The ancient culture of Rome, which existed in the period from the 8th century. BC. and until the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 476 AD, gave the world its own vision of a system of ideals and values. For this civilization, love for the Motherland, dignity and honor, reverence for the gods and faith in one's own uniqueness were paramount. This article presents main aspects, capable of describing such a unique phenomenon as the culture of Ancient Rome, briefly.
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Ancient Roman culture
According to chronological data, the history of the culture of Ancient Rome can be divided into three main periods:
- royal (8th–6th centuries BC);
- republican (6th-1st centuries BC);
- imperial (1st century BC - 5th century AD).
The royal period of ancient Rome is considered the most primitive in terms of Roman culture. However, at that time the Romans already had own alphabet. At the end of the 6th century, the first ancient schools, in which children studied Latin and Greek, writing and arithmetic for 4–5 years.
Attention! During that short period of ancient history, which lasted from 753 to 509. BC, seven kings managed to ascend the Roman throne: Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tull Hostilius, Ankh Marcius, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, Lucius Tarquinius the Proud.
The Republican period is characterized by the penetration of ancient Greek culture into the life of Ancient Rome. At this time they begin to develop philosophy and law.
The most prominent Roman philosopher of that time was Lucretius (98-55), who in his work "On the Nature of Things" urged people to stop being afraid of superstition and God's punishment.
He gave a completely logical explanation for the appearance of man and the universe. An innovation in the system of Roman law was the introduction of the concept of "legal entity", which strengthens the position of private owners.
In the imperial period of the development of ancient culture, everything Greek was abandoned. Roman uniqueness develops. This is clearly seen in the culture and architecture of that time: the Colosseum and the Pantheon. For the first time, attempts are being made to study the activity of the brain. The experiments were carried out by the famous doctor Galen in ancient times. Are being created medical training schools. Religion has also changed. The Roman emperor was now recognized as a deity, who ascended to heaven after death.
Ancient Roman heritage
Many achievements of Ancient Rome in the field of civilization and culture, created in the ancient period, are still popular all over the world:
- Water pipes. Aqueducts were used back in Babylon, but in ancient Rome they began to be used not only for irrigation, but also for domestic needs. Water pipelines were also carried out to industrialists: places where resources were extracted and handicraft quarters. Surviving aqueducts built in antiquity on the territory of modern Europe can be found in Germany, France and Italy.
- Sewerage. It became a necessary element of large Roman cities. Drainage systems were used both to drain water during rain, and sewage of various kinds. Antique cesspools are still used today, however, only to remove water after a downpour.
- Citizenship. The main legacy of ancient Rome. It was the Romans who established the procedures for obtaining citizenship. All free people were considered legal residents of the Empire, regardless of where they were born and in what territory of the state they live.
- Republic. The republican form of government, created in Rome in the ancient period, put beginning of creation modern type authorities. It was the Romans who began to share the reins of government, since, in their opinion, its concentration in the hands of one ruler could be fatal for all citizens. The Romans managed to maintain harmony between the strata of society for a long period of time thanks to delegation. However, ironically, it was the republican form of government that buried the Roman state.
- Cultural monuments of Ancient Rome. This rich heritage includes Roman buildings, sculptures, literary works, and philosophical works.
Art
Art culture Ancient Rome was very similar to the Greek of the same period. But this also has its advantages. Thanks to the Romans managed to save many works of ancient painting that were copied from Greek artists.
Sculptures from the Romans acquired emotions. Their faces reflected the state of mind, thanks to which the sculpture came to life. It was in ancient Rome that such a literary movement as the novel appeared.
The unified Greco-Roman culture of the ancient period gave rise to many writers, playwrights and poets. A new direction in literature was born - the novel. Among the famous satirists of that time, it is worth noting Plautus and Terence.
Their comedies have been preserved to this day. Livius Andronicus became the first tragedian in Rome and translated Homer's Odyssey into Latin. Among the poets, it is worth noting Lucilius, who wrote poems on everyday topics. Most often in his works, he ridiculed the obsession with wealth.
During the time of Cicero in Ancient Rome philosophy gains popularity. There are such trends as Roman Stoicism, the main idea of which was the achievement of a moral and spiritual ideal by a person, and Roman Neoplatonism, which preached the ascent of the human soul to unity with a certain ecstasy.
In the field of astronomy, the ancient scientist Ptolemy is famous, who created the geocentric system of the world. He also wrote a number of works on optics, mathematics and geography.
Architecture of Ancient Rome
The ancient Roman era left majestic monuments of ancient architecture that can be seen today.
