3. Artistic fiction. Conditionality and lifelikeness
artistic fiction on early stages the formation of art, as a rule, was not realized: the archaic consciousness did not distinguish between historical and artistic truth. But already in folk tales, which never pretend to be a mirror of reality, conscious fiction is quite clearly expressed. We find a judgment about fiction in Aristotle's Poetics (ch. 9 - the historian talks about what happened, the poet about the possible, about what could happen), as well as in the works of the philosophers of the Hellenistic era.
For a number of centuries, fiction appeared in literary works as a common property, as inherited by writers from their predecessors. Most often these were traditional characters and plots, which were somehow transformed each time (this was the case (92), in particular, in the dramaturgy of the Renaissance and classicism, which widely used ancient and medieval plots).
Much more than before, fiction manifested itself as an individual property of the author in the era of romanticism, when imagination and fantasy were recognized as the most important facet of human existence. "Fantasy<...>- wrote Jean-Paul, - there is something higher, it is the soul of the world and the elemental spirit of the main forces (what are wit, insight, etc. - V.Kh.)<...>Fantasy is hieroglyphic alphabet nature" 1 . The cult of the imagination, characteristic of the beginning of the 19th century, marked the emancipation of the individual, and in this sense constituted a positively significant fact of culture, but at the same time it had negative consequences (artistic evidence of this is the appearance of Gogol's Manilov, the fate of the hero of Dostoevsky's "White Nights") .
In the post-romantic era, fiction narrowed its scope somewhat. The flight of imagination writers of the XIX century. often preferred direct observation of life: characters and plots were close to their prototypes. According to N.S. Leskov, a real writer is a “scribe”, not an inventor: “Where a writer ceases to be a scribe and becomes an inventor, there disappears any connection between him and society” 2 . Let us also recall Dostoevsky's well-known judgment that the intent eye is capable of discovering in the most ordinary fact "a depth that Shakespeare lacks" 3 . Russian classic literature was more a literature of conjecture” than of fiction as such. At the beginning of the XX century. fiction was sometimes regarded as something outdated, rejected in the name of recreating a real fact, documented. This extreme has been disputed 5 . The literature of our century, as before, relies extensively on both fiction and non-fictional events and persons. At the same time, the rejection of fiction in the name of following the truth of fact, in some cases justified and fruitful 6 , can hardly become the mainstay of artistic creativity (93): without relying on fictional images, art and, in particular, literature are unimaginable.
Through fiction, the author summarizes the facts of reality, embodies his view of the world, and demonstrates his creative energy. Z. Freud argued that fiction is associated with unsatisfied inclinations and suppressed desires of the creator of the work and expresses them involuntarily 7 .
The concept of fiction clarifies the boundaries (sometimes very vague) between works that claim to be art and documentary and informational. If documentary texts (verbal and visual) from the “threshold” exclude the possibility of fiction, then works with an orientation towards their perception as artistic willingly allow it (even in cases where the authors limit themselves to recreating real facts, events, persons). Messages in literary texts are, as it were, on the other side of truth and lies. At the same time, the phenomenon of artistry can also arise when perceiving a text created with an orientation towards documentary: “... for this it is enough to say that we are not interested in the truth of this story, that we read it, “as if it were the fruit of<...>writing" 1 .
The forms of “primary” reality (which again is absent in “pure” documentary) are reproduced by the writer (and the artist in general) selectively and somehow transformed, resulting in a phenomenon that D.S. Likhachev called internal the world of the work: “Each work of art reflects the world of reality in its creative perspectives<...>. The world of a work of art reproduces reality in a kind of "abbreviated", conditional version.<...>. Literature takes only certain phenomena of reality and then conventionally shortens or expands them” 2 .
At the same time, there are two trends in artistic imagery, which are denoted by the terms conventionality(emphasis by the author of non-identity, and even opposition between the depicted and the forms of reality) and lifelikeness(leveling such differences, creating the illusion of the identity of art and life). The distinction between conventionality and lifelikeness is already present in the statements of Goethe (the article “On Truth and Plausibility in Art”) and Pushkin (notes on dramaturgy and its implausibility). But the relationship between them was especially intensely discussed at the turn of the 19th - (94) 20th centuries. Carefully rejected everything implausible and exaggerated L.N. Tolstoy in the article "On Shakespeare and his drama". For K.S. Stanislavsky, the expression "conventionality" was almost synonymous with the words "falsehood" and "false pathos". Such ideas are connected with the orientation to the experience of Russian realistic literature of the 19th century, the imagery of which was more life-like than conditional. On the other hand, many artists of the early XX century. (for example, V.E. Meyerhold) preferred conventional forms, sometimes absolutizing their significance and rejecting lifelikeness as something routine. So, in the article P.O. Yakobson's "On Artistic Realism" (1921) rises to the shield conditional, deforming, tricks that make it difficult for the reader ("to make it harder to guess") and denies plausibility, identified with realism as the beginning of inert and epigone 3 . Subsequently, in the 1930s - 1950s, on the contrary, lifelike forms were canonized. They were considered the only ones acceptable for the literature of socialist realism, and conventionality was suspected of being related to odious formalism (rejected as bourgeois aesthetics). In the l960s, the rights of artistic convention were again recognized. Nowadays, the view has been strengthened that lifelikeness and conventionality are equal and fruitfully interacting tendencies of artistic imagery: “like two wings on which creative imagination relies in an indefatigable thirst to find the truth of life” 4 .
In the early historical stages, art was dominated by forms of representation, which are now perceived as conditional. This is, firstly, generated by a public and solemn ritual idealizing hyperbole traditional high genres (epopee, tragedy), the heroes of which manifested themselves in pathetic, theatrical spectacular words, poses, gestures and had exceptional features of appearance that embodied their strength and power, beauty and charm. (Remember epic heroes or Gogol's Taras Bulba). And secondly, this grotesque, which was formed and consolidated in the composition of the carnival festivities, acting as a parodic, comical "double" of the solemnly pathetic, and later acquired a programmatic significance for the romantics 1 . It is customary to call the grotesque the artistic transformation of life forms, leading to some kind of ugly inconsistency, to the combination of the incompatible. The grotesque in art is akin to a paradox in (95) logic. MM. Bakhtin, who studied the traditional grotesque imagery, considered it the embodiment of a festively cheerful free thought: “The grotesque frees from all forms of inhuman necessity that permeate the prevailing ideas about the world<...>debunks this need as relative and limited; grotesque form helps liberation<...>from walking truths, allows you to look at the world in a new way, to feel<...>the possibility of a completely different world order. In the art of the last two centuries, the grotesque, however, often loses its cheerfulness and expresses a total rejection of the world as chaotic, frightening, hostile (Goya and Hoffmann, Kafka and the theater of the absurd, to a large extent Gogol and Saltykov-Shchedrin).
In art, from the very beginning there are also life-like principles that made themselves felt in the Bible, the classical epics of antiquity, and the dialogues of Plato. In the art of modern times, lifelikeness almost dominates (the most striking evidence of this is the realistic narrative prose of the 19th century, especially L.N. Tolstoy and A.P. Chekhov). It is essential for authors who show a person in his diversity, and most importantly, who seek to bring the depicted closer to the reader, to minimize the distance between the characters and the perceiving consciousness. However, in art XIX–XX centuries the conditional forms were activated (and at the same time updated). Nowadays, this is not only traditional hyperbole and grotesque, but also all kinds of fantastic assumptions (“Kholstomer” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Pilgrimage to the Land of the East” by G. Hesse), demonstrative schematization of the depicted (B. Brecht’s plays), exposure of the device (“ Evgeny Onegin" by A.S. Pushkin), the effects of the montage composition (unmotivated changes in place and time of action, sharp chronological "breaks", etc.).
«Fiction in the literature of the twentieth century Study guide Study guide examines the fantastic literature of the twentieth century. in the context of the development of other types of fiction, in ... "
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E. N. KOVTUN
Art
in literature
Tutorial
Study Guide Considers Fiction Literature
20th century in the context of the development of other types of fiction, which together make up a single system of interconnected varieties of narration about the extraordinary. On the example of prose and dramaturgy of Russian, European and American authors, the book reconstructs original artistic structures - models of reality, typical for
fantasy, utopia, parable, literary fairy tale and myth; the features of fiction in satire are studied.
