

In contrast to this, the human consciousness of the late twentieth century, based on the idea of ​​linear time, which presupposes the existence of a certain end, just postulates the beginning of this end. And it turns out that time no longer moves in the usual direction; to understand what is happening, a person turns to the past. Baudrillard writes about it this way: “We use the concepts of the past, present and future, which are very conditional, when discussing the beginning and the end. However, today we find ourselves embroiled in a kind of perpetual process, which no longer has any final.

The end is also the ultimate goal, the goal that makes this or that movement purposeful. From now on, our history has neither purpose nor direction: it has lost them, lost them irrevocably. Staying on the other side of truth and error, on the other side of good and evil, we are no longer able to go back. Apparently, for any process there is a specific point of no return, after passing which it loses its finiteness forever. If completion is absent, then everything exists only by being dissolved in an endless history, an endless crisis, an endless series of processes.

Having lost sight of the end, we desperately try to fix the beginning, this is our aspiration to find the origins. But these efforts are in vain: both anthropologists and paleontologists discover that all origins disappear in the depths of time, they are lost in the past, as infinite as the future.

We have already passed the point of no return and are fully involved in a non-stop process in which everything is immersed in an infinite vacuum and has lost its human dimension, and which deprives us of both the memory of the past, and the focus on the future, and the ability to integrate this future into the present. From now on, our world is a universe of abstract, incorporeal things that continue to live by inertia, which have become simulacra of themselves, but not those who know death: infinite existence is guaranteed to them because they are only artificial formations.

And yet, we are still in the thrall of the illusion that certain processes will necessarily reveal their finiteness, and with it their direction, will allow us to retrospectively establish their origins, and as a result we will be able to comprehend the movement of interest to us using the concepts of cause. and consequences.

The absence of an end creates a situation in which it is difficult to get rid of the impression that all the information we receive does not contain anything new, that everything we are told about has already happened. Since now there is no completion, no ultimate goal, since humanity has gained immortality, the subject has ceased to understand what he is. And this acquired immortality is the last fantasy born of our technologies” [Baudrillard Jean Paroli from fragment to fragment Ekaterinburg, 2006] .

It should be added that the past is available only in the form of memories, dreams. This is an ongoing attempt to embody once again what has already been, what has already happened once and should not happen again. In the center - the fate of a man who found himself "at the end of time". Often used in a work of art is the motive of expectation: the hope for a miracle, or longing for a better life, or the expectation of trouble, a premonition of a catastrophe.

In Deja Loer's play "Olga's Room" there is a phrase that illustrates well this tendency to turn to the past: "Only if I can reproduce the past with absolute accuracy, can I see the future."

The concept of running backwards time comes into contact with the same idea. “Time introduces a completely understandable metaphysical confusion: it appears together with a person, but precedes eternity. Another obscurity, no less important and no less expressive, prevents us from determining the direction of time. They say that it flows from the past into the future: but the opposite is no less logical, as the Spanish poet Miguel de Unamuno wrote about ”(Borges). Unamuno does not mean a simple countdown, time here is a metaphor for a person. Dying, a person begins to consistently lose what he managed to do and survive, all his experience, he unwinds like a ball to a state of non-existence.

Artistic space and time (chronotope)- space and time depicted by the writer in a work of art; reality in its space-time coordinates.

Artistic time is an order, a sequence of actions in the worst. work.

Space is a collection of little things in which an artistic hero lives.

Logically connecting time and space create a chronotope. Every writer and poet has his favorite chronotopes. Everything obeys this time and heroes and objects and verbal actions. And yet, the main character is always in the foreground in the work. The larger the writer or poet, the more interesting they describe both space and time, each with their own specific artistic techniques.

The main features of space in a literary work:

1. It does not have direct sensual authenticity, material density, visibility.
2. Perceived by the reader associatively.

The main signs of time in a literary work:

1. Greater concreteness, immediate certainty.
2. The desire of the writer to converge artistic and real time.
3. Concepts of motion and immobility.
4. Relationship between past, present and future.

Category of artistic time in literature

In various systems of knowledge, there are various ideas about time: scientific-philosophical, scientific-physical, theological, everyday, etc. The plurality of approaches to identifying the phenomenon of time has given rise to the ambiguity of its interpretation. Matter exists only in motion, and motion is the essence of time, the comprehension of which is largely determined by the cultural makeup of the era. So, historically, in the cultural consciousness of mankind, two ideas about time have developed: cyclic and linear. The concept of cyclic time goes back to antiquity. It was perceived as a sequence of events of the same type, the source of which were seasonal cycles. Completeness, repetition of events, the idea of ​​return, indistinguishability between beginning and end were considered characteristic signs. With the advent of Christianity, time began to appear to human consciousness as a straight line, the vector of movement of which is directed (through relation to the present) from the past to the future. The linear type of time is characterized by one-dimensionality, continuity, irreversibility, orderliness, its movement is perceived as a duration and sequence of processes and states of the surrounding world.

However, along with the objective, there is also a subjective perception of time, as a rule, depending on the rhythm of the events taking place and on the characteristics emotional state. In this regard, they single out objective time, which refers to the sphere of the objectively existing external world, and perceptual time, to the sphere of perception of reality. individual. So, the past seems to be longer if it is rich in events, while in the present it is the other way around: the more meaningful its filling, the less noticeable the flow. The waiting time for the desired event is painfully lengthened, for the undesirable - painfully shortened. Thus, time, influencing the mental state of a person, determines his course of life. This happens indirectly, through experience, thanks to which a system of units for measuring time intervals (second, minute, hour, day, day, week, month, year, century) is established in the human mind. In this case, the present acts as a constant reference point that divides the course of life into past and future. Literature, in comparison with other forms of art, can handle real time most freely. Thus, at the will of the author, a shift in time perspective is possible: the past appears as the present, the future as the past, and so on. Thus, obeying the creative intent of the artist, the chronological sequence of events can reveal itself not only in typical manifestations, but also, in conflict with the real flow of time, in individual authorial manifestations. Thus, the modeling of artistic time may depend on genre-specific features and trends in literature. For example, in prose works usually, the present tense of the narrator is conventionally set, which correlates with the narrative about the past or future of the characters, with the characteristics of situations in various time dimensions. Multidirectionality, reversibility of artistic time is characteristic of modernism, in the depths of which the novel of the “stream of consciousness” is born, the novel of “one day”, where time becomes only a component of the psychological existence of a person.

