Definition of the genre of the story. Short story and short story, their relationship.
B.V. Tomashevsky: “A short story (story) is a work with a simple plot,<…>with a short chain of changing situations, or rather, with one central change of situations (Tomashevsky B.V. Poetics).
G.N. Pospelov: “The story is a small epic genre form of fiction - a small prose work in terms of the volume of the depicted phenomena of life, and hence in terms of the volume of the text.<...>There is another kind of small prose genre - a short story. Apparently, it would be more correct to understand the story as a small prose form in general, and to distinguish among the stories the works of the essay (descriptive-narrative) type and the novelistic (conflict-narrative) type ”(Pospelov G.N. Story // Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary).
Y. Nagibin: “The story is one-line, it has one dramatic knot, one conflict” (Nagibin Y. Not someone else's craft).
V.P. Skobelev: “A story (short story) is an intensive type of organization of artistic time and space, involving a centripetal concentration of action, during which a test, a test of a hero or any significant phenomenon in general is carried out with the help of one or several homogeneous situations. So the reader's attention is reduced to the decisive moments in the life of the character or the phenomenon as a whole. Hence the concentration of the plot-compositional unity, the one-dimensionality of the speech style and the small / against the background of the novel and the story / volume as a result of this concentration ”(Skobelev V.P. Poetics of the story).
The history of the genre. The appearance of the first works with the subtitle "story" in the mid-1820s and the consolidation of this definition for narrative works of small form from the mid-1840s (see details about the history of the emergence of the genre and the term in the works of E. Shubin, A.V. Luzhanovsky and etc.). Active development of small prose genres in the mid-1840s. The connection between the emergence of the genre and its development with the history of realism in Russian literature. "Tales of Belkin" by A.S. Pushkin and "Evenings on a farm near Dikanka" by N.V. Gogol as an important moment in the history of the Russian story. The big role of I.S. Turgenev’s “Notes of a Hunter” in the formation of the genre (see V.G. Belinsky’s article “A Look at Russian Literature of 1847”, where the author wrote that the story that had long existed in literature as “ younger brother"story, received the right of an independent genre).
The story in the works of L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov, I.A. Bunin and others. The wide distribution of the genre in literature silver age. The fate of the story and the metamorphosis of this genre in the literature of the 20th - early 21st century.
Topic 2. E. Zamyatin - short story writer.
E. Zamyatin as one of the brightest representatives of the small epic genre in the literature of the 20th century, a talented experimental writer. Writer's autobiography. Polytechnic education and its role in the life and work of E. Zamyatina. Fascination with the ideas of socialism and direct participation in revolutionary events in Russia.
Appeal of E. Zamyatin to the genre of the story at the beginning of the 20th century. The motive of district Rus' as the main one in his work. The satirical nature of creativity, the traditions of N.V. Gogol, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N.S. Leskov. The northern theme in the writer's works (the stories "Africa", "North", "Yola").
Business trip to England in 1916 and its role in the life and work of E. Zamyatin. Criticism of English bourgeois society and Western rationalism in the spirit of O. Spengler (story "The Catcher of Men"). Fascination with modernism.
E. Zamyatin and the Revolution of 1917. Educational practice, participation in many cultural projects Soviet Russia. Theoretical works by E. Zamyatin on neorealism and expressionism (“On Synthetism”, “I'm Afraid”, “New Russian Prose”, “On Literature, Revolution, Entropy and Other Things”). The main thing in the style: emphasized rationalism, geometry of form, distortion of the image, use of the grotesque, tragic irony: "synthetic image in symbolism, synthesized everyday life, synthesis of fantasy and everyday life, experience of artistic and philosophical synthesis" ("New Russian Prose").
The embodiment of the basic principles new poetics in his short stories (“Cave”, “Rus”, “Dragon”, “Mamai”, “The Story of the Most Important Thing”, “Yola”, etc.). Interest in fantasy. The influence of G. Wells and A. France on the work of E. Zamyatin. Recent Literature about Zamyatin.
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Introduction
1. The emergence of the fantasy genre in Russia and abroad: the general principles of poetics
1.1 From science fiction to fantasy
1.2 Feature of the fantastic in fantasy (general principles of poetics)
2. Critics about the fantasy genre: philosophical and literary interpretation
2.1 Marking the boundary "rational - irrational": the problem of revealing one's own world
2.2 Main fantasy characters
2.3 The influence of fantasy theory on the development of the literary process
Conclusion
List of used literature
Introduction
IN modern literary criticism on this moment there is no generally accepted definition of fantasy genre. Almost everyone who writes about fantasy tries to give own definition this concept. As a result, a significant number of definitions appeared, sometimes contradicting one another.
Genre definitions can be grouped around several trends. Most often, fantasy is defined as a special direction of science fiction. "In the modern literary lexicon, the definition of fantasy (from "fantasy") is increasingly common, which is a whole literature where the boundaries of the real, the fantastic and the unreal, the mystical are blurred" .
The word "fantasy" is firmly entrenched in the minds of modern man. It is often used as a designation for mass literature and the film industry of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. In domestic literary criticism, this phenomenon of modern culture is at the stage of reflection. fantasy genre poetics
The fantasy genre is currently causing a lot of controversy that relates to the history of the genre, genre-specific and functional nature, genre modifications (classification), poetics, etc. This situation is explained by the comparative youth of the genre: fantasy literature has existed for a little over 100 years, the term appeared in 70 years of the twentieth century. abroad, in the 80s - in Russia.
The subject of research in the course work is the fantasy genre. The object of the study is the works of Russian, Western European and American writers and critics working in the fantasy genre.
The purpose of the study is to identify the genre originality of fantasy literature, to consider its theory, which is taking shape in modern literary criticism. To achieve this goal in the course of the study, it is necessary to solve a number of problems:
Work tasks:
1. Consider the main trends in the development of the genre and its relationship with other genres.
2. Consider the ways of becoming a fantasy genre.
3. Analyze the images of the main characters of the fantasy genre.
4. Consider the influence of the fantasy genre on the modern literary process.
Theoretical and methodological basis term paper are the fundamental works of the largest representatives of domestic and foreign literary criticism, among which are the works on the theory of myth and folklore V.Ya. Proppa, E.M. Meletinsky, Ya.E. Golosovker, A.K. Baiburina, V.V. Ivanova, V.N. Toporova, Yu.M. Lotman, G.V. Maltseva, E.M. Neelova, L.G. Nevsky, S.Yu. Neklyudova, E.S. Novik, Ts. Todorova, T. Chernyshova and others.
Research methods - descriptive-analytical with elements of system analysis, elements of cultural-historical and comparative-historical methods.
The work consists of introduction, main part, conclusion and list of references. The introduction formulates the goals and objectives of the study, substantiates the relevance of the scientific problem And practical significance research.
1. The emergence of the fantasy genre in Russia and abroad: the general principles of poetics
1.1 From science fiction to fantasy
"Fantasy (eng. Fantasy) is a type of fantastic literature, or literature about the extraordinary, based on the plot assumption of an irrational nature. This assumption has no logical motivation in the text, suggesting the existence of facts and phenomena that, unlike science fiction, are not amenable to rational explanation ".
"In the most general case, fantasy is a work where the fantastic element is incompatible with the scientific picture of the world."