The manual is intended for students and graduate students studying in the direction and specialty "Philology" - but it can be useful to everyone who is interested in the general laws of the development of literature or just reads and loves science fiction.
Foreword ...............................................Chapter first
THE NATURE OF FICTION AND ITS ARTISTIC TASKS...
Benefits of a comprehensive study of fiction. - Semantic levels of the concept of "conventionality". – Secondary conventionality and an element of the extraordinary. – The origin and historical variability of fiction. - Difficulty in perceiving the extraordinary. – Principles of creating fictional worlds. - Types of narration about the extraordinary. — Preliminary remarks on the functions of fiction.Chapter Two
FANTASY: "POTENTIALLY POSSIBLE" IN SF AND
"TRUE REALITY" FANTASY...............Fiction as the basic type of fiction. - Classifications of fiction. - Imperfect terminology. - The history of modern science fiction. Utopia and social fantasy. – Rational fantasy model of reality in the novels “Ralph 124С41+”
H. Gernsback, Plutonia by V. Obruchev, Aelita by A. Tolstoy, Star Maker by O. Stapledon. - The specifics of the parcel. - Illusion of authenticity. - The hero of a rational-fantastic work. – Artistic detail in rational fiction. – Tasks and functions of science fiction. – The difference between the premises in rational fantasy and fantasy. – Varieties of fantasy. – The artistic world of the novels “The Angel of the West Window” by G. Meyrink, “Maiden Christina”
M. Eliade, "Running on the Waves" by A. Green. - Principles of narrative organization. - Criteria for evaluating a hero. - The meaning of "true reality". – The functionality of synthesizing two types of fantasy in C.S. Lewis' Space Trilogy.
Chapter Three LITERARY FAIRY TALE AND MYTH: A COSMOLOGICAL MODEL OF BEING ............................
Modern approaches to the study of myth and fairy tales. – Formation of the fairy tale genre in European literature of the 19th–20th centuries. - The mystery of the attractiveness of a fairy tale. - The semantic core of the concepts of "fairy tale" and "myth". – Forms of manifestation of mythological and fabulous conventions. – Fairy-tale-mythological model of the world in the epics of T. Mann "Joseph and his brothers", D. R. R. Tolkien "The Lord of the Rings", in the stories of P. Travers, in the plays of E. Schwartz and M. Maeterlinck. - Space-time continuum: the relationship of "historical" and "eternal". - Four aspects of the interpretation of the hero. - Archetypal. - "Magical" and "wonderful"
as forms of fiction in fairy tale and myth. - A different way of storytelling.
Chapter Four FICTION AS A MEANS OF SATIRICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL ALLEGAL...........................................................
Fiction as a form of philosophical allegory. - The degree of extraordinary. – Satirical rethinking of the canons of rational fantasy in V. Mayakovsky's plays "The Bedbug" and "The Bathhouse". – Comic mythology of A. Frans (“Penguin Island”). - "Invisible fiction" of the parable ("Castle" by F. Kafka). - Formalization of the premise in the novel by G. Hesse "The Glass Bead Game". – Functions of metaphorical figurativeness in J.P. Sartre's drama "Flies". – Satirical and philosophical-metaphorical models of the world.
Chapter Five SYNTHESIS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF FICTION IN A WORK OF ART...........................................................
Unified semantic field of fiction. – Artistic possibilities of synthesis of various types of conventionality. – Types of fiction and related layers of content in the novels “The War with the Salamanders” by K. Chapek, “The Master and Margarita” by M. Bulgakov, the short story “The Metamorphosis” by F. Kafka. – The mechanism of interaction of different types of narrative about the extraordinary. – Multidimensionality of the image. - Overcoming schematism. – Increasing the associative potential of the text.
Chapter six
THE EVOLUTION OF EASTERN EUROPEAN FANTASTIC IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE XX CENTURY AND AT THE TURN OF THE XX–XXI CENTURIES
Narrative of the Extraordinary in the Second Half of the 20th Century: Evolution and Problems of Study. – Periodization of post-war Russian and East European fantastic prose. Reasons for the dominance of SF in the socialist era. – The fate of fantasy and the change in the ratio of different types of science fiction in the 1970s–1980s. - The role and tasks of science fiction literature under socialism. – Changes in the literary situation in Russia and Eastern Europe in the first half of the 1990s. – The place of fantastic prose in the new paradigms of culture. – Adventure schemes in the science fiction of the rational premise. – Socio-philosophical tradition in market conditions. – The heyday of fantasy and attempts to create its national variants. – Ironic fantasy. - A fantastic element in "elitist" literature. Fantasy and postmodernism. - Social features And expressive possibilities science fiction of the second half of the 20th - early 21st centuries.Conclusion................................................... 449 Notes ............................................... 461 Recommended Reading ................................... 483
Foreword
This book is tutorial, partially reproducing the material of the monograph by the same author "The Poetics of the Extraordinary: The Artistic Worlds of Science Fiction, Fairy Tale, Utopia, Parable and Myth", which was published in a small edition in 1999. Compared to the previous text, a large section on fantasy of the second half of the last century has been added to the current text and turn of the XX-XXI centuries. Changes and additions have also been made to other sections, a list of recommended literature has been compiled and other amendments have been made that correspond to the genre of the educational publication.
However, the revision of the text, although quite serious, did not violate the original intention: to summarize the results scientific research, covering all options presented in the literature of the twentieth century. a special type of work that in this book we will call the story of the extraordinary. What is it about and what are the objectives of the manual?
The simplest definition of the object of study sounds like this: we are interested in works containing an element of the extraordinary, i.e., telling about what “does not happen” in modern objective reality or “cannot exist at all”. It's about not about the unusual as unique, that is, possible under a rare set of circumstances, but about the extraordinary, non-existent, although, of course, it is sometimes not at all easy to draw the line between the concepts of “impossible” and “incredible”1.
The "unprecedented" and "impossible" interests us regardless of the way it appears in the text. It can take the form of science fiction with its inherent paraphernalia (aliens, robots, time travel), look like a fairy tale (magicians, transformations, talking animals), mythological drama or novel (the author's cosmogony disguised as "antiquity"), utopia ( ideal or terrible world of the future), etc. The extraordinary can be represented at any level of the artistic structure of the work - in the plot, in the system of characters, in the form of separate fantastic images and details.
Literature since the time of A. S. Pushkin is often likened to a "magic crystal" that transforms reality in accordance with the will of the author. But at the same time, they do not always remember that such a transformation can be equally convincingly and vividly carried out both with the help of artistic images, more or less habitually recreating the appearance of the world, and in forms that change it, giving reality an unrecognizable look. In the latter case, various versions of the story about the extraordinary arise. We can say that this type of work is the pinnacle verbal creativity: after all, under the pen of an artist, something arises that previously did not exist in the world.
Of course, the extraordinary phenomena and images found in fiction cannot be considered something fundamentally new, unprecedented and unknown before the writing of the book.
The human brain is not able to create anything that would not have, albeit indirectly, but a connection with reality. “There is no such fiction, which would be an absolute product of “creative fantasy”, and cannot be. The most desperate science fiction writer and visionary does not “create” his images, but composes them, combines them, synthesizes them from real data”2.
So, the creator of the story of the extraordinary creates only unusual combinations of familiar realities (we will talk about this in detail in chapter 1). In addition, he always has the opportunity to rely on inaccurate information, superstitions and prejudices that live in the minds of even the most rationally thinking readers, on the oldest (up to the archaic myth) ideas, traditions and legends, as well as on the centuries-old tradition of telling about the extraordinary - that is, worlds and stories created by his predecessors. That is why the majority of fantastic, fabulous, mythological, etc. images are so “recognizable”, and many of them eventually turn into clichés.
Stories about the extraordinary and supernatural, impossible in principle or as yet inaccessible to human knowledge, have always been an important part of fine literature, not to mention folklore genres. If you try to trace the history of this type of narrative, then the list of works will have to start with Homer and Apuleius. The tradition stretching through the centuries will cover the works of Ariosto and Dante, T. More and T. Campanella, D. Swift and F. Rabelais, F. Bacon and S. Cyrano de Bergerac, C. Maturin and H. Walpole, O. Balzac and E. Poe, as well as many other famous writers.