In individual artistic manifestations, the flow of time can be deliberately slowed down by the author compressed, curtailed (actualization of instantaneity) or completely stopped (in the depiction of a portrait, landscape, in the author's philosophical reflections). It can be multidimensional in works with intersecting or parallel storylines. Fiction, belonging to the group of dynamic arts, is characterized by temporal discreteness, i.e. the ability to reproduce the most significant fragments, filling in the resulting “voids” with formulas such as: “several days have passed”, “a year has passed”, etc. However, the idea of ​​time is determined not only by the author's artistic intention, but also by the picture of the world in which he creates. For example, in ancient Russian literature, as noted by D.S. Likhachev, there is not such an egocentric perception of time as in the literature of the 18th - 19th centuries. “The past was somewhere ahead, at the beginning of events, a number of which did not correlate with the subject perceiving it. The "rear" events were the events of the present or the future. Time was characterized by isolation, unidirectionality, strict observance of the real sequence of events, constant appeal to the eternal: "Medieval literature strives for the timeless, for overcoming time in depicting the highest manifestations of being - the divine establishment of the universe." Along with the event time, which is an immanent property of the work, there is the author's time. "The author-creator moves freely in his time: he can start his story from the end, from the middle and from any moment of the events depicted, without destroying the objective course of time."

The author's time varies depending on whether he takes part in the events depicted or not. In the first case, the author's time moves independently, having its own storyline. In the second - it is motionless, as if concentrated at one point. The event time and the author's time can differ significantly. This happens when the author either overtakes the course of the narrative, or lags behind, i.e. follows the events "on the heels". There can be a significant time gap between the time of the narration and the time of the author. In this case, the author writes either from memories - his own or someone else's.

In a literary text, both the time of writing and the time of perception are taken into account. Therefore, the author's time is inseparable from the reader's time. Literature as a form of verbal-figurative art presupposes the presence of an addressee. Usually, reading time is an actual (“natural”) duration. But sometimes the reader can be directly included in the artistic fabric of the work, for example, acting as the "narrator's interlocutor". In this case, the reading time is displayed. “Depicted reading time can be long and short, sequential and inconsistent, fast and slow, intermittent and continuous. It is mostly depicted as the future, but it can be present and even past.

The nature of performing time is rather peculiar. It, as Likhachev notes, merges with the time of the author and the time of the reader. In essence, this is the present, i.e. time of performance of a piece. Thus, in literature, one of the manifestations of artistic time is grammatical time. It can be represented with the help of tense forms of the verb, lexical units with temporal semantics, case forms with the meaning of time, chronological markings, syntactic constructions that create a specific time plan (for example, nominative sentences represent the plan of the present in the text).

Bakhtin M.M.: “The signs of time are revealed in space, and space is comprehended and measured by time.” The scientist identifies two types of biographical time. The first one, influenced by the Aristotelian doctrine of entelechy (from the Greek “completion”, “fulfillment”), calls “characterological inversion”, based on which the completed maturity of character is the true beginning of development. The image of human life is given not within the framework of an analytical enumeration of certain traits and characteristics (virtues and vices), but through the disclosure of character (actions, deeds, speech and other manifestations). The second type is analytical, in which all biographical material is divided into: public and family life, behavior in war, attitude towards friends, virtues and vices, appearance, etc. The biography of the hero according to this scheme is made up of events and cases at different times, since a certain trait or property of character is confirmed by the most striking examples from life, which do not necessarily have a chronological sequence. However, the fragmentation of the temporary biographical series does not exclude the integrity of the character.

MM. Bakhtin also singles out folk-mythological time, which is a cyclic structure that goes back to the idea of ​​eternal repetition. Time is deeply localized, completely inseparable “from the signs of the native Greek nature and will take on the“ second nature ”, i.e. will accept native regions, cities, states. Folk-mythological time in its main manifestations is characteristic of an idyllic chronotope with a strictly limited and enclosed space.

Artistic time is determined by the genre specifics of the work, the artistic method, the author's ideas, as well as by the literary movement or direction in which this work was created. Therefore, the forms of artistic time are distinguished by variability and diversity. “All changes in artistic time add up to a certain general line of its development, connected with the general line of development verbal art in general” The perception of time and space in a certain way is comprehended by a person precisely with the help of language.

Any literary work in one way or another reproduces the real world - both material and ideal. The natural forms of existence of this world are time and space. However, the world of the work is always to some extent conditional, and, of course, time and space are also conditional.

A significant relationship between temporal and spatial relations, artistically mastered in literature, M.M. Bakhtin suggested calling it a chronotope. The chronotope determines the artistic unity of a literary work in its relation to reality. All temporal-spatial definitions in art and literature are inseparable from each other and are always emotionally-value-based. Abstract thinking can, of course, think of time and space in their separateness and be distracted from their emotional and valuable moment. But living artistic contemplation (which, of course, is also full of thought, but not abstract) does not separate anything and is not distracted from anything. It captures the chronotope in all its integrity and completeness.

Compared with other arts, literature deals with time and space most freely (only cinema can compete with it). The "immateriality of images" gives literature the ability to instantly move from one space and time to another. For example, events can be depicted that take place simultaneously in different places (for example, Homer's Odyssey describes the travels of the protagonist and events in Ithaca). With regard to time switching, the most simple form- the hero's memory of the past (for example, the famous "Oblomov's Dream").