"Fantasy is a description of worlds like ours, worlds with magic working in them, worlds with a clear boundary between Darkness and Light. These worlds can be some variations of the Earth in the distant past, distant future, alternative present, as well as parallel worlds that exist out of touch with the earth.
A number of researchers tend to define fantasy as a kind of literary fairy tale. "In terms of external parameters, fantasy is a kind of fantastic fairy tale". "Fairy-tale phantasmagoria of fictional worlds" calls the fantasy writer E. Gevorkyan.
"Fairy tale. This genre differs from science fiction in the absence of moralizing and attempts at messianism. From the traditional fairy tale - in the absence of division into bad and good," Nika Perumov's article says.
J.R.R. Tolkien, in his essay "On Fairy Tales", discusses the role of fantasy in the creation of wonderful secondary worlds. Tolkien exalts fantasy, like the Romantics of the early nineteenth century. But, unlike them, the writer considers fantasy not an irrational, but a rational activity. In his opinion, the author of a fantastic work must consciously strive for orientation to reality. It is necessary to give the fictional inner "logic of the real", starting with the fact that the author himself must believe in the existence of Fairy (consonant with fantasy), "a secondary world based on mythological imagination" . Another trend is the definition of fantasy through myth. This is quite natural, since fantasy literature always has a mythological basis.
"This genre arose on the basis of the authors' rethinking of the traditional mythological and folklore heritage. And in the best examples of this genre, a number of parallels can be found between the author's fiction and the mythological and ritual representations that formed its basis" .
"The fantasy world is ancient myths, legends, tales passed through modern consciousness and revived by the will of the author." The clearest definition of fantasy is offered by the reference book "Russian Science Fiction of the 20th Century in Names and Faces": "Fantasy is a kind of fusion of a fairy tale, science fiction and an adventure novel into a single ("parallel", "secondary") artistic reality with a tendency to recreate, rethink the mythical archetype and form a new world within its boundaries.
Fantasy presupposes the content of an element of the extraordinary, i.e. stories about what does not happen, was not and cannot be. The basic meaning of the terms fantasy and fantastic is special way displaying reality in forms unusual for it. Features of fiction: 1) sending the extraordinary, i.e. story-forming assumption about the reality of extraordinary events; 2) the motivation of the extraordinary; 3) the form of expression of the extraordinary.
Fantasy is secondary to imagination, it is a product of imagination, it changes the face of reality reflected in the mind. In this case, we are also talking about a subjective beginning, a kind of substitution. The modern understanding of fantasy is also based on the teachings of K.G. Jung, and then fantasy is a self-image of the unconscious; fantasy is most active when the intensity of the conscious falls, as a result, the barrier of the unconscious is broken.
Fantasy is a concept used to designate a category of works of art depicting phenomena that are emphatically different from the phenomena of reality. The figurativeness of fantastic literature is characterized by a high degree of conventionality, which can manifest itself in a violation of logic, accepted patterns, natural proportions and forms of the depicted. At the heart of any fantastic work lies the opposition "real - fantastic". The main feature of the poetics of the fantastic is the so-called "doubling" of reality, which is achieved either through the creation of a different reality, completely different from the real reality, or through the formation of a "two-world" consisting in the parallel coexistence of the real and unreal worlds. There are such types of fantasy as explicit and implicit.
The origins of the fantastic lie in the mythopoetic consciousness of mankind. Romanticism and neo-romanticism are traditionally considered to be the heyday of the fantastic. Fantasy gives rise to a special character of works of art, directly opposed to realism. Fantasy does not recreate reality in its laws and foundations, but freely violates them; it forms its unity and wholeness not by analogy with how it happens in the real world. By its nature, the regularity of the fantastic world is completely different from the regularity of the realistic. Fiction creatively reproduces not reality, but dreams, daydreams in all the originality of their qualities. This is the essential basis of fantasy, or its pure form.
There are three types of fantastic works. Works of fiction of the first kind - completely detached from reality - are pure dreams, in which there is no direct perception of the real reasons for them or reasons. Fantastic works of the second kind, in which the secret basis for everyday phenomena, these are such dreams when we directly see the real reasons for miraculous images and events, or in general their connection with reality, i.e. when in the dream itself we contemplate not only fantastic pictures, but also their real causative agents or, in general, elements of the real world directly connected with them - and the real turns out to be subordinate to the fantastic. Finally, fantastic works of the third kind, in which we directly contemplate no longer real stimuli or satellites. mysterious phenomena but it is the real consequences of them. These are those sleepy states when, in the first moments of awakening, while still in the power of dreamy visions, we see them implanted one way or another in the real world - descended into waking life. All three types of fantasy are equally common in fiction, but they are not equivalent.
The fantasy genre is a type of fantasy literature. In terms of the volume of publications and popularity among the average reader, fantasy has left far behind all other areas of science fiction. Among all literary movements, it is fantasy that is developing most rapidly, exploring new territories and attracting more and more readers.
Fantasy as a technique has been known to art since time immemorial. Actually, in one way or another, it is inherent in any kind of art. In literature, however, it has come a very long way: from primeval myth to a fairy tale, from fairy tales and legends - to the literature of the Middle Ages, and then to romanticism. Finally, in contemporary literature it's science fiction and fantasy. These genres developed in parallel, sometimes touching in some way.
The question of the relationship between science fiction and fantasy has not yet been resolved. On the one hand, both are combined in one concept of "fantastic" and are perceived as its modifications. On the other hand, fantasy clearly opposes the kind of literature conventionally referred to as "science fiction."
1.2 Feature of the fantastic in fantasy (general principles of poetics)
The concepts of imagination, fantasy and fantastic are discussed in detail in modern science primarily in psychology. In fantasy literature, these concepts are associated with an article by J.R.R. Tolkien's "On Magical Stories", in which they have an interpretation that differs in many respects from the generally accepted one. The heyday of fantasy (neomyth) falls on the postmodern era, the era of experiment and the search for new forms.
In the descriptive concepts of fantasy, in the aggregate, a number of features of the genre are defined, among which the following come to the fore: fantasy picture world, fairy tale and mythological basis and genre synthesis. Researchers find in fantasy elements of a heroic epic, legend, chivalric romance, literary fairy tale, romantic story, Gothic novel, symbolist occult-mystical literature, postmodern novel, etc. It can be seen that all of the listed genres and trends are somehow connected with the myth.
So, "fantasy is always based on either a revised canonical system of myths, or an original author's mythopoetic concept, the most important feature of which is the creation of a secondary world (a holistic picture of the world and man), where man is a microcosm in the macrocosm system" .
In Russian fiction, there are a number of excellent fantastic works by N.V. Gogol, V.F. Odoevsky, I.S. Turgenev, V.M. Garshina, F.K. Sologub and many others. etc. In the work of F.M. Dostoevsky's fantasy plays a very important role.
One of the features of the fantasy genre is that it is based on ancient mythological ideas, in particular, Germanic-Scandinavian legends, which keep a trace of pre-Christian pagan ideas. The attachment to the mythical, heroic and magical, which has long been characteristic of the culture of England, increases at the end of the 19th century, reaches its apogee in the 20th century. In magical stories began to unfold Christian ideas, the images of the main characters reflect both the heroic features of the epic characters and the virtues inherent only in the Christian ideal. And the invented worlds themselves receive justification in cosmogony, have their own history, in many respects similar to the real situation.