Coliseum. A huge amphitheater, the construction of which began in 72 AD. and ended only after 8 years. Its second name, the Flavian Amphitheater, is associated with ruling dynasty, whose representatives were the initiators of the construction. The total capacity of the Roman Colosseum was more than 50 thousand people.
Note! Most often, prisoners of war participated in gladiator fights. Their lives depended on how colorfully they were able to demonstrate their capabilities and to what extent they won over the public. If the gladiator made a strong impression, the spectators of Rome let him live and raised thumb up. If the audience wanted death, then the thumb calmly fell down.
Triumphal Arch of Titus. The initiator of the construction of the monument was the Roman emperor Domitian, shortly after the death of his predecessor Titus. This ancient monument was built in 81 AD. in honor of the conquest of Jerusalem in 70 AD. The arch is known for its convex relief within the span. It depicts a procession of Roman soldiers with trophies captured in Jerusalem.
Pantheon. A majestic structure built by Emperor Hadrian in 126 AD. The Pantheon is a temple dedicated to all the gods. Perfectly preserved to this day in its original form, this cultural monument of the ancient period is unique in its proportionality and visual lightness. From above, the Roman temple is decorated with a dome with a hole in the center for sunlight to enter.
cultural traditions
The brightest and most peculiar traditions of the Roman culture of the ancient period are presented in marriage ceremony.
On the eve of the wedding, the girl, as if saying goodbye to childhood, had to donate her toys and clothes. The head was tied with a red shawl, the bride was dressed in a white tunic, which was tied with a belt of sheep's wool.
The wedding dress in ancient Rome was red, which was worn over a tunic. A bright yellow veil was thrown over the head, which matched the color of the shoes.
herself the ceremony was accompanied pig sacrifice. It was determined by her insides whether a marriage would be happy. And if so, then the one who performed the divination ceremony gave his permission.
Already in the days of the ancient period, marriage contracts were drawn up, in which the bride's dowry and the procedure for dividing property in the event of a divorce were prescribed. The contract was read aloud in front of ten witnesses, after which these witnesses put their signatures.
Specificity
Despite the fact that ancient Rome imitated Greece in many ways, it had characteristic distinctive features in culture. If the Greeks occupied territories by distributing their goods, then Rome led hostilities, completely depriving the conquered territory of independence.
Once every five years, a population survey was conducted - qualification. The activity of the population was valued as in war time, and in peacetime.
The toga was considered the national dress in Rome. That is why the Romans were called "togatus". The eternal companion of Ancient Rome was the army, which stood outside the state. Features of the culture of Ancient Rome allowed it to become the basis for the subsequent flourishing of Europe.
musical culture
The musical culture of the ancient antique period was no different from the artistic one in the sense that it also completely copied the Greek one.
Singers, musicians, dancers were invited from Greece. It was popular to perform the odes of Horace, the poems of Ovid, accompanied by the music of the cithara and tibia.
However, later in ancient Rome musical performances lost their original appearance and acquired an exceptionally spectacular character. The musicians' performances were accompanied theatrical performances. Even gladiatorial fights were accompanied by the sounds of trumpets and horns.
During the ancient period, they were very popular music teachers. A letter from the poet Martial to his friend has survived to this day, in which he says that if he becomes a music teacher, then his career is guaranteed.
Pantomime became a new trend in art. It was performed by a dancer-soloist to the sounds of the choir and a large number musical instruments.
The last emperor of Rome, Domitian, at the end of the 1st century. AD arranged a "Capitol competition" between soloists, poets and musicians. The winners were crowned with laurel wreaths.
The contribution of ancient Rome to world culture
The contribution of Ancient Rome to the development of modern European civilization is undeniable. The Romans in the ancient period created the Latin alphabet, which was used by all of medieval Europe. Created in Rome civil law system, civic values are defined: patriotism, belief in one's own identity and greatness. In the same place, Christianity historically developed, which greatly influenced the subsequent stages of the development of mankind. The Romans introduced concrete. They taught the world how to build bridges and aqueducts.
Sculpture and art as part of the culture of Ancient Rome
Culture and History of Ancient Rome briefly
Conclusion
The greatest men in history praised ancient Rome and its culture in their quotes. So, Napoleon said: "The history of Rome is the history of the whole world." Obviously, if the Roman Empire had been able to withstand the onslaught of the "barbarian" tribes in 476, then the Renaissance would have appeared to the world much earlier. The contribution of ancient Rome to world culture so large that it remains to be studied for a long time.