Another property of literary time and space is their discreteness (i.e. discontinuity). So, literature can not reproduce the entire time stream, but choose the most significant fragments from it, indicating gaps (for example, the introduction to Pushkin's poem " Bronze Horseman": "On the shore desert waves He stood, full of great thoughts, And looked into the distance.<…>A hundred years have passed, and the young city ... From the darkness of the forests, from the swamp of blat, Ascended magnificently, proudly. The discreteness of space is manifested in the fact that it is usually not described in detail, but only indicated with the help of individual details that are most significant for the author (for example, in "Grammar of Love" Bunin does not fully describe the hall in Khvoshchinsky's house, but only mentions its large size, windows , facing west and north, “clumsy” furniture, “beautiful slides” in the piers, dry bees on the floor, but most importantly - a “deity without glasses”, where there was an image “in a silver riza” and on it “wedding candles in pale -green bows). When we learn that the wedding candles were bought by Khvoshchinsky after Lusha's death, this emphasis becomes clear. There may also be a change in spatial and temporal coordinates at the same time (in Goncharov's novel The Cliff, the transfer of action from St. Petersburg to Malinovka, to the Volga, makes the description of the road unnecessary).

The nature of the conventionality of time and space depends to a great extent on the type of literature. The maximum conventionality in the lyrics, because. it is most expressive and focused on inner world lyrical subject. The conditionality of time and space in drama is connected with the possibilities of staging (hence the famous rule of 3 unities). In the epic, the fragmentation of time and space, transitions from one time to another, spatial movements are carried out easily and freely thanks to the figure of the narrator - an intermediary between the depicted life and the reader (for example, an intermediary can “suspend” time during reasoning, descriptions - see the above example about the hall in Khvoshchinsky's house; of course, describing the room, Bunin somewhat "slowed down" the passage of time).

According to the peculiarities of artistic conventionality, time and space in literature can be divided into abstract (one that can be understood as "everywhere" / "always") and concrete. Thus, the space of Naples in The Gentleman from San Francisco is abstract (it has no characteristic features important for the narrative, and is not comprehended, and therefore, despite the abundance of toponyms, it can be understood as "everywhere"). The concrete space actively influences the essence of what is depicted (for example, in Goncharov's "Cliff" the image of Malinovka was created, which is described up to the smallest details, and the latter, of course, not only influence what is happening, but also symbolize psychological condition heroes: for example, the cliff itself points to the "fall" of Vera, and before her - grandmother, to Raisky's feverish passion for Vera, etc.). The corresponding properties of time are usually associated with the type of space: a specific space is combined with a specific time (for example, in Woe from Wit, Moscow, with its realities, could not belong to any other time except the beginning of the 19th century) and vice versa. The forms of concretization of artistic time are most often the "binding" of the action to historical landmarks, realities and the designation of cyclic time: the season, the day.

In literature, space and time are not given to us in their pure form. We judge space by the objects that fill it, and we judge time by the processes taking place in it. To analyze a work, it is important to at least approximately determine the fullness, saturation of space and time, because this indicator often characterizes the style of the work. For example, Gogol's space is usually filled to the maximum with some objects (for example, a textbook description of the interior in Sobakevich's house). The intensity of artistic time is expressed in its saturation with events. Cervantes had an extremely busy time in Don Quixote. The increased saturation of artistic space, as a rule, is combined with a reduced intensity of time and vice versa (cf. the examples given above: "Dead Souls" and "Don Quixote").

The depicted time and the time of the image (i.e. real (plot) and artistic time) rarely coincide. Usually artistic time is shorter than “real” time (see the above example about the omission of the description of the road from St. Petersburg to Malinovka in Goncharov’s “Cliff”), however, there is an important exception related to the depiction of psychological processes and the subjective time of the character. Experiences and thoughts flow faster than the speech stream moves, therefore, the time of the image is almost always longer than the subjective time (for example, the textbook episode from War and Peace with Prince Andrei Bolkonsky, who looked at the high, endless sky and comprehended the secrets of life). " real time» can generally be equal to zero (for example, with all kinds of lengthy descriptions), such time can be called eventless. Event time is divided into plot time (describes ongoing events) and chronicle everyday time (a picture of stable life, repetitive actions and deeds is drawn (one of the most striking examples is the description of Oblomov's life at the beginning of Goncharov's novel of the same name)). The ratio of eventless, chronicle-everyday and event types of time determines the tempo organization of the artistic time of the work, which determines the nature of aesthetic perception, forms subjective reader time (“Dead Souls” gives the impression of a slow pace, and “Crime and Punishment” - fast, and therefore the novel is read Dostoevsky is often "in the same breath").

Completion and incompleteness of artistic time is of great importance. Often writers create in their works a closed time, which has an absolute beginning and end, which until the 19th century. considered a sign of art. However, the monotonous endings (return to the father's house, wedding or death) already seemed boring to Pushkin, therefore, from the 19th century. there is a struggle with them, but if in the novel it is quite simple to use the other end (as in the already mentioned “Cliff” many times), then the situation is more complicated with the drama. Only Chekhov managed to "get rid" of these ends ("The Cherry Orchard").

The historical development of spatio-temporal organization reveals a tendency towards complication and individualization. But the complexity, individual originality of artistic time and space does not exclude the existence of general, typological models - substantive forms that writers use as "ready-made". Such are the motifs of a house, a road, a horse, a crossroads, up and down, open space, and so on. This also includes the types of organization of artistic time: chronicle, adventurous, biographical, etc. It is for such spatio-temporal typological models that M.M. Bakhtin introduced the term chronotope.