The holistic genre language of foreign fantasy was so recognizable that the Polish science fiction writer A. Sapkowski in the late 80s wrote a plot model of a typical fantasy novel, based on the plot of Cinderella. Based on the changes made to the known plot, we assumed that the relevant components of a recognizable genre language are the following:
1. The type of hero is changing. The semantic core on which the magical plot has been based for centuries is the change in the status of the main character. Cinderella in the model of A. Sapkovsky is a heroine with the right to the throne, "a hero doomed to heroism."
2. The role of the image of the antagonist is growing stronger (this is no longer the image of a stepmother, but the image of a malevolent prince "behind whom a separate space is assigned). This led to a number of successive changes in the new plot: the fairy tale plot about Cinderella is replaced by a stylization of another type of plots, the content of which is a search ( quest) and the fight against an antagonist-pest, the need to search and fight actualized the importance of the typology of spaces in fantasy. contemporary criticism fantasy stands out as fundamental).
2. The “other” world, which has become very important, is divided axiologically (the prince is a demonic being, and his mentor is an evil sorcerer) and opposes the positive world with its negative part (Cinderella and the fairy godmother). There is a struggle of the higher forces of the secondary world, which "forms the appearance of being").
3. The value of the type of the protagonist hero is increased, which is enhanced by the introduction of the function of divination (prophecy).
The playful nature of fantasy is manifested not only at the level of image creation, i.e. games with a standard image, but also at the level of plot formation. Considering the problem of plot formation in Russian fantasy, we have identified two basic principles for organizing a literary text in works of Russian and foreign fantasy:
1) the idea of historical reality can serve as artistic material for combining and reconstructing the secondary world. 2) any other text can act as artistic material for combining and reconstructing the secondary world. The first principle organizes the text in such a way that recognizable reality is played out, and the combination of elements is built into new plot which is nevertheless familiar to readers. The second principle is the playful use of someone else's text, which, in turn, can be: 1) a well-known mythological plot (or a separate mythology); 2) someone else's author's original story.
The mythological figurative-plot basis as a secondary world is the most easily perceived fantastic picture: almost everything is already known. The writer faces two sets of tasks: 1) the set of logical explanations for those irrational events and plot twists that make up the fantastic dominant; 2) a body of original ideas introduced by the author into the mythological picture fantasy world.
Mysticism has always been present in Russian literature, especially in the 19th century, when Russian fiction was strongly influenced by German romanticism. This Hoffmannian tradition of Russian literature continued at the beginning of the 20th century - suffice it to recall the prose of the Serapion Brothers, A. Green, V. Bryusov, V. Kaverin and M. Bulgakov.
If we consider only a narrow subgenre of fantasy - "swords and magic", then we must admit that in the Russian literary tradition there is more "magic" than "swords". But, on the other hand, if "Taras Bulba" N.V. Gogol to add mysticism from his own "Enchanted Place", "Viya" and "Terrible Revenge", we will get a work of heroic fantasy. This synthesis did not take place due to the weakness of the adventurous, adventure genre in Russian literature as a whole. But at the beginning of the twentieth century, this genre has already begun to take shape and grow stronger. A. Grin and V. Bryusov came closest to creating heroic fantasy. In the stories of Green, in Bryusov's story "Mountain of the Stars", in the poetry of N. Gumilyov, typical hero"swords and magic" - a wandering loner, a strong and self-confident person who knows how to not only reflect. But also to act, able to stand up for himself and look into the eyes of death.
In later times, elements of heroic fantasy can be found in "Aelita" by A. Tolstoy, "The Last Man from Atlantis" by A. Belyaev, and in such works by I. Efremov as "On the Edge of the Oikumene", "Baurget's Journey", "Thais of Athens" . Full-fledged works, which can not hesitate to be attributed to the genre of "swords and magic", began to appear in Russia only in last decade XX century.
In the 1980s, the first fantasy publishing houses began to appear. However, it was almost impossible for Soviet fantasy writers to publish their own book. The only publishing houses that tried to help them in any way were "Text" in Moscow and "Terra Fantastika" in St. Petersburg. Publishing houses were afraid that Soviet authors would not attract readers, so they were offered to create a "foreign pseudonym" and publish under it. So, for example, Svyatoslav Loginov was offered to write some work under the pseudonym "Harry Harrison". At the same time, Dmitry Gromov and Oleg Ladyzhensky began to sign their works with the pseudonym "Henry Lion Oldie". By 1993, the only Russian fantasy writer to publish under his own name was Nick Perumov, due to his independent sequel to The Lord of the Rings. In the same year, it became apparent that the circulation of books was much larger than the number of potential readers. Then the circulation of books fell twenty to thirty times. Major publishing houses have found a solution to this by increasing the number of titles of published books.
In St. Petersburg, the publication "Azbuka", among other books, published "Slavic fantasy" - the novel "Wolfhound" by Maria Semyonova, thus securing the presence of Russian authors in the book market. The preference for foreign science fiction writers over Russian authors finally ceased in 1997. The leading Moscow publications "Eksmo" and "AST" opened several series of Russian science fiction and fantasy. It was then that the rapid growth and flowering of fantasy and science fiction began, written in former countries THE USSR.
Russian fantasy experiences the strongest influence of the English-speaking "progenitor". But it was American stereotypes that incredibly narrowed the range of problems, images and plots developed by fantasy. Medieval surroundings, traditional quest, a standard set of heroes, all this came to us along with Tolkien and Zelazny. The traditions of Gogol and Bulgakov are forgotten, many do not even consider these works as fantasy. Few still worthy works of Russian fantasy decisively destroy stereotypes. In Russian literature there are examples of Chinese, Indian, ancient Greek fantasy, Stone Age fantasy; there is modern day fantasy, alternative fantasy, and even sci-fi future fantasy, and have been used by followers. We consider the most striking examples of role-playing Russian fantasy, such as "The Black Book of Arda" by N.E. Vasilyeva, N.V. Nekrasova, "The Last Ring-bearer" by K. Eskov, "The Spear of Darkness" by N. Perumov. The analysis of their renewed artistic system is based on the analysis of the dynamics of Tolkien's positive image in subcultural-role folklore.
In Russia, his most significant representative of the epic fantasy genre is Nick Perumov. From the very beginning and until now, they are considered the "king" of Russian epic fantasy. The Ring of Darkness trilogy, which marked the beginning of the writer's popularity, is, by and large, an imitation of Tolkien. However, this imitation is very detailed, carefully worked out and throwing an ideological challenge to the author of the original text - Tolkien. Perumov consolidated his success with the Hjervard Chronicle cycle. On account of the writer, both serials and individual novels. Among them, in addition to epic, there are heroic and techno-fantasy.
The world of fantasy initially arose as a parallel to the everyday existence of mankind. This is how Tolkien's Middle Earth, Clive Lewis's Narnia, Ursula Le Guin's Earthsea and other worlds appeared. The inhabitants of these worlds or the person who enters them find themselves in the ultimate difficult situations requiring not only the performance of courageous actions and heroic deeds, but, above all, a tough moral choice. Everything was possible in these books - wizards, dragons, magic rings, werewolves and witches, corridors in time and space, i.e. the whole arsenal of fairy tales and ancient legends. However, with all the flight of imagination in this transformed myth, one thing remained unchanged - a person must remain himself. Moreover, the moral situation has always required the hero to use his best spiritual qualities. She was a kind of exam for the title of a person. As in traditional fairy tales, good won, but prevailed precisely as good, without the slightest concessions and compromises. Even the noblest end here did not justify immoral means. The main task of "fantasy" was to establish harmony within a person, in victory over oneself. Judging by the popularity of the fantasy genre among readers different levels preparation, the set goal was largely achieved.