Despite the dominance of pragmatism and rationalism, the story of the extraordinary is also vividly presented in the literature of the recently ended century. At the end of the nineteenth and first half of the twentieth century. epics by T. Mann and J. R. R. Tolkien, novels by A. Frans, H. Wells, O. Stapledon, K. Chapek, A. Tolstoy, A. Conan Doyle, D. London, R. L. Stevenson, B. Stoker, G. Meyrink, M. Eliade, A. Green, V. Bryusov, M. Bulgakov, utopias of O. Huxley, E. Zamyatin, D. Orwell, parables of G. Hesse, F. Kafka, K. S. Lewis, plays by G. Ibsen, B. Shaw, M. Maeterlinck, L. Andreev, fairy tales by O. Wilde, A. de Saint-Exupery, Y. Olesha, E. Schwartz, P. Bazhov and many other works containing an element of extraordinary .
In the second half of the last century, the traditions of narration about the extraordinary were accepted and developed in the works of many writers belonging to the “elites” of national literatures (Ch. Aitmatov, A. Kim, R. Bach, H. L. Borges, P. Ackroyd, S. Game). But no less significant is the merit of authors working in certain areas of popular literature, primarily in science fiction (A. Asimov, A. Clark, R. Bradbury, P. Boole, S. King, M. Moorcock, W. Le Guin, I. Efremov, A. and B. Strugatsky, L. Soucek, P. Vezhinov, K. Borun, S. Lem). A surge of interest in the extraordinary occurred at the end of the twentieth century. and was associated both with the spread of the philosophy and aesthetics of postmodernism in fiction (D. Fowles, M. Pavic, G. Petrovich, V. Pelevin, M. Weller, V. Sorokin, D. Lipskerov, M. Urban, O. Tokarchuk) , and with a change in the structure of the narrative and the ratio of different types of science fiction in the former socialist countries, with the advent of a new generation of talents (A. Sapkovsky, G. L. Oldi, S. Loginov, E. Lukin, M. Uspensky, etc.) .
However, despite the brightness of the examples taken from the works of the classics, it is far from always easy to single out and adequately interpret the element of the extraordinary in a work of art. The fact is that it can be presented both visually, embodied in extraordinary, magical, supernatural and similar images, and in a hidden form, turning into a kind of "fantastic beginning", including a special plot premise, specific parameters of the action, and sometimes - everything only a general authorial attitude to create a situation that is obviously impossible in reality. The role of the extraordinary element in the disclosure of the author's intention can also be different - from defining to secondary.
In addition, the type of narration under study has its own specifics in each of the literary genres and artistic movements. In the most general terms, the appeal to the extraordinary is a universal way of displaying the world in literature (and in other forms of art and culture), equally accessible to artists of all eras and adherents of different aesthetic concepts. But the “extraordinary” in the interpretation of the Romantics is by no means similar to the “magic” in a folk tale and bears little resemblance to the “potentially possible” in the science fiction of realist writers. It can only be said with some degree of certainty that there are literary trends, more than others, sensitive to the extraordinary - such as, for example, the above-mentioned romanticism and postmodernism.
In the aesthetics of many philosophical systems and artistic platforms of the twentieth century. (surrealism, absurdity, deconstructivism, etc.), the element of the extraordinary turns out to be subject to the logic of the basic principles of the interpretation of being, distorting reality and destroying the traditional structure of the narrative so much that it ceases to be perceived as incredible and impossible. This is a separate interesting area of research, which, due to its specificity, we are forced to leave aside. Our book will consider literary works that contain a fairly pronounced plot and a system of images that reproduce reality, at least in relative harmony and completeness. For the same reasons, we will confine ourselves to talking about prose and dramaturgy, because the extraordinary in poetry (especially lyrical) has a different - however, as yet practically unexplored - appearance.
The variety of forms and a special kind of "elusiveness", the organic entry into the poetics of a variety of literary movements, as well as the historical and national variability of fiction, lead to the fact that the narrative of the extraordinary in the unity of all its variants is studied relatively little, because the commonality is obscured in the eyes of researchers by diversity.
That is why we see our main task in showing:
the most important laws governing the creation of fictional worlds are the same, if not for verbal creativity in general, then at least for artistic thinking certain historical era.
The first difficulty on the chosen path is the choice of basic terms, with the help of which it is possible to analyze various types of narrative about the extraordinary. IN domestic literary criticism(namely, in its semantic field, the present study was carried out), it would seem that there is no shortage of definitions related to the sphere of the extraordinary.
However, we have to state with regret the absence of a unified conceptual system that allows one to correlate the terms “fiction”, “speculation”, “conventionality”, “fantastic”, “fantastic grotesque” (as well as metaphor, hyperbole, symbol, etc.) and their internal grades. Moreover, there is no any strict definition of the concepts "supernatural", "wonderful", "magic", "magical", "mystical" in relation to the poetics of a work of art. But there is also, say, "terrible" or "alternative-historical" as a designation of the semantic core of some genre varieties of the modern science fiction novel. And it is clear that the terms and definitions of "myth" and "mythological prose", "fairy tale" and "fairy tale", "science fiction" and "fantasy", "utopia" and "dystopia", "allegory" are directly related to the subject under study. ”, “parable”, “catastrophe novel”, “warning novel”, “phantasmagoria” - and many others. Each of them has unique shades of meaning, but in some area of sense contains a reference to the element of the extraordinary.
In other words, it is rather difficult to interpret the "extraordinary" in the system of traditional scientific categories. We believe that this can be done most adequately with the help of three concepts: fantasy, fiction, artistic convention. Unfortunately, none of these terms covers the entire phenomenon of interest to us.
The familiar and, it would seem, the most expressive term "fantastic" paradoxically is now the most limited in meaning. In the twentieth century it turned out to be fixed mainly for a special area of popular literature (and for an independent subculture that goes beyond the literary framework), which combines two varieties of fantastic storytelling: science fiction (science fiction) and fantasy (fantasy). Multi-million dollar blockbusters in movies virtual worlds computer games and colorful books that have become familiar, telling about galactic empires or battles of werewolves with vampires, made the broad literary interpretation of the terms “fantastic” and “fantastic” almost forgotten. It was preserved only in special editions like the Brief Literary Encyclopedia: “Fiction is a specific method of displaying life, using an artistic form-image (object, situation, world), in which elements of reality are combined in a way that is not inherent in it in principle - incredibly, “wonderful "Supernatural"3. So to speak today of "fantastic" as extraordinary in a utopia, a parable or a literary fairy tale can only be a stretch.
The concept of "artistic fiction" also seems to be successful only at first glance, since it is devoid of unambiguity. Usually, when talking about fiction, they mean one of two or even three meanings of the term. In the first, most frequent case, fiction is interpreted very broadly: as the most essential, institutional feature of fiction - the subjective recreation of reality by the writer and the figurative form of cognition of the world. In "Short Literary Encyclopedia"
we read: “Fiction is one of the main points of literary and artistic creativity, consisting in the fact that the writer, based on reality, creates new, artistic facts ... The writer, using real private facts, usually combines them into a new “fictional” whole”4 .
In this sense, the term "fiction" characterizes the content of any work of art as a product of the author's imagination. After all, in the end, even a realistic novel or essay contains a fair amount of fiction. All types of art are based on conscious fiction, and this distinguishes them, on the one hand, from science, and on the other, from religious teachings. The famous Pushkin phrase: “I will shed tears over fiction” refers us precisely to given value term.
Variant of the first value or second independent value the concept of "fiction" can be considered the principle of constructing works traditionally referred to as "mass" literature, deliberately thickening and sharpening the course of events characteristic of everyday reality - adventure-adventure, love-melodramatic, detective novels, etc. on the other hand, the incredible is present - at least in the form of coincidences, coincidences, concentration of vicissitudes of fate that befell the hero. In relation to such texts, the term "fiction"
means "fiction", "fiction", "fantasy" (as opposed to fantasy as the basis of art).
As a synonym for the concepts of "fantastic", "extraordinary" and "wonderful", the word "fiction" is used much less frequently. Although the same "Concise Literary Encyclopedia" admits:
“By creating a fact that could naturally happen, the writer is able to expose to us the “opportunities” inherent in life, the hidden tendencies of its development. Sometimes this requires such a fiction... that goes beyond the boundaries of "plausibility", gives rise to fantastic artistic facts...”6.