MM. Bakhtin singles out, for example, the chronotope of the meeting; this chronotope is dominated by a temporal shade, and it differs a high degree emotional value intensity. The chronotope of the road associated with it has a wider volume, but somewhat less emotional and value intensity. Encounters in the novel usually take place on the "road". "Road" is the predominant place of chance meetings. On the road (“high road”), the spatial and temporal paths of various people intersect at one temporal and spatial point - representatives of all classes, states, religions, nationalities, ages. Here, those who are normally separated by social hierarchy and spatial distance can accidentally meet, any contrasts can arise here, various destinies can collide and intertwine. Here, spatial and temporal series are peculiarly combined. human destinies and lives, becoming more complicated and concretized by the social distances that are overcome here. This is the point of tying and the place where events take place. Here, time seems to flow into space and flows through it (forming roads).

By the end of the 18th century in England, a new territory for the accomplishment of novel events, the “zbmok”, was formed and consolidated in the so-called “Gothic” or “black” novel (for the first time in this meaning in Horace Walpole - “Castle of Otranto”). The castle is full of time, moreover, the time of the historical past. The castle is the place of life of historical figures of the past; traces of centuries and generations were deposited in it in a visible form. Finally, legends and traditions enliven all corners of the castle and its environs with memories of past events. This creates a specific plot of the castle, deployed in Gothic novels.

In the novels of Stendhal and Balzac, an essentially new locality of the events of the novel appears - "living room-salon" (in the broad sense). Of course, it does not appear for the first time with them, but only with them does it acquire the fullness of its meaning as a place of intersection of the spatial and temporal series of the novel. From the point of view of the plot and composition, meetings take place here (no longer having the former specifically random nature of meetings on the “road” or in the “foreign world”), plots of intrigue are created, denouements are often made, here, finally, and most importantly, dialogues take place, acquiring exceptional significance in the novel, the characters, “ideas” and “passions” of the characters are revealed (cf. Salon Scherer in “War and Peace” - A.S.).

In Flaubert's Madame Bovary, the setting is a "provincial town". A provincial philistine town with its musty way of life is an extremely common place for the accomplishment of novel events in the 19th century. This town has several varieties, including a very important one - idyllic (among the regionalists). We will touch only on the Flaubert variety (created, however, not by Flaubert). Such a town is a place of cyclic household time. There are no events here, but only repeated "occurrences". Time is deprived here of a progressive historical course, it moves in narrow circles: the circle of the day, the circle of the week, the month, the circle of all life. A day is never a day, a year is never a year, life is not life. Day after day, the same everyday actions, the same topics of conversation, the same words, etc. are repeated. This is ordinary everyday cyclic household time. It is familiar to us in different variations, both according to Gogol, and according to Turgenev, according to Shchedrin, Chekhov. Time here is eventless and therefore seems to have almost stopped. There is no "meeting" or "parting". This is a thick, sticky, creeping time in space. Therefore, it cannot be the main tense of the novel. It is used by novelists as a side time, intertwined with or interrupted by other non-cyclical time series, and often serves as a contrasting backdrop for eventful and energetic time series.

Let us also call here such a chronotope imbued with high emotional and value intensity as a threshold; it can also be combined with the motive of the meeting, but its most significant completion is the chronotope of the crisis and the turning point in life. In literature, the chronotope of the threshold is always metaphorical and symbolic, sometimes in an open, but more often in an implicit form. For Dostoevsky, for example, the threshold and the adjacent chronotopes of stairs, front and corridor, as well as the chronotopes of streets and squares that continue them, are the main places of action in his works, places where events of crises, falls, resurrections, renewals, insights, decisions take place. that determine the whole life of a person (for example, in "Crime and Punishment" - A.S.). Time in this chronotope, in essence, is an instant, as if having no duration and falling out of the normal flow of biographical time.

Unlike Dostoevsky, in the work of Leo Tolstoy, the main chronotope is biographical time, which flows in the interior spaces of noble houses and estates. Of course, in the works of Tolstoy there are crises, and falls, and renewals, and resurrections, but they are not instantaneous and do not fall out of the flow of biographical time, but are firmly soldered into it. For example, the renewal of Pierre Bezukhov was long and gradual, quite biographical. Tolstoy did not value the moment, did not seek to fill it with something significant and decisive, the word "suddenly" is rare in him and never introduces any significant event.

In the nature of chronotopes M.M. Bakhtin saw the embodiment of various value systems, as well as types of thinking about the world. So, since ancient times, two main concepts of time have been reflected in literature: cyclic and linear. The first was earlier and relied on natural cyclical processes in nature. Such a cyclic concept is reflected, for example, in Russian folklore. Christianity of the Middle Ages had its own temporal concept: linear-finalistic. It was based on the movement in time of human existence from birth to death, while death was considered as a result, a transition to some kind of stable existence: to salvation or death. Since the Renaissance, culture has been dominated by a linear concept of time associated with the concept of progress. Also, works periodically appear in literature that reflect the atemporal concept of time. These are various kinds of pastorals, idylls, utopias, etc. The world in these works does not need changes, and therefore does not need time (the far-fetchedness, the implausibility of such a flow of time is shown in his anti-utopia “We” by E. Zamyatin). On the culture and literature of the 20th century. the natural science concepts of time and space associated with the theory of relativity had a significant impact. Science fiction most fruitfully mastered new ideas about time and space, which at that time entered the sphere of "high" literature, putting deep philosophical and moral issues(for example, "It's hard to be a god" by the Strugatskys).

Artistic space and time are an integral feature of any work of art, including music, literature, theater, etc. Literary chronotopes are primarily of plot significance, they are the organizational centers of the main events described by the author. The pictorial significance of chronotopes is also undoubted, since plot events are concretized in them, and time and space acquire a sensually visual character. Genre and genre varieties are determined by the chronotope. All temporal-spatial definitions in literature are inseparable from each other and emotionally colored.