The modern fantasy genre has its origins in the European chivalric romance, Scandinavian sagas, myths and legends such as the Arthurian cycle, the so-called Gothic novel, and the writings of mystics and romantics of the 19th century. In Europe, the names of Hoffmann and Walpole can be named among the progenitors of fantasy; representatives of German romanticism and the English Gothic novel. There is probably not a single writer in the UK who has not had at least one ghost story. Even such a realist and everyday writer as C. Dickens wrote the story "A Christmas Carol", where one bad character is guided on the path by a true ghost. S. Maugham wrote a whole novel under the title "The Magician", and its content is fully consistent with the title.
America, too, could not avoid this trend. In the 19th century, two names should be mentioned first of all - Edgar Allan Poe and Ambrose Bierce. In early 20th century American fiction there was a clear division into three streams. Jules Verne fiction, which described the technical wonders of the future. The leader of this trend was Hugo Gernsback. Then there was a stream that continued the traditions of the adventure, colonial novel. The leader of this trend was Edgar Burroughs. There was also a group of authors who were published in the magazine "WEIRD TALES" - "Fatal stories". What was published in this magazine, according to modern classification, refers to fantasy.
In general, plot formation in fantasy occurs as a result of a multi-way game: both with the interpretation and aftereffect (role-playing game) of someone else's author's text, and with the interpretation of a well-known mythological plot, put in the framework of the game overcoming the ban.
Category of plausibility in fantasy
Following psychological plausibility in fantasy is the same immutable law as in literature in general: "The more difficult it is to create the illusion of truth, the more one has to take care of reliability." In ways of creating credibility, the fantasy genre follows the general literary tradition begun by the romantics - attention to plausible details of the description of implausible creatures and phenomena. The tradition of fantastic folklore prose is also used - a reference to a witness. Some extra-textual and non-plot reality acts as a "witness". In the first case, this is the plausible confinement of fictitious events to historical events or events taken as reality. An example is the novel by A. Lazarchuk, M. Uspensky "Look into the eyes of monsters", where the events of the novel take place in the context of the history of the world (and Russia) of the twentieth century. The creation of an extra-plot reality consists in a detailed description of a fantasy world with pseudo-documentary fragments of secondary historical chronicles, fragments of secondary literary works, secondary linguistic, ethnographic, geographical and cartographic and other reference materials.
The requirement of psychological plausibility in fantasy actualizes the literal understanding of the fantastic image, completely rejecting the allegorical, allegorical ambiguity. It is precisely this requirement that literary play in fantasy poetics is kept from complete transition into philosophical insight. So, in the existence of Russian fantasy of the 90s and its poetics, the prerequisites for the use of such an artistic device as the creation of fantastic conditions (the world) as a result of a holistic game (role-playing) action are ripening. Also, to create a purely plausible improbable world, the general literary technique "text in text" is used. Russian fantasy, which arose in the wake of 1994-1996, not only adopted the invariant of the genre language given by the foreign version, but also supplemented it.
The progenitors of fantasy were classic fairy tales-quests: from the tales of "A Thousand and One Nights" to Russian fairy tales-travels such as "Go there, I don't know where" or "Tales of rejuvenating apples and living water". In turn, stories of this type go back structurally to the deeds of the heroes of antiquity. A fantasy novel is always based on the story of a magical journey. The hero travels beyond the horizon of familiar reality. On the way, the hero has a chance to undergo initiation and acquire new knowledge. And if the hero manages to return to his reality and bring knowledge to his world, then this world changes, sometimes catastrophically. At the same time, reality is recreated by the hero anew. Actually, "recreating reality anew" is the main work produced by the fantasy novel.
Fantasy is genetically related at the same time as folk tales and myths. From the myth fantasy inherited the epic nature of the story and the original tragedy. These trends are especially clearly seen in the novels by Nick Perumov "The Death of the Gods", G.L. Oldie "The many-armed god of dalain". The hero is obliged to do what is intended, even if it threatens him with death. The problem of struggle in a hopeless situation paints the entire heroic epic of the peoples of Europe in tragic colors. Modern fantasy adds to this situation the idea of moral choice. The fantasy hero is not as determined as the character of mythological tales, and therefore the fantasy genre opens up scope for creating contradictory, living human images. The fairy tale brings a lyricism to fantasy that is often lacking in science fiction.
Ideally, a work written in the fantasy genre should combine both trends - the epic nature of myth and the lyricism of a fairy tale. The fairy tale is the oldest and immortal genre of literature. Fairy tales have given the world of fantasy a veiled edification. However, fantasy has taken a step forward, abandoning the division of heroes into good and bad.
Fantasy can be described as modern fairy tale literature written in the New Time for the modern reader. These are novels and stories about wizards and heroes, gnomes, goblins, dragons, elves, demons, magic rings and buried treasures, sunken continents and forgotten civilizations using real or fictional mythology. Andrzej Sapkowski in the article "Pirug, or "There is no gold in the gray mountains" writes: "Fairy tale and fantasy are identical, because they are implausible. " Let's consider what is the main difference between these genres.
Chernysheva, calling fantasy "game fiction", connects its birth with the tradition of fairy tales and the carnival restructuring of the world: "The new tradition of literary fairy tales is connected with the tradition of carnival game restructuring of the world that has come from ancient times. Together they form what we call game fantasy" .
Romantics also took part in the formation of the genre. Of course, back then it wasn't fantasy as we know it. For example, Hoffmann already has all the features of fantasy, except for the fantasy world itself in the modern sense. There is a fairy-tale world, there are magical creatures, something unreal, unknowable and obviously impossible in habitual life. But in romantic literature it is still the fabulousness that is emphasized. The magical world of Hoffmann remains a fairy tale, it is not equal to the real world, it is not presented as self-sufficient, completely possible world, while the fantasy world should be equivalent to the real one, there is absolutely no subordination between them.
T. Stepnowska, discussing the origin of fantasy, argues: "The main source of fantasy as a special kind of fiction, where the free play of the imagination can break any law of the real world, introduce any miracle and magic as a component of content and form, are myth and fairy tale" . The basic law of myth is fate, high power. In a fairy tale, the principle is different. In it, good, by definition, is stronger than evil, and main character always conquers evil simply because it has to be so. His victory is inevitable. Evil in a fairy tale exists only so that good can defeat it. "Fantasy models a world that loses fairy-tale conditioning at the level of existence." The fairy tale creates its own, completely closed world in which the laws of nature can be ignored. Fantasy, on the other hand, introduces into the empirical world laws that contradict knowledge. Magic and non-magic in fantasy fight each other. This is well said in E. Ratkevich's novel "A Sword without a Handle": "The world resists magical intervention. Even a mountain range, even coastal sand, even dust on an old cobweb - and they do not obey without resistance."