The most "rigorous" of those discussed should, apparently, be recognized as the term "artistic convention". The domestic science of literature devoted several decades to its codification. In the 1960s–1970s a distinction was made between the primary conventionality that characterizes the figurative nature of art (similar to the broad meaning of the term "fiction"), as well as a set of expressive means inherent in different types art, and a secondary convention, denoting a deliberate retreat by the writer from literal verisimilitude.
True, the boundaries of such a retreat were not established. As a result, allegory and fairy tale, metaphor and grotesque, satirical sharpening and fantastic premise turned out to be so dissimilar in terms of “degree of improbability” within the framework of the concept of “secondary convention”. A more or less clear distinction between "any violation of the logic of reality" and "an element of extraordinary, explicit fiction, fantasy" was not carried out. Thus, our understanding of secondary convention as an element of the extraordinary is somewhat more local than the generally accepted meaning of the term.
The concepts of “conventionality” and “secondary convention”, which, unfortunately, are not free from the ideological dogmas of the era that gave rise to them, have at least one undoubted merit: they allow us to include the entire set of options for narrating about the extraordinary in the scope of research. That is why the term "conventionality" becomes basic for us. But, of course, we do not renounce the concepts of "fiction" and "fantasy", using them in a narrow sense - as synonyms for the element of the extraordinary. We will explain all this in more detail in Chapter 1.
In domestic (and foreign, as far as we can judge about it) literary criticism of the twentieth century. two virtually independent traditions of the study of the extraordinary narrative were formed. The first is characterized by an interest in conventionality (its incomplete Western analogue can be considered the concept of fiction7) as a philosophical and aesthetic category, considered among the most general theoretical concepts ( artistic image, display and re-creation of reality in a literary work, etc.). The second tradition is represented by a collection of works that explore the artistic specificity of the extraordinary as an integral part of the poetics of various genres and areas of literature: science fiction and fantasy, literary fairy tale and myth, as well as parables, utopia, satire.
An overview of the critical literature of both the first and second kind will be given in the corresponding chapters of this book.
In our work, an attempt is made to combine these traditions and analyze the narrative of the extraordinary in the unity of its various manifestations in a literary text.
The second difficulty of the ongoing research is related to the need to resolve the issue of classifying the varieties of narrative about the extraordinary. We consider it possible to single out six independent types of artistic convention: rational (science) fiction and fantasy (fantasy), fabulous, mythological, satirical and philosophical convention, more or less connected with the genre structures of a literary fairy tale, utopia, parable, mythological, fantastic, satirical novel etc. 8 The selection criteria and the specifics of each of the types will be substantiated in detail in chapters 2, 3 and 4.
However, our task is by no means only to identify meaningful and artistic distinctions different versions of the story about the extraordinary. We intend to show that, along with fairly numerous examples of relatively “pure” use by writers of one or another type of secondary convention, it is no less often possible to find cases of combination and rethinking in a work artistic principles and semantic associations characteristic of different types of fiction. Based on this, we consider it possible to talk about unified system interrelated types and forms of artistic conventionality in relation to the literature of the twentieth century, which confirms the relationship of all types to each other.
The third difficulty lies in the development of principles for the analysis of various versions of the story of the extraordinary.
It is easy to understand that it is impossible to finally and irrevocably separate, say, dystopia from science fiction or fantasy from a literary fairy tale. In some cases, one can interpret fiction in different ways and even argue about whether it exists at all (“Castle” by F. Kafka, “City of Great Fear” by J. Ray, “Lame Fate” by A. and B. Strugatsky). However, each type of conventionality, which determines the appearance of the extraordinary for a particular group of works, is easily recognized by both readers and critics.
Any person who is not versed in the science of literature, even if he is indifferent or unfriendly to the story of the extraordinary, as a rule, is able to determine from the very first pages of an unfamiliar book what exactly is in front of him: fantasy, utopia, parable, fairy tale or myth.
How does such a distinction come about? It would be logical to assume that it is based on a unique set of artistic means that each type of fiction has at its disposal. However, this hypothesis is hardly correct. After all, the same principles of recreating reality, not to mention specific techniques, images and details, can be used with equal success by different types of narration about the extraordinary. For example, "wonderful" heroes can be found in fantasy, and in a fairy tale, and in myth, and in satire, and even in science fiction. However, in each of these genres and areas of literature, they will acquire their own motivation and function.
For example, a person with unusual abilities in science fiction will take on the appearance of a scientist who discovered the effect of invisibility (“The Invisible Man” by G. Wells), the creator of a new weapon (“Hyperboloid of Engineer Garin” by A. Tolstoy) or the victim of a scientific experiment (“Amphibian Man” A. Belyaev), and in fantasy he will become a sorcerer with secret knowledge (“The Wizard of Earthsea” by W. Le Guin), or a romantic soaring on the wings of a dream (“The Shining World” by A. Green). An unusual enemy or assistant, depending on the type of fiction, will turn out to be a robot (“Frankenstein” by M. Shelley), an alien (“Who are you?” D. Campbell), a vampire (“Count Dracula”
B. Stoker), a talking animal (The Chronicles of Narnia by C.S. Lewis), an animated object (The Blue Bird by M. Maeterlinck). The formula for controlling the elements will be embodied in the form of a mathematical equation, a magic spell, a children's rhyme... Various types of narration about the extraordinary can freely exchange images and characters, rethinking the "supernatural" in the spirit of a rational-fantastic hypothesis, philosophical allegory, etc.
Consequently, the specifics of individual types of narration about the extraordinary can be identified not at the level of individual techniques or even a combination of visual means, but only when taking into account the unity of the content and formal aspects of the work. The conclusion about the belonging of the text to a certain kind of narrative about the extraordinary can only be made on the basis of an analysis that reveals the purpose and method of using fiction and the features of the picture of the world created by the writer. In other words, it is necessary to consider integral models of reality generated by various types of conventionality. Only such an analysis is able to show what facts and signs of real life the author uses to depict the fictional world, how he rethinks these facts, giving them an extraordinary look; and most importantly - why is this rethinking happening, what topics allows you to touch, what questions to raise.
The study of content and artistic specificity of each type of narrative about the extraordinary, we will lead in a certain sequence of aspects. First of all, we will pay attention to the features of the premise (which forms the plot of the assumption that extraordinary events happened or could happen “in fact”), its motivation (how the author justifies the appearance of the extraordinary and whether it is justified at all), the form of expression of the extraordinary (“wonderful” in fantasy, "magic" in a fairy tale, "magical" in myth, "potentially possible" in rational fantasy, etc.), features figurative system; space-time continuum in which the action unfolds (and its "material"
decoration with the help of extraordinary objects and details), and, finally, the tasks and functions of a particular type of fiction. We strive to ensure that our research leads to the creation of "collective images", a kind of "verbal portraits" of fiction in various genres and areas of fiction.
The chosen principle - the analysis of models of reality created by various types of conventions - determines the structure of the book. It consists of six chapters. In the first, we summarize the study of the problem of artistic convention in Russian literary criticism over the past half century and present the gradation of meanings of the term “conventionality” that we have developed. It also discusses issues related to the origin and historical variability of literary fiction, formulates the principles for creating extraordinary images and worlds, and talks about the differences between authors who actively use fiction and those who do not resort to it.
The second, third and fourth chapters are devoted to the consideration of individual types of convention, and the closest types, for which, in our opinion, similarity is more important than differences (rational fantasy and fantasy, fairy tale and myth, satirical and philosophical convention), are combined within one chapter.
The analysis is carried out by us mainly on the material of European literature of the first half of the 20th century. European literature we regard as a single space on which, despite the indisputable national specificity, operate general trends development of the story of the extraordinary. In the same space, we consider it possible to include the literature of the USA and Russia in the last century.
First half of the 20th century chosen because it represents the era of the most vivid functioning of the system of interrelated types of conventionality that interests us. First of all, these years are the "golden age" of scientific (especially socio-philosophical) fiction. K. Chapek, O. Stapledon, A. Tolstoy turn to it, and the generation of “classics of the genre” comes to American science fiction - A. Azimov, G. Kuttner, K. Simak, R. Heinlein, T. Sturgeon. Simultaneously new bloom experiencing fantasy (G. Meyrink, G. Lovecraft, H. H. Evers, M. Eliade).