Artistic time is the time that is reproduced and depicted in a literary work. Artistic time, in contrast to objectively given time, uses the variety of subjective perception of time. A person's sense of time is subjective. It can “stretch”, “run”, “fly”, “stop”. Artistic time makes this subjective perception of time one of the forms of depicting reality. However, objective time is also used at the same time. Time in fiction is perceived due to the connection of events - causal or associative. Events in the plot precede and follow each other, line up in a complex series, and thanks to this, the reader is able to notice time in a work of art, even if it does not say anything about time. Artistic time can be characterized as follows: static or dynamic; real - unreal; the speed of the movement of time; perspective - retrospective - cyclical; past - present - future (in what time are the characters and action concentrated). In literature, the leading principle is time.

Art space is one of critical components works. His role in the text is not limited to determining the place where the event takes place, plot lines are connected, characters move. Artistic space, like time, is a special language for the moral evaluation of characters. The behavior of the characters is related to the space in which they are located. The space can be closed (limited) - open; real (recognizable, similar to reality) - unreal; own (the hero was born and raised here, feels comfortable in it, adequate to the space) - alien (the hero is an outside observer, abandoned to a foreign land, cannot find himself); empty (minimum of objects) - filled. It can be dynamic, full of diverse movement, and static, “immobile”, filled with things. When the movement in space becomes directed, one of the most important spatial forms appears - the road, which can become a spatial dominant that organizes the entire text. The motif of the road is semantically ambiguous: the road can be a concrete reality of the depicted space, it can symbolize the path of the character's internal development, his fate; through the motif of the road, the idea of ​​the path of a people or an entire country can be expressed. Space can be built horizontally or vertically (emphasis on objects stretching up or on objects spreading out). In addition, you should look at what is located in the center of this space and what is on the periphery, what geographical objects are listed in the story, what they are called (real names, fictitious names, proper names or common nouns in the role of proper ones).

Each writer comprehends time and space in his own way, endowing them with their own characteristics, reflecting the worldview of the author. As a result, the artistic space created by the writer is unlike any other artistic space and time, much less the real one.

So in the works of I. A. Bunin (cycle " Dark alleys”), the life of the heroes takes place in two non-overlapping chronotopes. On the one hand, the reader unfolds the space of everyday life, rain, corroding melancholy, in which time moves unbearably slowly. Only a tiny part of the hero's biography (one day, one night, a week, a month) takes place in a different space, bright, saturated with emotions, meaning, sun, light and, most importantly, love. In this case, the action takes place in the Caucasus or in a noble estate, under the romantic vaults of “dark alleys”.

An important property of literary time and space is their discreteness, i.e. discontinuity. With regard to time, this is especially important, since literature is able not to reproduce the entire flow of time, but to select the most significant fragments from it, indicating gaps. Such temporal discreteness served as a powerful means of dynamization.

The nature of the conventionality of time and space depends to a great extent on the type of literature. Conventionality is maximum in lyrics, as it is closer to the expressive arts. There may not be space here. At the same time, lyrics can reproduce the objective world and its spatial realities. With the predominance of the grammatical present in the lyrics, it is characterized by the interaction of the present and the past (elegy), past, present and future (to Chaadaev). The very category of time can be the leitmotif of a poem. In drama, the conventionality of time and space is set mainly for the theatre. That is, all actions, speeches, inner speech of actors are closed in time and space. Against the backdrop of drama, the epic has broader possibilities. Transitions from one time to another, spatial movements occur due to the narrator. The narrator can compress or stretch time.

According to the peculiarities of artistic conventionality, time and space in literature can be divided into abstract and concrete. An abstract space is a space that can be perceived as universal. The concrete not only binds the depicted world to certain topographical realities, but also actively influences the essence of the depicted. There is no impassable boundary between concrete and abstract spaces. Abstract space draws details from reality. The concepts of abstract and concrete spaces can serve as guidelines for typology. The corresponding properties of time are usually associated with the type of space. The form of concretization is thin. time are most often the binding of the action to historical realities and the designation of cyclic time, the time of the year, the day. In most cases, the worst time is shorter than the real time. This is the law of "poetic economy". However, there is an important exception associated with the depiction of psychological processes and the subjective time of a character or a lyrical hero. Experiences and thoughts flow faster than the flow of speech, which forms the basis of literary imagery, moves. In literature, there are complex relationships between the real and the thin. time. Real time in general can be equal to zero, for example in descriptions. Such time is eventless. But the time of events is not uniform. In one case, literature records events and actions that significantly change a person. This is plot or plot time. In another case, literature paints a picture of a stable being, repeating itself from day to day. This type of time is called chronicle-everyday. The ratio of eventless, eventful and chronicle-everyday time creates a tempo organization of the art. the time of the work. Completion and incompleteness are important for the analysis. It is also worth mentioning the types of organization of artistic time: chronicle, adventurous, biographical, etc.

Bakhtin in his heresy singled out chronotopes:

Meetings.

Roads. On the road ("high road"), the spatial and temporal paths of the most diverse people - representatives of all classes, states, religions, nationalities, ages - intersect at one temporal and spatial point. This is the point of tying and the place where events take place. The road is especially beneficial for depicting an event driven by chance (but not only for such). (remember Pugachev's meeting with Grinev in "Kap.dochka"). Common features of the chronotope in different types novels: the road passes through one's own country, not in an exotic foreign world; reveals and shows the socio-historical diversity of this home country(therefore, if one can talk about exotic here, then only about "social exotic" - "slums", "scum", thieves' worlds). In the latter function, the "road" was also used in journalistic travels of the 18th century ("Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" by Radishchev). This feature of the “road” distinguishes the listed novel varieties from another line of the wandering novel, represented by the ancient travel novel, the Greek sophistic novel, the 17th-century baroque novel. A function analogous to the road in these novels is played by the "foreign world", separated from its own country by sea and distance.