A literary fairy tale is closer to fantasy precisely in that everyday life is already penetrating into it, but it is not yet fantasy, since it retains the fairy-tale conventionality. The world of a fairy tale always remains the world of a fairy tale, and its laws do not act outside.
Thus, comparing realistic fiction, science fiction and fantasy, we can conclude that
1) realistic prose describes events that did not happen, but which could well have happened;
2) science fiction describes events that are impossible from the point of view of today, but suggests that, under certain assumptions, such events are possible as a consequence of some scientific discoveries or technological developments;
3) fantasy does not appeal to rationalism, but, on the contrary, puts at the forefront the mystical, occult, irrational, which remains fundamentally inexplicable.
Consequently, in the text there is a flying carpet, it is taken from nowhere, and after use it disappears to no one knows where, and all this does not cause the heroes the slightest surprise, then this is a fairy tale. If the characters view the magic carpet as something unusual, but still use it to achieve their goals in a completely realistic way, then this is fantasy. If a large-caliber machine gun is installed on a flying carpet and a squadron of such carpets flies to storm Satan's castle, then this is science fantasy. And if the carpet flies because anti-gravity chips are woven into its fabric, then this is science fiction.
Conclusions on the first chapter:
1. Fantasy is a literary genre that was formed in the 20th century as a dream of a person's personal freedom from the economy, laws and other aspects of everyday life, incorporating edification and humanity from a fairy tale, epic and tragic from a myth, and the nobility of a chivalric romance. Authors working in this genre create worlds that are parallel to reality or not connected with it at all.
2. Of the literary genres, science fiction and mysticism are closest to fantasy. Separating science fiction from fantasy is difficult. Science fiction pays a lot of attention to progress and everything that is described in it seems to be possible for humanity in the future.
3. Fantasy initially declares that it describes an unreal world, and that this is impossible in our real world. In fantasy, manifestations of the supernatural and what we used to call the real world exist on an equal footing.
2. Critics about the fantasy genre: philosophical and literary interpretation
2.1 Marking the boundary "rational - irrational": the problem of revealing one's own world
Despite different points of view regarding the origin of fantasy, it is undeniable that it was the British professor of linguistics J.R.R. Tolkien at one time created a model or canon of a fantasy novel, which became a classic and the starting point for the development of the fantasy literary genre. The Celtic-British complex of legends and myths, which formed the basis of J. Tolkien's trilogy, thus turned into a traditional base for creating subsequent fantasy novels.
The worldwide success of "The Lord of the Rings" prompted publishers to pay serious attention to fairy tale fantasy.
The genre develops like an avalanche, more and more milestones appear in it, the Hall of Fame is quickly filled with portraits. In 1961, the sagas "Elric" and "Hawkmoon" by Michael Moorcock appeared. In 1963, the first "World of Witches" by Endre Norton (in Russian translation - "Witch World") is born. Fritz Leiber's "Fafrd and the Gray Cat" appears in the pocket edition. And finally, with great pomp - "Wizard of Earthsea" by Ursula Le Guin and at the same time, "The Last Unicorn" by P. Biggle, two books of an absolutely cult character. In the 1970s, Stephen King's books appear and break all sales records. True, this is more horror stories (Horror) than fantasy. Soon there will be Stephen Donaldson's Unbelieving Thomas, Zelazny's Amber, Piers Anthony's Xanthus, Katherine Kurtz's Deryni, Tanith Lee's Graveborn, Marion Zimmer Bradley's The Mists of Avalon, David Eddings' Belgariad and many others.
Faith in science and technological progress, fearlessness in the face of any futurological forecasts, conviction in the limitless prospects for the development of mankind - all these conceptual pillars of science fiction determine the popularity of this deeply rational (and rationalistic) genre of literature in an era of heightened social optimism. Such a time of technocratic euphoria and social progressivism, for example, was the 50-60s of the last century, when science fiction "turned into the sphere of almost everyday thinking of the average American", and a brilliant galaxy of science fiction writers came to literature: A. Azimov, R.E. Heinlein, K.D. Simak, R.D. Bradbury; created in the UK the best works Arthur Clark, in Poland - Stanislav Lem; in the USSR - Ivan Efremov, and later the Strugatsky brothers, Kir Bulychev.
Thus, in 1969, Catharina R. Simpson wrote: "Tolkien is unoriginal, boring and sentimental. His glorification of the past is a comic book for adults, he systematizes the despair of modernists. The Waste Land with commentary, no tears."
In the 70s, fantasy was at its peak, it was a period of experimentation and, as one little-known character said, "the age of great innovation." It is logical that it was then that the need for a thematic award appeared. Such in 1975 was the "World Fantasy Award" or WFA (World Fantasy Award), it is awarded at the "World Fantasy Convention", which is held mainly in the USA, but has been held several times in Canada and the UK. WFA is by far the most prestigious award in the realm of fantasy.
The irrationalistic, in fact, fantasy genre, on the contrary, flourishes in eras of social breakdown, reduced passionarity as - in the apt word of Tsvetan Todorov - "the restless conscience of the positivist age", pushing the imagination into the compensatory spaces of neomythology. The special role of science fiction in the culture of the 20th century, departing from the canon of the New European classics and establishing its own mode of interaction between the rational and the irrational, the individual and the mass, turns it into a generally recognized "method of destroying taboo topics", because "if in the age of positivism a breakthrough into the reality of the unconscious could happen, then only in the form of fantasy. It is not for nothing that the system of genre forms of fantasy, since the time of Gernsback, along with classical fantasy (narration about heroes and wizards, as a rule, of some conditional Middle Ages), sometimes includes the genres "mystery" and "horror", which open the door wide to the subconscious.
Fantasy is the future as the past; a world with a rigid hierarchy, inequality, cultural and moral decline, and archaization of consciousness. fantasy in its own classical form demonstrated the "bright future of victorious communism among the Strugatskys / the triumph of democracy and individual freedom in Star Trek." Even in such a classic work by Heinlein as Starship Troopers, humanity built its own utopia, which was already attacked by Bugs (Bugs).
In the 1960s and 1970s, the popularity of fantasy led to the birth of role-playing games. In them, a party of one / several players travels through a fantasy world in search of various adventures. In addition, each player has a variety of characteristics that change with increasing experience. "Dungeons & Dragons" is one of the most successful gaming systems.
HELL. Gusarova singles out the formulaic principle of a fantasy hero, which is "tied" to an irrational gift and its obligatory implementation in a conditional fantasy world. "In addition," she writes, "in connection with the existence of the irrational Gift and its necessary implementation in the "crucible of trials", the principle of the world is defined as magical and divided dichotomously. In this regard, the magical world is the focus of the eternal battle. A hero drawn by his gift returns to this world...
The world of fantasy, in contrast to the positivistic rationality of science fiction, is recognized by the reader as a space that obeys other, illogical, magical laws; in fantasy terminology, this is denoted by the word "magic" or "witchcraft". Fantasy uses traditional artistic images of witchcraft to create its secondary world. This power, initially present in the hero, manifesting itself as a specific talent, was bestowed on him by some irrational being, which is immanently present in the fantasy world. This power can also be given by the nature of the hero.
2.2 Main fantasy characters
The principle of the hero and the principle of the world Gusarov proposes to consider as meaningful principles of fantasy. One cannot but agree with this, but with a slight clarification. The definition of the content of the secondary world must be put in the first place, since the creation of any fantastic work, according to modern science fiction researchers, begins with the "creation" of the world: "... first of all, it is necessary to create a certain world, arranging it as best as possible and thinking it through in detail" .