During this period, interest in fairy tales also revives. Its artistic principles are used by representatives of various movements - from O. Wilde, M. Maeterlinck and Russian symbolists to S. Lagerlöf, E. Schwartz, P. Travers.
As an independent genre variety, the mythological novel is formed, merging, on the one hand, with the tradition of “heroic” fantasy (D. R. R. Tolkien, C. S. Lewis), and on the other hand, with philosophical prose and parables (T. Mann) .
Philosophical conventionality clearly manifests itself in dramaturgy (B. Shaw, B. Brecht, K. Chapek). Appears new type utopia (E. Zamyatin, O. Huxley), in which the former principle of a consistent author's story about an ideal world is replaced by a dynamic narrative, determined by a rational-fantastic premise. Thus, it was the first half of the twentieth century. becomes the era of the formation of artistic "canons" for many fictional areas of modern literature.
In principle, the proposed classification is correct for the literature of the 19th–20th centuries (and most fully for the 1890–1950s). But in the nineteenth century the system we postulated was still in its infancy. In turn, the completion of its formation in the middle of our century in no way ensured its stability, and already the second half of the century made significant adjustments to our classification.
The most striking and memorable type of "explicit" fiction in the literature of at least the last three centuries remains, indisputably, science fiction. That is why our book pays special attention to it. Chapter 2 characterizes the two main types of fantastic prose and drama of the 20th century: science fiction (science fiction) and fantasy (fantasy). Using these familiar definitions, we subject them to a certain adjustment.
First, we prefer the less common concept of “rational fiction” (SF) to the term “science fiction” (SF), emphasizing the specifics of the premise and the special worldview inherent in this group of works (the logical motivation for the fantastic assumption in the text). On the history of origin, codification and semantic contradictions arising from the use of the term "science fiction"
applied to contemporary literature, we will discuss in detail in chapters 2 and 6.
Secondly, our understanding of fantasy is also somewhat different from the generally accepted one. In the second chapter, we will explain that this term in our work describes works in which the motivation of the premise, as a rule, is removed from the text and, based on the principles of mythological thinking, constructs a special model of the world, which we designate as “true reality”. In domestic literary criticism, due to the historical features of its development, a special term denoting this kind of fantasy has not appeared. That is why, when in the last decades of the past century a steady interest arose in the Russian and Eastern European literary space in this type of narration about the extraordinary, the corresponding definition (fantasy, fantasy) was borrowed from the Anglo-American scientific tradition.
Over time, however, both in the West and in the East, the initial broad understanding of fantasy as "literature of the magical, supernatural, magical and inexplicable"
narrowed in the mass consciousness to the designation of the genre of "commercial" stories and novels that tell about local fictional worlds with a conditionally medieval magical "decor". A huge number of the same type of works about modest, but courageous heroes, overcoming the obstacles of a fictional universe in search of a magical artifact or a source of absolute Evil, has ousted the once equally numerous science fiction texts from the memory of readers and has become almost the only option for a story about the extraordinary for a new generation of science fiction lovers.
Such literature is now so widespread that the delimitation of the sphere of the fantastic in the Russian (and Czech, and Polish, etc.) book market in recent years looks not like “science fiction” and “fantasy”, but like “fantasy” and “fantasy” (we will discuss the reasons in chapter 6). However, the paradox lies in the fact that today “fantasy” actually means only one of the variants of the original meaning of the term.
- the so-called "heroic fantasy", or "fantasy of sword and sorcery" (we will talk more about this in Chapter 2).
Russification of the English term has not yet been completed.
In different sources, the concept of "fantasy" is used both in the feminine and in the neuter gender, and even in different graphic versions (fantasy, fantasy, etc.). That's why we prefer to do without transliteration. Graphics for us has a terminological meaning. Where the spelling "fantasy" appears in this book, it is, in accordance with our concept, a special type of convention that uses a fantastic (but not fabulous or mythological!) premise without logical motivation in the text. The spelling "fantasy" is preserved in quotations or in the designation of the current publishing realities.
In the fifth chapter of the manual, we are talking about the synthesis of different types of conventions in a literary text. We try to show that this synthesis gives rise to a special content and structural complexity of the works, which is their main advantage. The simultaneous use of the artistic principles of fantasy, fairy tales, parables, etc. leads to the mutual imposition of the corresponding models of reality and to the multiplication of associations, which, in turn, gives rise to an endless play of meanings and creates the possibility of ever new interpretations of the author's concept.
In the final sixth chapter, we return to the conversation about science fiction - but already in chronological coordinates of the second half of the 20th century and the turn of the 20th-21st centuries.
Such a return is due to the desire to trace the evolution of the system of interconnected types and forms of secondary conventionality that we postulate beyond the historical epoch in which it was formed. It is expedient to start a conversation about evolution with the most obvious changes, and they occurred in the second half of the last century precisely in the realm of science fiction and fantasy.In this chapter, we will find out under what conditions and under the influence of what ideological concepts the post-war science fiction of the USSR and other socialist countries developed, gaining more and more popularity, but at the same time losing the novelty of the problematic and the diversity of the artistic structure. Let's try to trace in what directions the most gifted authors were looking for a way out of the crisis that engulfed the narrowly interpreted science fiction literature. Let us explain how the tradition of fantasy was latently born in the space described. Finally, we will show how, under the influence of political, economic and cultural changes in the post-socialist literary space of Russia and Eastern Europe at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. a new reader demand is being formed and the patterns of creation and functioning of literary texts are built differently. Fiction becomes a mirror of these processes, accumulating in itself the most striking, and therefore often controversial and dramatic, features of the era. We will talk about the commercialization of fantastic prose, about the not always favorable influence of Western book production, and about the laws of the market, which imposes strict requirements on content and poetics. fantastic works.
Considerable difficulties in the study of fiction are caused by the selection of texts that demonstrate the features of certain types of narration about the extraordinary. Of course, it is impossible not only to consider, but even just to mention all the works created in the twentieth century and containing an element of the extraordinary.
That is why we will rely mainly on the best examples of world prose and drama, in which convention becomes the main means of embodying the author's intention. However, in addition to this, the book will also mention works that do not belong to the number of indisputable masterpieces, but clearly characterize this or that type of fiction. At the same time (with the exception of Chapter 6, in which such a conversation becomes inevitable due to the specifics of the modern literary situation), we deliberately avoid dividing the corpus of texts under study into “serious” literature and “mass” genres, leaving aside the problem of science fiction being in what many researchers declare. literary-critical "ghetto". Our task is to prove that there are no "mass" and unworthy of the attention of serious researchers types of fiction. semantic and aesthetic level containing an "obvious" fiction of a literary text, like all others, depends only on the talent and goals of the writer.
This manual is intended for students, undergraduates and graduate students studying in the direction and specialty "Philology", and also, given the "interdisciplinary" nature of the sphere of manifestation of the extraordinary in contemporary culture, and for other specialists in the field of humanities and non-humanities. The material presented in the manual can be used in teaching courses on the history of domestic and foreign literature, as well as theoretical literary disciplines.
Finally, this book will be of interest to anyone who reads and loves science fiction, retains, regardless of age and occupation, an interest in the fabulous and mythological interpretation of being, has a penchant for thought experiments in the spaces of non-existent worlds and does not get tired of asking himself questions about the meaning of human being in an endless and constantly changing world.
We hope this book will help you:
- to understand the important role that "explicit" fiction (narration of the extraordinary) plays in the literature of the twentieth century, as well as previous eras;
– understand the terminological disputes that have been going on for many decades by representatives of scientific schools and traditions involved in the study of various types of narrative about the extraordinary and related genres;
- orientate yourself in a variety of colorful world such a popular and rapidly expanding fantasy subculture today;
– take a fresh look at the literary process in Russia, Europe and America from areas that are traditionally considered marginal (fiction, fairy tale prose, etc.), but nevertheless reveal the evolution of artistic structures no less (and sometimes more vividly), rather than leading genres and mainstreams;
– to expand theoretical and literary knowledge and horizons, having become acquainted with science of fiction as a special section of the science of literature, as well as with a detailed interpretation of its basic terms “fiction”, “artistic convention”, “artistic image” and the principles of depicting reality in a work of art.