Castle. By the end of the XVIII century in England - a new territory for the accomplishment of novel events - the "castle". The castle is saturated with the time of the historical past. The castle is the place of life of the rulers of the feudal era (hence, the historical figures of the past), traces of centuries and generations were deposited in it in a visible form in various parts of its structure, in the setting, in weapons, in the specific human relations of dynastic succession. This creates a specific plot of the castle, deployed in Gothic novels.

Living room-salon. From the point of view of the plot and composition, meetings take place here (not random), plots of intrigue are created, denouements are often made, dialogues take place that acquire exceptional significance in the novel, the characters, “ideas” and “passions” of the characters are revealed. Here - the interweaving of historical and public-public with private and even purely private, alcove, the interweaving of private-everyday intrigue with political and financial, state secrets with an alcove secret, a historical series with everyday and biographical. Here, visually visible signs of both historical and biographical time are condensed, condensed, and at the same time they are closely intertwined with each other, merged into single signs of the era. The era becomes visually visible and plot-visible.

Provincial town. It has several varieties, including a very important one - idyllic. Flaubert's kind of town is a place of cyclic household time. There are no events here, but only repeated "occurrences". Day after day, the same everyday actions, the same topics of conversation, the same words, etc. are repeated. Time here is eventless and therefore seems to have almost stopped.

Threshold. This is a chronotope of crisis and life turning point. For Dostoevsky, for example, the threshold and the adjacent chronotopes of stairs, front and corridor, as well as the chronotopes of streets and squares that continue them, are the main places of action in his works, places where events of crises, falls, resurrections, renewals, insights, decisions take place. that define a person's entire life. Time in this chronotope, in essence, is an instant, as if having no duration and falling out of the normal flow of biographical time. These decisive moments are included in Dostoevsky's large, all-encompassing chronotopes of mystery and carnival time. These times coexist in a peculiar way, intersect and intertwine in Dostoevsky's work, just as they coexisted for many centuries on the people's squares of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (essentially the same, but in slightly different forms - on the ancient squares of Greece and Rome). In Dostoevsky, on the streets and in mass scenes inside houses (mainly in living rooms), the ancient carnival-mystery square seems to come to life and shine through. This, of course, does not exhaust Dostoevsky's chronotopes: they are complex and diverse, as are the traditions that are renewed in them.

Unlike Dostoevsky, in the works of L. N. Tolstoy the main chronotope is biographical time, flowing in the interior spaces of noble houses and estates. The renewal of Pierre Bezukhov was also lengthy and gradual, quite biographical. The word "suddenly" is rare in Tolstoy and never introduces any significant event. After biographical time and space, the chronotope of nature, the family-idyllic chronotope, and even the chronotope of the labor idyll (when depicting peasant labor) are of significant importance for Tolstoy.

The chronotope as the primary materialization of time in space is the center of pictorial concretization, embodiment for the entire novel. All the abstract elements of the novel - philosophical and social generalizations, ideas, analyzes of causes and effects, etc. - gravitate towards the chronotope and through it are filled with flesh and blood, are attached to artistic imagery. This is the pictorial meaning of the chronotope.

The chronotopes we have considered have a genre-typical character; they underlie certain varieties of the novel genre, which has developed and developed over the centuries.

The principle of the chronotopicity of the artistic and literary image was first clearly revealed by Lessing in his Laocoon. It establishes the temporary nature of the artistic and literary image. Everything that is static-spatial should not be statically described, but should be involved in the time series of the events depicted and the story-image itself. So, in the famous example of Lessing, the beauty of Helen is not described by Homer, but her effect on the Trojan elders is shown, and this action is revealed in a number of movements, deeds of the elders. Beauty is involved in the chain of depicted events and at the same time is not the subject of a static description, but the subject of a dynamic story.

There is a sharp and fundamental boundary between the depicting real world and the world depicted in the work. It is impossible to mix, as it was done and is still sometimes done, the depicted world with the depicting world (naive realism), the author - the creator of the work with the author-man (naive biographism), recreating and renewing the listener-reader of different (and many) eras with passive listener-reader of his own time (dogmatism of understanding and evaluation).

We can also say this: we have two events in front of us - the event about which the work is told, and the event of the story itself (in this latter we ourselves participate as listeners-readers); these events take place in different times(different in duration) and in different places, and at the same time they are inextricably united in a single, but complex event, which we can designate as a work in its eventful completeness, including here both its external material reality and its text, and the world depicted in it, and the author-creator, and the listener-reader. At the same time, we perceive this fullness in its integrity and inseparability, but at the same time we understand the whole difference of its constituent moments. The author-creator moves freely in his time; he can begin his story from the end, from the middle, and from any moment of the events depicted, without destroying the objective course of time in the depicted event. Here the difference between depicted and depicted time is clearly manifested.

10. Simple and detailed comparison (short and irrelevant)).
COMPARISON Comparison is a figurative allegory in which the similarity between two phenomena of life is established. Comparison is an important figurative and expressive language tool. There are two images: the main one, in which main point statements and auxiliary, attached to the union "as" and others. Comparison is widely used in artistic speech. Reveals similarities, parallels, correspondences between the original phenomena. Comparison fixes different associations that arise in the writer. Comparison performs pictorial and expressive functions or combines both of them. The form of comparison is the combination of two of its members with the help of unions "like", "as if", "like", "as if", etc. There is also an allied comparison ("In iron armor, a samovar // Noises as a house general ..." N.A. Zabolotsky).

11. The concept of the literary process (I have some kind of heresy, but in response to this question, you can blather everything: from the origin of literature from mythology to trends and modern genres)
The literary process is the totality of all works that appear at this time.

Factors that limit it:

The presentation of literature within the literary process is influenced by the time when a particular book is published.

The literary process does not exist outside of magazines, newspapers, and other printed publications. ("Young Guard", "New World", etc.)

The literary process is associated with criticism of published works. Oral criticism also has a significant effect on L.P.