The main process that happens to the main character is his heroic identification. The hero has five comparative-analytic qualities: "Getting a magical quality or means", "Identification of the hero - the second stage", "Magic helper, zoomorphic transfiguration, types of transfiguration", "Identification of the hero - the last stage", "Motive miraculous birth fantasy hero.
Analyzing the process of identifying the main character as a hero, we distinguish two stages of this identification. The first stage is the identification of the hero of Russian fantasy of the late twentieth century. associated with the initial manifestation in him of special powers that have a witchcraft nature. The presence of the original witch nature in the hero determines his first stage of initiation as a change in social status from low, "invisible" to high - in demand, "visible". A symbol of social change may be the acquisition of an iconic weapon with which the hero is magically, supernaturally connected. The acquisition of a high status is confirmed both by a social change (title, high position) and by the attitude of others. The change in status also indicates that the "foreign" world for the hero becomes his own.
The second stage of the process of identifying a character as a protagonist takes place on several levels. The first level is when, following the traditional change in social status, the hero becomes visible to the personified irrational force of the "foreign" world. The identification of the hero by the irrational forces of the "foreign" world can occur through a system of imposing and violating prohibitions (the legacy of a folk fairy tale), which in the context of fantasy represent the game rules of the plot (violation of the prohibition is the goal, and the method of violation is an unrealistic plan, fantastic conjecture). The second level of the second stage of identification is strongly associated with the communication of the prophecy to the hero, where he is identified as the expected messiah. The main function of prophecy in the poetics of fantasy, as well as in a fairy tale, is to convey to the hero a message about the main sabotage and ways to eliminate it. The importance of the hero's mission and the prophecy about him is directly related to the degree of danger of the antagonist.
The presence of a special gift in the nature of the hero also depends on the degree of danger coming from the antagonist. The image of the antagonist in fantasy contains sacral signs, expressed obviously or found in the analysis. Antagonist in figurative system Russian fantasy of the late 1990s often has pronounced signs of a sacred cosmic essence, its most important and fundamental function is to disturb the balance and order of the secondary fantasy world. This has its consequence in the image of the hero, who, in the process of his heroic identification, must manifest himself as a person who also has signs of sacredness.
In Russian fantasy, the last stage of the hero's identification partially occurs in the figurative system of two fairy-tale functions of "transfiguration" (sign T) - "the hero is given a new look" and one of the constituent components of the function "the hero gets a magic tool" (designation Zoomorphic transfiguration Z). The hero of Russian fantasy can experience two types of transfiguration: according to the zoomorphic type - turning into a monster-messiah, or acquiring the signs of an anthropomorphic divine being - anthropomorphic transfiguration.
A typological dependence of the form of the hero's transfiguration on the appearance of the enemy is built: the more monstrous the enemy, the more fantastic metamorphosis the hero undergoes. It is obvious that fantasy poetics, stubborn in its desire for integration, is not limited to one traditional way hero identification images. She uses the full range of fantastic transformation of the main character
It is quite obvious that the actions of the fantasy hero take his image beyond the framework of the system of symbols that came from the spheres of both funeral and initiatory sex and age rites. It seems that here we are dealing with figurative structures, whose roots go back to mystical initiation. In the context of mystical initiation, three constants stand out, consistently and rhythmically repeating in the image of the main character of Russian fantasy: the salvation of the world/man, unity with the highest deity, the vertical nature of the path.
So, we can conclude that in the structure of the image of the hero of the late twentieth century. systems of representations are traced, ascending, in addition to heroic initiation, to the archaic practice of an initiatory shamanic ritual.
As the reasons for the specificity of the poetics of Russian fantasy of the late twentieth century, we name:
Firstly, the emergence of a mystical image in modern Russian fantasy may be associated with the emerging in science fiction of the twentieth century. the trend of depicting extraterrestrials, where the cosmos is easy to populate with "beings on an increasing scale, perfect until we achieve something practically indistinguishable from omnipotence, omnipresence and omniscience." Secondly, the psychological justification for the emergence of a sacred image in fantasy poetics can come from, according to Yu.M. Lotman, from the tendency to reversibility of plots.
If there is a plot about a hero passing from inner space to outer space, acquiring something there and returning, "then there must be a reverse plot: the hero comes from outer space, suffers damage and returns."
These are stories about the incarnation of a god, his death here and his return. The third reason for the special attraction to the creation of a consistent mystical image of a fantasy hero lies, it seems to us, in the special interaction of elements of folklore plot and folklore picture of the world, which is reflected with a certain degree of completeness in fantastic works. This interaction is such that any "element that enters this system must "attach" to it, it evolves until it takes the form that the system requires, and one of the main requirements of folklore plot is the requirement of meaningfulness" .
HELL. Gusarova singles out the formulaic principle of a fantasy hero, which is "tied" to an irrational gift and its obligatory implementation in a conditional fantasy world. "In addition," she writes, "in connection with the existence of the irrational Gift and its necessary implementation in the "crucible of trials", the principle of the world is defined as magical and divided dichotomously. In this regard, the magical world is the focus of the eternal battle. A hero drawn by his gift returns to this world... The principle of the hero and the principle of the world Gusarov proposes to consider as meaningful principles of fantasy. One cannot but agree with this, but with a slight clarification. The definition of the content of the secondary world must be put in the first place, since the creation of any fantastic work, according to modern science fiction researchers, begins with the "creation" of the world: "... first of all, it is necessary to create a certain world, arranging it as best as possible and thinking it through in detail" .
In addition to various races, there are also fantastic animals in fantasy. They are an image of the response of the surrounding world to the actions and worldview of the main characters in the books. Let's try to understand the diversity of fantasy fauna:
the unicorn is the personification of purity, chastity and purity, which are revealed only to those who themselves are also sinless and innocent. Presented as a snow-white horse with a sparkling horn on its head;
ent - a tree that has come to life, protecting the race of elves in case of an attack. They are a model of fidelity and willpower;
chimera - a terrible and dangerous creature, assembled from parts of the bodies of animals. Most often appears before the reader with a huge snake head on a lion's body. It is an image of deceit and resourcefulness;
gargoyle - a giant bat made of marble, which is obliged to protect its creator and serves as a messenger and scout for him. Represents devotion and a sense of duty;
Modeus is a fiery demon summoned by sorcerers for their own protection in dangerous situations. They are dutiful and obedient, but at the expense of deceit and duplicity, they want to kill the one who disturbed them with his call and enslave his soul;
dragons - giant flying lizards, differing in the elements that gave birth to them, but united in their greed and greed;
wyverns are dead dragons brought back to life by dark magic and serving as guardians of the necropolises of the undead. Doomed to the suffering of an afterlife, they are the focus of malice and a thirst for revenge;
hypogryphs - akin to chimeras, as they are a winged lion's body with a bird's head. They serve as an example of loyalty and pride, deny betrayal and are devoted to their owners until death;
Gnols are treacherous and cunning creatures, spawned by experiments with magic. They look like humans, but with the head of a hyena. They often engage in robbery, but, not knowing the value of money, they only keep it without using it;
Thaamag is a huge demoness, the guardian of the underworld. Thus, creatures from the fantasy world help the reader to imagine the most likely reaction of others to any of his actions or opinions. This, of course, allows a person to determine for himself his life course.