We are fully aware of the difficulty of the tasks we have undertaken, the breadth of the formulation of the problem, and the content and structural heterogeneity of the material chosen for analysis. However, without pretending to be exhaustive answers, we are still convinced that the proposed concept, and most importantly, the interpretation of the narrative of the extraordinary as a single aesthetic phenomenon can bring us closer to understanding the nature of fiction - a unique phenomenon that is the essence and main decoration of verbal creativity.
– – –
THE NATURE OF FICTION
AND HIS ARTISTIC
TASKS
Benefits of a comprehensive study of fiction.Semantic levels of the concept of "conventionality".
Secondary conventionality and the element of the extraordinary.
Origin and historical variability of fiction.
The difficulty of perceiving the extraordinary.
Principles of creating fictional worlds.
Types of storytelling about the extraordinary.
Preliminary remarks on the functions of fiction.
– – –
Benefits of a comprehensive study of fiction. Interest in problems and discussions related to the concepts of "fiction" and "artistic convention" once began for us with the question: why do many readers not like science fiction? The author of these lines more than once had to deal with bewilderment, and with condescending disdain, and, finally, with a conscious rejection of fantastic works as “boring”, “childish”, “primitive” and “of little art”. Let us make a reservation right away: we are far from the idea of defending the aesthetic value of all fantastic texts.
Like any literature, fiction can be good and bad.
Speech in this the book will go mostly about the second.
The study of the causes of likes and dislikes for science fiction has led us to understand that the problem is by no means confined to it alone. We are talking about the peculiarities of the perception by different groups of people of any artistic texts, the plots and images of which are distinguished by a certain unusualness, or rather, extraordinaryness. What is meant? These images and plots in the minds of readers do not correlate with real or "potentially real", i.e., in principle, facts that can be revealed and events can happen, but only with certain generalized ideas about the sphere of the possible or impossible - as well as with what has already been invented and told or described by someone.
Extraordinary characters and plots can have a variety of appearances. They can be based on the most ancient archetypes existing in the human mind and originate from archaic myth (twins, resurrected dead, nightmarish monsters and personified fears in the short stories by E. Poe, G.
F. Lovecraft, F. Kafka or the novels of S. King), but they can also become, like the images of science fiction, a product of modernity (travel to the stars in the books of A. Asimov, A. Clark or S. Lem, a communist utopia in the novels of I. Efremov, etc.). The “degree of extraordinaryness” can also be different. Fantasy and literary fairy tales "know" undoubted miracles. But a parable or a utopia of the classical type is difficult to convict of "obvious extraordinaryness", however, in the minds of readers, they somehow correlate, if not with the concept of "fantastic", then with the sphere of "hypothetical"
or "impossible in reality".
Nevertheless, the patterns of perception of such texts and opinions about them by different people are approximately the same. They were expressed in the most clear form by one of the author's casual interlocutors, who said with sincere bewilderment: "I don't understand how one can read about something that does not actually happen?"
The question is understandable and logical: why waste time thinking about something that will never, under any circumstances, be encountered in life? The answer is not so simple. It usually takes a lot of effort to explain: works that tell about the extraordinary also acquaint the reader with reality, only they do it in a special form. This is how M. Arnaudov reveals this paradox: “We ... discover in ... a fictional world a psychological realism that can reconcile us with phantasmagoria ... If we reconcile ourselves to conventions from the very beginning, then we will only have to wonder how in this world strange and incredible, the principles of the human are preserved and how everything happens by virtue of the same basic laws that observation reveals in reality.
We will return to explain the possibilities and advantages of such a story about the extraordinary in the future.
So, the problem lies in the peculiarities of perception different people"impossible" and "unreal", i.e. "deliberately invented", "imagined", "clearly fictional" in its most diverse manifestations in a work of art. But what is it? How to define, interpret such phenomena in more or less generally accepted scientific categories?
The concepts of fiction and fantasy are so common and familiar that it would seem that it would not be difficult to explain the processes behind them. However, the explanation is unlikely to be exhaustive and accurate: these words have too many “everyday” shades of meaning. And these shades are not always positive. Almost more often than with the realization of the power of the imagination that stimulates the creative activity of a person, they turn out to be associated with ideas about aimless pastime, empty and unnecessary dreams, “fantasy”, deceit, etc. Thus, although the concepts of “fiction” and “ fantasy" can be used in a conversation on a topic of interest to us, relying on them without giving clarifications ("explicit" fiction, fantasizing as an extraordinary creation) and operating only on them is hardly advisable.
That is why, from our point of view, there is an obvious need to choose and justify a special term, free from “ordinary” connotations, to denote a writer’s explicit exit in the text of a work beyond the limits of what is possible in reality. The need for setting common problem the formation and functioning of fiction as an element of the extraordinary.
The latter is necessary first of all and mainly for the study of fictional areas of literature and genre structures, such as science fiction (SF and fantasy) and satire (more precisely, that part of it where the grotesque clearly goes beyond what is acceptable in life), utopia, parable, as well as fairy tale and myth in their modern literary incarnations.
Traditionally, fiction is studied mainly in its particular manifestations in certain areas of literature and genres or in the work of certain writers. The number of comparative studies devoted to the search for general principles for creating fictional images and plots in various fields of literature, unfortunately, is small11. At the same time, the idea of the structural commonality of all varieties of fiction is hidden even in works devoted to their most decisive demarcation.
Tangible and sometimes insurmountable difficulties arise when trying to single out science fiction as a special “type of literature” (we will discuss this in detail in Chapter 2), when distinguishing between such genre structures as a fantastic (related to fantasy) story and a fairy tale, and also fairy tale and myth, utopia and dystopia in their modern versions and science fiction novel. Most often, interesting and weighty results of research in the field of individual genre structures associated with fiction serve as an argument in favor of the genetic relationship and artistic unity of all varieties of literary fiction with an infinite variety of its specific incarnations in works - and therefore, confirmation of the need for its comprehensive, systematic consideration.
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Artistic invention.
Conditionality and lifelikeness
artistic fiction in the early stages of the formation of art, as a rule, was not realized: the archaic consciousness did not distinguish between historical and artistic truth. But already in folk tales, which never pretend to be a mirror of reality, conscious fiction is quite clearly expressed. We find a judgment about fiction in Aristotle's Poetics (ch. 9 - the historian talks about what happened, the poet - about the possible, about what could happen), as well as in the works of the philosophers of the Hellenistic era.
For a number of centuries, fiction appeared in literary works as a common property, as inherited by writers from their predecessors. Most often, these were traditional characters and plots, which were somehow transformed each time (this was the case, in particular, in the dramaturgy of the Renaissance and classicism, which widely used ancient and medieval plots).
Much more than before, fiction manifested itself as an individual property of the author in the era of romanticism, when imagination and fantasy were recognized as the most important facet of human existence. "Fantasy<…>- wrote Jean-Paul, - there is something higher, it is the soul of the world and the elemental spirit of the main forces (what are wit, insight, etc. - V.Kh.)<…>Fantasy is hieroglyphic alphabet nature." The cult of the imagination, characteristic of the beginning of the 19th century, marked the emancipation of the individual, and in this sense constituted a positively significant fact of culture, but at the same time it also had Negative consequences(artistic evidence of this is the appearance of Gogol's Manilov, the fate of the hero of Dostoevsky's "White Nights").
In the post-romantic era, fiction narrowed its scope somewhat. The flight of imagination writers of the XIX century. often preferred direct observation of life: characters and plots were close to their prototypes. According to N.S. Leskov, a real writer is a "scribe" and not an inventor: "Where a writer ceases to be a writer and becomes an inventor, there disappears all connection between him and society." Let us also recall Dostoevsky's well-known judgment that the intent eye is capable of discovering "a depth that Shakespeare does not have" in the most ordinary fact. Russian classical literature was more a literature of conjecture than fiction as such. At the beginning of the XX century. fiction was sometimes regarded as something outdated, rejected in the name of recreating a real fact, documented. This extreme has been disputed. The literature of our century - as before - widely relies both on fiction and on non-fictional events and persons. At the same time, the rejection of fiction in the name of following the truth of fact, in some cases justified and fruitful, can hardly become the mainstay of artistic creativity: without relying on fictional images, art and, in particular, literature are unimaginable.