"Liberal terror" was the name given to criticism in the early 18th century. Literary associations- writers who consider themselves close on any issues. They act as a certain group, conquering part of the literary process. Literature is, as it were, "divided" between them. They issue manifestos expressing the general sentiments of a particular group. Manifestos appear at the moment of formation literary group. For literature of the early 20th century. manifestos are uncharacteristic (symbolists first created, and then wrote manifestos). The manifesto allows you to look at the future activities of the group, immediately determine what it stands out for. As a rule, the manifesto (in the classic version - anticipating the activities of the group) turns out to be paler than the literary movement that it represents.

literary process.

With the help of artistic speech in literary works, the speech activity of people is widely and specifically reproduced. A person in a verbal image acts as a “speech carrier”. This applies, first of all, to lyrical heroes, actors dramatic works and narrators of epic works. Speech in fiction acts as the most important subject of the image. Literature not only designates life phenomena with words, but also reproduces speech activity itself. Using speech as the subject of the image, the writer overcomes the schematic nature of verbal pictures that are associated with their “immateriality”. Without speech, people's thinking cannot be fully realized. Therefore, literature is the only art that freely and widely masters human thought. Thinking processes are the focus of people's spiritual life, a form of intense action. In the ways and means of comprehension emotional world Literature is qualitatively different from other art forms. Literature uses a direct depiction of mental processes with the help of the author's characteristics and the statements of the characters themselves. Literature as an art form has a kind of universality. With the help of speech, you can reproduce any aspect of reality; the visual possibilities of the verbal truly have no limits. Literature most fully embodies the cognitive beginning of artistic activity. Hegel called literature "universal art". But the visual and cognitive possibilities of literature were especially widely realized in the 19th century, when the realistic method became the leading method in the art of Russia and Western European countries. Pushkin, Gogol, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy artistically reflected the life of their country and era with such a degree of completeness that is inaccessible to any other kind of art. The unique quality of fiction is also its pronounced, open problematic nature. It is not surprising that in the area literary creativity, the most intellectual and problematic, trends in art are formed: classicism, sentimentalism, etc.

Artistic time and art space the most important characteristics of the artistic image, providing a holistic perception of artistic reality and organizing the composition of the work. The art of the word belongs to the group of dynamic, temporal arts (in contrast to the plastic, spatial arts). But the literary and poetic image, formally unfolding in time (as a sequence of text), with its content reproduces the spatio-temporal picture of the world, moreover, in its symbolic-ideological, value aspect. Such traditional spatial landmarks as “house” (an image of a closed space), “space” (an image of an open space), “threshold”, “window”, “door” (the border between one and the other) have long been the point of application of comprehending forces in literary and artistic (and more broadly cultural) models of the world (the symbolic richness of such spaces, images is obvious, such as the house of Gogol's "old-world landowners" or Raskolnikov's coffin-like room in Crime and Punishment, 1866, F.M. Dostoevsky, like a steppe in "Taras Bulba", 1835, N.V. Gogol or in the story of the same name by A.P. Chekhov). symbolic and artistic chronology(movement from spring and summer heyday to autumn sadness, characteristic of the world of Turgenev's prose). In general, the ancient types of value situations, realized in space-time images (chronotope, according to M.M. Bakhtin), are “idyllic time” in the father’s house, “adventurous time” of trials in a foreign land, “mystery time” of descent into the underworld of disasters - so or otherwise preserved in a reduced form by the classical literature of modern times and modern literature(“station” or “airport” as places of decisive meetings and clearings, choice of path, sudden recognition, etc. correspond to the old “crossroads” or roadside tavern; “laz” - to the former “threshold” as a ritual crossing topos).

In view of the iconic, spiritual, symbolic nature of the art of the word spatial and temporal coordinates of literary reality are not fully concretized, discontinuous and conditional (the fundamental unrepresentability of spaces, images and quantities in mythological, grotesque and fantastic works; uneven course of plot time, its delays at the points of descriptions, retreats, parallel flow in different storylines). However, here the temporary nature of the literary image, noted by G.E. Lessing in Laocoön (1766), makes itself felt - the convention in the transfer of space is felt weaker and is realized only when trying to translate literary works into the language of other arts; meanwhile, conventionality in the transfer of time, the dialectics of the discrepancy between the time of the narration and the time of the events depicted, compositional time with the plot are being mastered literary process as an obvious and meaningful contradiction.

Archaic, oral and generally early literature is sensitive to the type of temporal confinement, orientation in the collective or historical account of time (for example, in the traditional system of literary genres, lyric is “present”, and epic is “long gone”, qualitatively separated from the life time of the performer and listeners) . The age of myth for its keeper and narrator is not a thing of the past; the mythological narrative ends with the correlation of events with the present composition of the world or its future fate (the myth of Pandora's box, of the chained Prometheus, who will someday be released). The time of a fairy tale is a deliberately conditional past, a fictitious time (and space) of unheard-of things; ironic ending (“and I was there, drinking honey-beer”) often emphasizes that there is no way out of the time of a fairy tale during its rendering (on this basis, one can conclude that more late origin fairy tales versus myths).

As archaic, ritual models of the world, marked by features of naive realism (observance of the unities of time and place in ancient drama with its cult and mythological origins) disintegrated, in spatio-temporal representations that characterize literary consciousness, the degree of conditionality increases. In an epic or fairy tale, the tempo of the narration could not yet sharply outstrip the tempo of the events depicted; an epic or fairy-tale action could not unfold simultaneously (“in the meantime”) on two or more sites; it was strictly linear and, in this respect, remained faithful to empiricism; The epic narrator did not have a field of vision expanded in comparison with the usual human horizon; at each moment he was in one and only one point of the plot space. "Copernican coup" produced by the modern European novel in spatio-temporal organization of narrative genres, consisted in the fact that the author, along with the right to unconventional and frank fiction, acquired the right to dispose of novel time as its initiator and creator. When fiction removes the mask of a real event, and the writer openly breaks with the role of a rhapsodist or chronicler, then there is no need for a naive-empirical concept of event time. Temporal coverage can now be arbitrarily wide, the pace of narration can be arbitrarily uneven, parallel “theatres of action”, reversal of time and exits to the future known to the narrator are acceptable and functionally important (for purposes of analysis, explanation or entertainment). The boundaries between the compressed author's presentation of events, which speeds up the passage of plot time, the description, which stops its course for the sake of an overview of space, and dramatized episodes, the compositional time of which "keeps pace" with plot time. Accordingly, the difference between the unfixed (“omnipresent”) and the spatially localized (“witness”) position of the narrator, which is characteristic mainly of “dramatic” episodes, is felt more sharply.