Let's dwell on the most popular fantasy races:
Elves - (alfe, elaf) Pointy-eared "children of the forest", excellent archers. They are divided into forest (Bosmer), higher (Altmer), dark (danmer) and ghostly (Scaimer). In parentheses are their "true" names, invented by science fiction writers.
Orcs are a race of green-skinned monsters who are still very stupid, but already very warlike.
Undead - (undead) are also known as "not dead". They represent dead men who have come to life at the will of dark magicians-necromancers. They are perhaps the most beloved creatures of both authors and readers.
Vampires - everyone knows the legends about night hunters with white faces and black souls. Vampires can be classified as undead, but due to their popularity and antiquity, they have long been a separate species in fiction.
Gnomes are a short people who live underground. They love gold more than anything and are the best blacksmiths in the world.
Demons - (daimonium) a formidable race, spawned by the hatred of fallen angels and hellfire. They are cunning and two-faced, but at the same time they have their own code of honor, and they strictly follow it.
Elementals - a race created during experiments with the elements of fire, earth and water. Subsequently, the elements of these three principles created the air elemental. They exemplify the friendship and understanding that they display in group work.
These and many other inhabitants of fantasy worlds can have a significant impact on a person's worldview. They personify any qualities of people and show them to the reader.
2.3 The influence of fantasy theory on the development of the literary process
The period of romantic fantasy remained in the second half of the bygone century. Fantasy is becoming more and more pragmatic. Insanely popular are the authors who have chosen the following primitive scheme: a) Non-stop "twisting" protagonist. b) Infinitely appearing more and more formidable opponents, capable of several pages or even volumes to resist the overly "cool" protagonist. Accordingly, the whole story is reduced to non-stop "fights". c) Minimizing the number of "beautiful" global and side quests, their minimization, in order to enable the hero to march straight to his main task - the next salvation of the dying World.
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In the sixteenth century, pastorals came into vogue, they included choral performances of motets or madrigals (musical and poetic pieces). At the end of the sixteenth century, solo vocal numbers appeared in pastorals. This was the beginning of the birth of opera in the form familiar to modern man. This genre was called drama in musica, and "opera" appeared only in the first half of the seventeenth century. It should be noted that a number of continued to call their works musical dramas even after the appearance and consolidation of "opera".
There are several types of opera. The main one is considered to be the "Big Opera" or lyrical tragedy. It arose after the French Revolution and actually became the main musical direction nineteenth century.
History of opera houses
The first opera house opened in 1637 in Venice. The opera served to entertain the aristocrats and was not accessible to ordinary people. The first major opera is Jacopo Peri's Daphne, which was first performed in 1597.Opera is very popular, becoming a favorite form of art. The literary plots of operas make them accessible and understandable. musical art, since it is much easier to perceive than traditional ones without a plot.
Today, about twenty thousand opera performances are given a year. This means that more than fifty operas are performed every day in the world.
From Italy, the opera quickly spread to other European countries. Over the years, it has become public, ceasing to serve exclusively as entertainment for aristocrats. IN opera houses“galleys” began to appear, from which ordinary citizens could delightfully sing.
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Advice 2: The history of the appearance of the salad "herring under a fur coat"
Few people know that the traditional and beloved by thousands of people salad "herring under a fur coat" has a political connotation. This dish was invented back in 1918, which, as you know, was a turning point for Russia. According to a folk legend, "fur coat" is not the name of a type of clothing, but an abbreviation.
Brilliant invention of an ordinary chef
Since the middle of the 19th century, taverns have been a favorite vacation spot for citizens. Here they drank, swore, talked and by all means searched for the truth. Often visitors broke dishes, started fights, accused each other of bearing revolutionary ideas and they sang the Internationale in a discordant chorus. One day, Anastas Bogomilov, a merchant, owner of several highly frequented eateries, decided that it was necessary to calm the visitors and make the atmosphere in his establishments more relaxed. It happened in 1918. One of Anastas' employees, the cook Aristarkh Prokoptsev, decided that the easiest way to calm down the rebels was to saturate their stomach. But not just like that, but with a hidden connotation.
According to legend, it was Prokoptsev who came up with the idea of creating the herring dish. Herring was a symbol of the proletariat (a widespread, affordable and popular product among the people), vegetables (potatoes, onions and carrots) personified the peasantry, and beets represented the red revolutionary banner. The popular French cold sauce "mayonnaise" was the binder. Why he was chosen is not exactly known. According to one version, it was a sign of respect for those who made the Great French bourgeois revolution, according to another - a reminder of the Entente.
The Entente, which included France, was considered the main external enemy of Bolshevism.
Why a fur coat? SHUBA is an abbreviation, which was deciphered as follows: "Chauvinism and Decline - Boycott and Anathema."
Restaurant goers quickly appreciated the revolutionary salad. First, it was delicious. Secondly, inexpensive. And thirdly, it was an excellent snack for spirits. Due to the large amount of mayonnaise, people got less drunk, which means there were fewer fights. For the first time, salad appeared on the menu of Bogomilov's taverns before the new year 1919. Maybe that's why "herring under a fur coat" has become a traditional dish for the New Year's table.
The history of the emergence of lettuce is beautiful. How true it is, no one will ever know.
classic salad recipe
To prepare a traditional salad "herring under a fur coat" you will need boiled vegetables (except onions), a fresh apple, herring and mayonnaise.
It is desirable that the mayonnaise be homemade. If you have to use the store, then it is better to take the one where the percentage of fat content is higher.
You will need:
- 200 g herring fillet;
- 200 g of apples;
- 200 g of beets;
- 200 g of boiled potatoes;
- 200 g;
- 100 g of onion;
- mayonnaise.
After the vegetables are cooked, they need to be cooled, peeled and grated one by one on a coarse grater. The onion is cut as finely as possible. Herring fillet should be cut into medium-sized cubes: no more than 1x1 cm. The apple needs to be peeled and grated on a fine grater. It is better to spread the dish on a flat salad bowl. The first layer in the classic recipe is potatoes, then herring, onions, carrots, apples and beets. Each layer is smeared with fat mayonnaise.
The classic is known to many, but every housewife still makes herring under a fur coat in her own way. Some put a cucumber instead of an apple, others exclude onions from the ingredients, and still others use one of the layers of cheese. Some chefs strive to "ennoble" the dish and put salmon, salmon and even seafood like shrimp instead of herring. Housewives are also happy to experiment. On the Internet you can find many original recipes based on the classic: “Herring in a sheepskin coat”, “Fur coat without herring”, “Herring in a new fur coat”, “Herring in a raincoat”.
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How to cook salad "Herring under a fur coat"
Matryoshka dolls are considered to be original Russian souvenirs and that is why they are so popular among tourists coming to Russia from different countries. All the more interesting is the fact that these wooden painted figurines of elegant beauties, investing in each other, have far from Russian roots.
The first Russian matryoshka
The prototype of a cheerful, round-faced Russian girl, embodied in classic nesting dolls, was brought to Russia from Japan in early XIX centuries. The souvenir from the land of the sun was a wooden nesting figurine of the Japanese sage Fukurum. They were beautifully painted and stylized in the spirit of the traditions of the mother country of the modern matryoshka.