Through fiction, the author summarizes the facts of reality, embodies his view of the world, and demonstrates his creative energy. Z. Freud argued that fiction is associated with unsatisfied inclinations and suppressed desires of the creator of the work and expresses them involuntarily.
The concept of fiction clarifies the boundaries (sometimes very vague) between works that claim to be art and documentary and informational. If documentary texts (verbal and visual) from the “threshold” exclude the possibility of fiction, then works with an orientation towards their perception as artistic willingly allow it (even in cases where the authors limit themselves to recreating real facts, events, persons). Messages in literary texts are, as it were, on the other side of truth and lies. At the same time, the phenomenon of artistry can also arise when perceiving a text created with an orientation towards documentary: “... for this it is enough to say that we are not interested in the truth of this story, that we read it,“ as if it were the fruit of<…>writing."
The forms of “primary” reality (which again is absent in “pure” documentary) are reproduced by the writer (and the artist in general) selectively and somehow transformed, resulting in a phenomenon that D.S. Likhachev called internal the world of the work: “Each work of art reflects the world of reality in its creative perspectives<…>. The world of a work of art reproduces reality in a kind of "abbreviated", conditional version.<…>. Literature takes only some of the phenomena of reality and then conventionally reduces or expands them.
At the same time, there are two trends in artistic imagery, which are denoted by the terms conventionality(emphasis by the author of non-identity, and even opposition between the depicted and the forms of reality) and lifelikeness(leveling such differences, creating the illusion of the identity of art and life). The distinction between conventionality and lifelikeness is already present in the statements of Goethe (the article "On Truth and Plausibility in Art") and Pushkin (notes on dramaturgy and its implausibility). But the relationship between them was especially intensely discussed at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Carefully rejected everything implausible and exaggerated L.N. Tolstoy in the article "On Shakespeare and his drama". For K.S. Stanislavsky, the expression "conventionality" was almost synonymous with the words "falsehood" and "false pathos". Such ideas are connected with the orientation to the experience of Russian realistic literature of the 19th century, the imagery of which was more life-like than conditional. On the other hand, many artists of the early XX century. (for example, V.E. Meyerhold) preferred conventional forms, sometimes absolutizing their significance and rejecting lifelikeness as something routine. So, in the article P.O. Yakobson's "On Artistic Realism" (1921) rises to the shield conditional, deforming, tricks that make it difficult for the reader ("to make it harder to guess") and denies plausibility, identified with realism as the beginning of inert and epigone. Subsequently, in the 1930s - 1950s, on the contrary, lifelike forms were canonized. They were considered the only ones acceptable for the literature of socialist realism, and conventionality was suspected of being related to odious formalism (rejected as bourgeois aesthetics). In the l960s, the rights of artistic convention were again recognized. Now the view has been strengthened, according to which lifelikeness and conventionality are equal and fruitfully interacting tendencies of artistic imagery: “like two wings on which creative imagination relies in an indefatigable thirst to get to the truth of life.”
Early historical stages art was dominated by forms of representation, which are now perceived as conditional. This is, firstly, generated by a public and solemn ritual idealizing hyperbole traditional high genres (epopee, tragedy), the heroes of which manifested themselves in pathetic, theatrical spectacular words, poses, gestures and had exceptional features of appearance that embodied their strength and power, beauty and charm. (Remember the epic heroes or Gogol's Taras Bulba). And secondly, this grotesque, which was formed and consolidated as part of the carnival festivities, acting as a parodic, comical "double" of the solemnly pathetic, and later acquired programmatic significance for the romantics. It is customary to call the grotesque the artistic transformation of life forms, leading to some kind of ugly inconsistency, to the combination of the incompatible. The grotesque in art is akin to a paradox in logic. MM. Bakhtin, who studied the traditional grotesque imagery, considered it the embodiment of a festively cheerful free thought: “The grotesque frees from all forms of inhuman necessity that permeate the prevailing ideas about the world<…>debunks this need as relative and limited; grotesque form helps liberation<…>from walking truths, allows you to look at the world in a new way, to feel<…>the possibility of a completely different world order. In the art of the last two centuries, the grotesque, however, often loses its cheerfulness and expresses a total rejection of the world as chaotic, frightening, hostile (Goya and Hoffmann, Kafka and the theater of the absurd, to a large extent Gogol and Saltykov-Shchedrin).
In art, from the very beginning there are also life-like principles that made themselves felt in the Bible, the classical epics of antiquity, and the dialogues of Plato. In the art of modern times, lifelikeness almost dominates (the most striking evidence of this is the realistic narrative prose of the 19th century, especially L.N. Tolstoy and A.P. Chekhov). It is vital for authors who show a person in his diversity, and most importantly, who seek to bring the depicted closer to the reader, to minimize the distance between the characters and the perceiving consciousness. However, in the art of the XIX-XX centuries. the conditional forms were activated (and at the same time updated). Nowadays, this is not only traditional hyperbole and grotesque, but also all kinds of fantastic assumptions (“Kholstomer” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Pilgrimage to the Land of the East” by G. Hesse), demonstrative schematization of the depicted (B. Brecht’s plays), exposure of the device (“ Evgeny Onegin" by A.S. Pushkin), the effects of the montage composition (unmotivated changes in place and time of action, sharp chronological "breaks", etc.).
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Fiction is a fruit of the author's imagination (fantasy), the creation of plots and images that do not have direct correspondences in previous art and reality. Through fiction, the writer embodies his view of the world, and also demonstrates creative energy. The activity of the writer's imagination, as Z. Freud spoke about, is often generated by unsatisfied inclinations and suppressed desires driven into the subconscious. Along with reliance on the facts directly observed by the writer, the use of prototypes and mythological, historical, literary sources, fiction is the most important and universally significant way of artistic generalization, without which art is unimaginable, because it is based on “the ability to endow productivity with the power of imagination” (Humboldt V. Language and philosophy of culture). A consistent and complete rejection of fiction puts creativity on the border with other forms of literary activity (philosophical essays, documentary information, journalism), and even takes it beyond the limits of verbal art in the strict sense; artistry without the participation of fiction, according to M. Gorky, "is impossible, does not exist." Fiction in literature is invaluably important as a means of creating an organic holistic figurative world; with his constant participation, “labyrinths of links” (L. Tolstoy) are created, which have semantic richness and aesthetic expressiveness. At the same time, fiction is not arbitrary fantasizing: it has certain limits. Fiction appears in literature either as conjecture (often inconspicuous) of mythological and historical sources (ancient drama, old Russian story) or life prototypes ( autobiographical works; "War and Peace" by Leo Tolstoy; many stories by N.S. Leskov), or in the form of active transformation of the material and demonstration of a flight of imagination with the help of conditional forms (works by Dante and J. Milton, J. Swift, N.V. Gogol).
Sphere of fiction - individual components of the form of the work (coincidence of circumstances that make up the plot; unique individual features of the characters and their behavior; everyday details and their combinations), but not the initial principles of formation. The latter are determined by non-artistic reality and, above all, by the forms of nature and culture (in the broad sense), acting as life analogues of imagery (for example, the comic in the "low" genres of ancient and medieval literature as a refraction of carnival laughter; adventurous plot as a reflection of adventurous human behavior ; artistic tropes as the embodiment of the associating ability of people; syntax artistic speech as the implementation of the expression of colloquial and oratorical statements). Fiction is not included in the sphere of artistic content, which is predetermined by the spiritual world of the writer and primary reality (mainly the ideological life and psychology of society): the author, according to M.M. Bakhtin, “finds” his hero, but cannot “invent” him ( Bakhtin M. M. Aesthetics of verbal creativity).
In the early stages of verbal art, still involved in the mythological worldview, fiction was pronounced and acted as unbridled fantasy, but it was not fixed by consciousness. Vital and artistic truth in folklore, the literatures of antiquity and the Middle Ages were usually not distinguished; the events of traditions, legends, epic poems, chronicles, lives were thought of as having taken place, these genres constituted the area of unconscious fiction. An essential milestone in the formation conscious fiction was a fairy tale, which entered into a spontaneous contradiction with the mythologized consciousness and anticipated later genres by the fact that "it never passes off as reality" (Propp V.Ya. Folklore and reality). The ever-living fairy-tale beginning, the core of which is the most active fiction, artistically embodies the most cherished human aspirations. The plots of fairy tales distance and free people from a reality that does not satisfy them, encourage a person to hope (guess) that “he can really help decorate and increase the riches of creation” (Tolkien).