If in a short story of a novelistic type (the classic example is The Queen of Spades, 1833, by A.S. Pushkin), these moments of the new artistic time and artistic space are still brought to a balanced unity and are completely subordinate to the author-narrator, who talks with the reader as If it were “on the other side” of fictional space-time, then in the “big” novel of the 19th century, such unity noticeably fluctuates under the influence of emerging centrifugal forces. These “forces” are the discovery of everyday time and habitable space (in the novels of O. Balzac, I.S. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov) in connection with the concept of the social environment that forms the human character, as well as the discovery of a multi-subject narrative and transferring the center of space-time coordinates to the inner world of the characters in connection with the development of psychological analysis. When long-term organic processes come into the narrator's field of vision, the author runs the risk of facing the impossible task of reproducing life "from minute to minute." The way out was to transfer the sum of everyday circumstances that repeatedly affect a person beyond the time of action (exposition in Father Goriot, 1834-35; Oblomov’s dream is a lengthy digression in Goncharov’s novel) or distribution throughout calendar plan works of episodes shrouded in the course of everyday life (in the novels of Turgenev, in the "peaceful" chapters of the epic of L.N. Tolstoy). Such an imitation of the “river of life” itself with particular persistence requires the narrator to have a guiding supra-event presence. But, on the other hand, the opposite, in essence, process of “self-elimination” of the author-narrator is already beginning: the space of dramatic episodes is increasingly organized from the “observation position” of one of the characters, events are described synchronously, as they are played out before the eyes of the participant. It is also significant that chronicle-everyday time, in contrast to the event-based (in the source - adventure) does not have an unconditional beginning and an unconditional end ("life goes on").

In an effort to resolve these contradictions, Chekhov, in accordance with his general idea of ​​​​the course of life (the time of everyday life is the decisive tragic time of human existence), merged eventful time with everyday time to an indistinguishable unity: episodes that happened once are presented in a grammatical imperfect - as repeatedly repeated everyday scenes that fill a whole segment of everyday life. (This folding of a large “piece” of plot time into a single episode, which simultaneously serves as both a summary story about the past stage and an illustration to it, a “test” taken from everyday life, is one of the main secrets of Chekhov’s famous brevity.) From the crossroads In the classic novel of the mid-19th century, the path opposite to Chekhov's was paved by Dostoevsky, who concentrated the plot within the boundaries of a critical, crisis time of decisive trials, measured in a few days and hours. The chronicle gradualness here is actually depreciated in the name of the decisive disclosure of the characters in their fateful moments. In Dostoevsky’s intense turning point corresponds to the space illuminated in the form of a stage, extremely involved in events, measured by the steps of the characters - the “threshold” (doors, stairs, corridors, lanes, where you can’t miss each other), “accidental shelter” (tavern, compartment), “ hall for a gathering, ”corresponding to situations of crime (crossing), confession, public trial. At the same time, the spiritual coordinates of space and time embrace the human universe in his novels (the ancient golden age, French revolution, "quadrillions" of cosmic years and versts), and these instantaneous mental slices of world existence encourage us to compare the world of Dostoevsky with the world " Divine Comedy"(1307-21) Dante and "Faust" (1808-31) I.V. Goethe.

In the spatio-temporal organization of a work of literature of the 20th century, the following trends and features can be noted:

1. The symbolic plane of the realistic spatio-temporal panorama is accentuated, which, in particular, is reflected in the inclination towards nameless or fictitious topography: City, instead of Kyiv, by M.A. Bulgakov; the county of Yoknapatofa in the south of the USA, created by the imagination of W. Faulkner; the generalized "Latin American" country of Macondo in the national epic of the Colombian G. Garcia Marquez "One Hundred Years of Solitude" (1967). However, it is important that artistic time and artistic space in all these cases require real historical and geographical identification, or at least convergence, without which the work is incomprehensible;
2. The closed artistic time of a fairy tale or parable is often used, which is excluded from the historical account, which often corresponds to the uncertainty of the scene (“The Trial”, 1915, F. Kafka; “The Plague”, 1947, A. Camus; “Watt”, 1953, S. Beckett );
3. A remarkable milestone in modern literary development- appeal to the character's memory as an internal space for the development of events; the intermittent, reverse and other course of plot time is motivated not by the author's initiative, but by the psychology of recall (this takes place not only in M. Proust or W. Wolf, but also in writers of a more traditional realistic plan, for example, in H. Böll, but in modern Russian literature by V.V. Bykov, Yu.V. Trifonov). Such a setting of the hero's consciousness makes it possible to compress the actual time of action to a few days and hours, while the time and space of an entire human life can be projected onto the screen of recollection;
4. Modern literature has not lost a hero moving in an objective earthly expanse, in a multifaceted epic space of collective historical destinies - what are the heroes " Quiet Don"(1928-40) M.A. Sholokhov," Life of Klim Samgin ", 1927-36, M. Gorky.
5. The “hero” of a monumental narrative can become historical time itself in its decisive “nodes”, subordinating the fate of heroes to itself as private moments in an avalanche of events (A.I. Solzhenitsyn’s epic “The Red Wheel”, 1969-90).