Once in the Moscow Toy Workshop, a Japanese souvenir inspired local turner Vasily Zvezdochkin and artist Sergey Malyutin to create similar toys. The craftsmen machined and painted similar figurines nesting one inside the other. The first analogue of a Japanese souvenir was a girl in a headscarf and a sundress, subsequent nesting dolls depicted cute funny children - boys and girls, on the last, eighth nesting doll, a swaddled baby was drawn. Most likely, it got its name in honor of the female name Matryona, which was widespread at that time.
Sergiev Posad nesting dolls
After the closure of the workshop in Moscow, in 1900, craftsmen in Sergiev Posad, in a training and demonstration workshop, took up the manufacture of matryoshkas. This type folk craft became widespread, not far from the capital there were workshops of the Bogoyavlenskys, Ivanovs, Vasily Zvezdochkin, who moved to Posad from Moscow.
Over time, this souvenir toy gained such popularity that foreigners began to order it from Russian masters: the French, Germans, etc. Such nesting dolls were not cheap, but there was something to admire! The painting of these wooden toys became colorful, ornate, varied. Artists depicted Russian beautiful girls in long sundresses and painted scarves, with bouquets of flowers, baskets and knots. At the beginning of the twentieth century, mass production of matryoshka dolls for foreign countries was established.
Later, masculine nesting dolls appeared, for example, depicting shepherdesses with a flute, mustachioed grooms, bearded old men with sticks, etc. Wooden toys were arranged according to a variety of principles, but the pattern, as a rule, was necessarily traced - for example, nesting dolls-grooms were paired with nesting dolls-brides and relatives.
Nesting dolls of the Nizhny Novgorod province
Closer to the middle of the 20th century, the matryoshka spread far beyond Sergiev Posad. So, in the Nizhny Novgorod province, craftsmen appeared who made nesting dolls in the form of slender tall girls in bright half-shawls. And Sergiev Posad craftsmen made these toys in the form of more squat and lush young ladies.
Modern nesting dolls
Matryoshka is still considered one of the symbols of Russian culture. Modern nesting dolls are made in the most various genres: in addition to classical drawings, portraits of famous politicians, TV presenters, movie and pop stars.
In Sergiev Posad, in the Museum of Toys, there are collections of nesting dolls by various masters of the early and middle of the 20th century, as well as the first nesting doll painted by the famous artist Sergey Malyutin.
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fr. genre - genus, species) - historically established, stable variety artwork, eg. – in painting – portrait, landscape, still life, etc.; in the music - symphony, cantata, song, etc.; in literature - a novel, a poem, etc. The concept of a genre generalizes the features characteristic of a vast group of works of any era, nation or world art in general.
Great Definition
Incomplete definition ↓
GENRE
French genre - genus, species), a type of work that has its own characteristic features and divided into subtypes. literary genre is formed historically, generalizing the features that distinguish a group of works in a particular era. From the combination of several genres, a literary genre is formed. A genre is divided into types (sometimes these terms are used in the opposite way: a type is a larger set, for example a poem, a genre is a specific type, for example. lyric poem). On the whole, the theory of literary genres does not exhaust the whole wealth of genres. Other principles for classifying genres can also be identified. The genus combines genres mainly on a formal basis (prose, poetry, or the form of presentation of the text for the stage) and on the basis of the most general content of the text (personal feelings and experiences in the lyrics, events in the epic, dramatic plot in the drama). Also genres can be divided according to the principle copyright to the subject of the image, the general intonation of the work - comic (comedy, comic poem, humorous story), satirical (pamphlet, epigram, feuilleton), tragic, elegiac, etc. Since antiquity, the division of genres into high, medium and low has been known. Genres that narrate in a sublime language about the deeds of gods and heroes (tragedy, ode) belong to the high ones, to low genres that ridicule the low actions of people (comedy, satire) in rude and common language, the middle ones occupy an intermediate position - they tell about a person’s life without investing in it. neither heroic nor comic content and using the main fund of the words of the language (drama, story). This theory was developed by the classicists (M. V. Lomonosov in Russia, who combined the doctrine of genres with the doctrine of three styles - high, medium and low). High genres use the words of high and medium style, medium - medium and low, and in low genres words of high and low styles are combined, while "high" words are used in a reduced meaning. Sometimes this classification also includes mixed genres - tragicomic and parodic works that combine elements of high and low genres.
Genres are distinguished on the basis of a set of features. In addition to the general content and belonging to a certain literary genre, the volume of the work, its composition and the richness of the ideological content are important. So, for example, a novel and a short story differ from each other in volume (the volume of a novel is, as a rule, greater) and in the number of problems, themes, and ideas covered (there are more of them in a novel). The same difference between the novel and the epic, which is even more major work designed to convey life and color whole era. In some cases, it is difficult to draw a line between genres (for example, the novels of I. S. Turgenev are considered by many researchers to be short stories). It is easier to single out genres on a formal basis. Such criteria are frequent in poetry. For example, a sonnet stands out solely on the basis of external signs - a poem of 14 lines, consisting of two quatrains (quatrains) and two three-verses (tertsin). The criteria for singling out rondo, triolet, gazelle, etc. are also formal. It is difficult to introduce such a criterion in prose, due to its freer nature, and therefore prose genres often differ not in form, but in content. For example, the difference between a story and a short story is an unexpected ending, which is mandatory for a short story, at least in the modern interpretation of this term.
On the other hand, its ideological content is important for the genre. On this basis, within the general genre or type of a novel or story, one can single out a utopian one (about non-existent ideal countries and cities, written in didactic purposes), adventure (about the adventures of a hero), detective (about the search for a criminal), psychological (dedicated to revealing the psychology of heroes), etc. novel (or a corresponding story).
The genre develops and changes historically. IN different eras various theories arose on the criteria for separating one genre from another and the norms for creating texts of various genres. The most famous theories belong to the era of antiquity and classicism.
Not only the content of each genre changes, but also the composition of genres as a whole. Thus, the solemn ode, which originated in the poetry of Pindar, for some time went to the periphery of literature, then was revived in the 18th century, in the era of classicism, and after that it gradually died out. Genres can arise in a certain era, in the work of a certain writer - so, with P. Abelard's novel "The History of My Disasters", the genre of literary confession arose. One-act drama appeared in the work of the playwright M. Maeterlinck. Other genres, such as fable, comedy, which arose in antiquity, continue to exist throughout all periods of the history of literature, right up to the modern one, and at the same time are constantly filled with new content.
Different eras in the history of literature differ from each other not only in the composition of genres, but also in their number. For literature of the 20th century. characterized by a large number of genres and their interpenetration. At the junction of several genres, a new type of literary work is emerging. In previous periods in literature, as a rule, several genres came to the fore (for example, tragedy, ode, epic poem in classicism; lyric poem, ballad, elegy in romanticism). In this regard, statements about the disappearance of genres have appeared in modern literature - their boundaries have expanded to such an extent. Anti-genres appeared - anti-novel, anti-drama.
Genre originality is considered not only in relation to an era or trend in literature, but also in relation to an individual writer. In the work of each writer, specific forms always appear, and their genre affiliation is usually the subject of controversy for researchers. Thus, "Crime and Punishment" by F. M. Dostoevsky combines the features of a psychological, social, detective and adventurous novel.
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