Already ancient Greek thinkers, who understood poetry primarily as imitation, also recognized the rights of fiction, which, according to Plato, is present in myth; according to Aristotle, the poet speaks not of the past, but of the possible; the role of artistic fantasy in the era of Hellenism was more persistently noted. The historical formation of fiction proceeded mainly in the form of initiative conjecture of myths ( ancient tragedy) And historical traditions(songs about exploits, sagas, epics). Serious-comical genres of late antiquity (“”) were especially favorable for strengthening individual fiction, where the authors, having come into contact with a reality close to them, were freed from the power of legend. Fiction is clearly realized in the courtly and animal epic, fablio and other forms of short stories of the Western European Middle Ages, which in the main genres ancient Russian literature(military tales, lives of saints) did not exist until the 17th century: the authors thought of themselves as the keepers of tradition, but not writers.
The increase in the activity of fiction in the literature of modern times is preceded by " Divine Comedy» (1307-21) Dante. Traditional images and plots are dramatically transformed in the works of J. Boccaccio and W. Shakespeare; unprecedentedly dared fiction in the stories of F. Rabelais. In the literature of pre-romanticism and especially romanticism, he showed himself with maximum completeness and brightness. Here fiction is recognized as the most important property of poetry, whereas earlier (especially in the aesthetics of classicism) verbal art was understood as a reliable recreation of nature; The traditional orientation towards the literary samples of the past as a modern norm began to be opposed to "writing according to one's own laws" (Kleist G. Selected). Based on mythological, folklore and literary sources writers of the first third of the 19th century renew and transform their very meaning: J.W. Goethe turns to old plots and images in order to fill them with new content each time (“Faust”, 1808-31); A. S. Pushkin's work is replete with borrowings, imitations, reminiscences, quotations, while remaining deeply original. In the 20th century, the tendency to update and rethink traditional images and motifs was inherited in the dramaturgy of I.F. Annensky, Y. O'Neill. J. Anuya, in the poetry of V.Ya. » (1929-40) M.A. Bulgakov, historical novels by T. Wilder. At the same time, fictional images and plots are widely used in literature, which have no direct analogues either in history and previous literature, or in reality close to the writers (the plots of the stories of E.T. A. Hoffman, E.A. Po, N.V. Gogol, poems by J. Byron, A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov). The understanding of poetry as "writing" is associated with the authors' attitude to the original generalization, often with their claim to complete spiritual independence, sometimes with elitist aspirations. In the era of romanticism, new boundaries of fiction were also identified: the author’s attitude to the development of close reality and self-expression awakened the energy of direct observation of life and self-observation, so that the characters of the work often imprinted features of the author’s immediate environment (Byron’s poem).
In the realistic literature of the 19th and 20th centuries, which sharply reduced the distance between primary reality and the artistic world, fiction often retreats before the reproduction of facts and people personally known to the author. Selectively including real persons and real events in their works, inconspicuously conjecturing and “rebuilding” them, the writers of the 19th century (following the sentimentalists) often preferred real facts to fictional ones and sometimes emphasized the advantage of writing “from nature” (S.T. Aksakov, N. S. Leskov). The late Tolstoy, doubting the possibilities of art, subjected fiction to a harsh trial: “It is shameful to write a lie that there was something that was not. If you want to say something, say it directly" ( complete collection essays). F.M. Dostoevsky also preferred “nature” over V., noting, however, that an adequate reproduction of a single fact cannot exhaust its essence. “Trace another fact of real life, even not at all so bright at first glance - and if only you are able and have an eye, you will find in it a depth that Shakespeare does not have ... But, of course, we will never exhaust the whole phenomenon, not get to the end and start it. We are familiar with only the vital apparently current, and even then by sight, but the end and the beginning are still fantastic for a person ”(Dostoevsky F.M. On Art). What is depicted by a realist writer is, as a rule, an organic alloy of the fictional and the non-fictional. So, A.P. Chekhov relied in his works on faces, events, everyday details drawn from the surrounding reality, and at the same time rearranged what he saw beyond recognition; T. Mann spoke about the "stimulating effect of facts" and "living details" on his work, in the fruits of which the primary reality, however, is dramatically transformed (Mann T. Letters).
In the 20th century, fiction was repeatedly criticized as a phenomenon that had exhausted itself and was forced to give way to the “literature of fact”. This look goes back to the avant-garde aesthetic of the 1920s. In the literature of the 20th century, fiction is very clearly manifested (along with a fairy tale) in works marked by conventional images and flashy generalizations ( romantic works M. Gorky, "City of Gradov", 1928, A.P. Platonov). The currently predominant sphere of open active fiction is the genres of detective story, adventure literature, and science fiction. The types and forms of the use of fiction in literature, apparently, are very diverse: writers can talk about the real past, and about the possible (Aristotle), and, on the contrary, about the impossible.
Theory of Literature. Artistic fiction - events, characters, circumstances depicted in fiction that do not actually exist. Fiction does not claim to be true, but it is not a lie either. This is a special kind of artistic convention, both the author of the work and the readers understand that the incidents and heroes described did not actually exist, but at the same time they perceive what is depicted as something that could be in our everyday earthly life or in some other world. Artistic creativity is diverse. He may not deviate from the plausibility in depicting everyday life, as in realistic novels, but he can also completely break with the requirements of correspondence to reality, as in many modernist novels (for example, in the novel by the Russian symbolist writer A. Bely "Petersburg"), how in literary tales(for example, in the fairy tales of the German romanticist E. T. A. Hoffmann, in the fairy tales of the Danish writer H. K. Andersen, in the fairy tales of M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin) or in works related to fairy tales in the fantasy novel genre (for example, in the novels of J. Tolkien and C. Lewis). Fiction is an essential feature historical novels, even if all their characters are real persons. In literature, the boundaries between fiction and authenticity are very arbitrary and fluid: they are difficult to draw in the genre of memoirs, fictional autobiographies, literary biographies that tell about life famous people. Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Under the editorship of prof. Gorkina A.P. 2006.
Slide 10 from the presentation "Literature". The size of the archive with the presentation is 98 KB.Literary theory
summary of other presentations"Theory and History of Literature" - Folk Literature. With the help of a detail, the writer highlights the event. Psychologism. The detail outwardly accurately, dispassionately, objectively depicts the object. The discussion unfolded in the 1840s. Subtext is the meaning hidden "under" the text. Arsenal of artistic means of development inner life person. Historicism of literature. Historicism. The psychologism of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky is an artistic expression. Tiya, in which all sectors of society inevitably participate.
"Fundamentals of the Theory of Literature" - Pushkin. Eternal themes in fiction. speech characteristic hero. Way. Monologue. Characters. Tale. An example of opposition. Pathos. The emotional content of a work of art. The content of the work. Eternal themes. Theory of Literature. Paphos consists of varieties. historical persons. Plot. Temporary sign. Fabular development. Two ways to create speech characteristics.
"Questions on the theory of literature" - Events in the work. Allegory. Intentional use of the same words in the text. Inner monologue. Paraphrase. Grotesque. Symbol. Expressive detail. Description of the character's appearance. Epilogue. Term. epic works. Display method internal state. A tool to help describe a character. Description of nature. Type of literature. Plot. Interior. Flame of talent. Exposure.
"Theory of Literature" - Paphos. Sarcasm. Message. Tasks. Parable. Feature article. Detail. Author. Interchange. Plot. Inner monologue. Theme and idea. Style. Ballad. Literary genera. A combination of strings. Remark. Reminiscence. Grotesque. Comedy. Artistic welcome. Tragic. Epigram. Character. Subtext. Author's position. Conflict. Stages of action development. Hymn. Lyrics. Problem. Psychologism. Idea. Scenery. Tie. Literary genera and genres.
"Theory of Literature at School" - Realism. dramatic genres. Folklore. Artistic time. Plot. Literary genera. The theme of the artwork. genres of folklore. Portrait. Author's position. Generalized image of human individuality. Classicism. Sentimentalism. Symbolism. The content and form of a literary work. lyrical genres. Ballad. literary process. Fiction like the art of the word. Pathos.