Several stages can be distinguished in the development of Ancient Rome: 1st period - royal: 754 - 510 BC; 2nd period - republican: 510 - 30 years BC; 3rd period - imperial: 30 BC -
476 AD
The most ancient population of the Apennine peninsula were the Ligures.
In the I millennium BC. the bulk of the population was made up of tribes speaking Indo-European languages, pushing back the former population - the Etruscans, who came from Asia Minor, Greeks and others. By the 1st century BC. As a result of the conquest of Italy by Rome, a single Italian people was formed.
The Etruscans, who created the first states in the Apennines, had a special influence on the culture of Rome. Their culture has many analogies with the cultures of the Mediterranean, Asia Minor and Greece.
Rome was founded, it is believed, in 754 (3) BC. and was originally a monarchy with strong remnants of tribal relations. During the tsarist period, a state was formed in the form of a policy, the socio-economic basis of which was the ancient form of ownership. Roman culture early period developed under the strong influence of the Etruscans and Greeks. In the 7th century BC. writing based on the Greek alphabet. The Roman culture of the early period did not have bright achievements: the Romans had a vague idea of their gods, there are signs of rationalism and formalism without exaltation in religion, there was no vivid mythology like the Greeks, for whom it became the soil and arsenal of artistic creativity. There were no epic poems in Rome like those of Homer. Dramaturgy originated from rural holidays - saturnalia, whose participants performed with songs and dances. The priests kept chronicles - annals. An important manifestation of culture was law-making, which was formed on the basis of customary law, royal laws and laws adopted people's representatives. The first written monument of Roman law was the “Laws of the XII Tables” (5th century BC), which fixed the norms of customary law and at the same time protected private property, class and estate inequality.
The life of the Romans of the tsarist and early republican times was distinguished by unpretentiousness. Houses and shrines were nondescript. From the custom of making death masks, portrait sculpture began to develop, which was very similar to the original.
In general, the early Roman culture, having accepted the fruitful influence of other peoples, retained its originality and developed local Italo-Latin foundations.
By the III century BC. Rome became the hegemon on the Apennine Peninsula. Causes of Roman Success: Successful geographical position in the center of the Apennines; rapid socio-economic development on the basis of advanced ancient slavery; military-technical superiority, which arose on the basis of an advanced economy and culture; lack of unity among the opponents of Rome. However, the conquest of Italy by Rome did not mean the creation of a single centralized state. Rome remained a polis. At the same time, the formation of the Roman-Italian union economically and culturally brought together different regions of Italy.
In the initial period of the republic, Rome was a polis with the dominance of a political ideology: with a heightened sense of citizenship and civic community, the value of freedom, the dignity and collectivism of citizens. Gradually, as the Roman conquests, the Roman community: the city-state was replaced by a huge power. The decomposition of the ancient polis led to a crisis and the ideology of its citizens. There is a departure from collectivism and the growth of individualism, the opposition of the individual to the team, people lose their calmness and inner balance. Ancient morals and customs are ridiculed and criticized, other customs, foreign ideology and religion begin to penetrate into the Roman environment.
The Roman religion, which developed under strong Greek influence, also included foreign deities. It was believed that the reception of new gods strengthened the power of the Romans. Religion bore the seal of formalism and practicality. Much attention was paid to the external side of religion, the performance of rituals, and not spiritual merging with the deity. Therefore, the feelings of believers were little affected and dissatisfaction arose. Hence the growth of the influence of Eastern cults, often distinguished by a mystical and orgiastic character.
Festivals, accompanied by processions, played an important role in the life of the Romans. sports competitions, theatrical performances, gladiator fights. Moreover, the importance of public performances grew all the time: they were an important means of distracting the broad masses from social activity.
Greek literature had a great influence on the formation and development of Roman literature, initially the language of literature was Greek. Of the most significant authors of the period of the republic, one can note the comedian Titus Maccius Plautus (254 - 184 BC); Gaius Lucilius (180 - 102 BC), who denounced the vices of society in satire; Titus Lucretius Cara (95 - 51 BC), who wrote the philosophical poem "On the Nature of Things"; Gaius Valeria Catullus (87 - 54 BC), master lyric poetry who wrote
In prose, Mark Terentius Varro (116 - 27 BC) became famous, who, in fact, created the encyclopedia "Antiquities of Divine and Human Affairs" about history, geography and religion, a monument was erected to him as the only Roman writer during his lifetime; Mark Tullius Cicero (106 - 43 BC) - orator, philosopher, lawyer, writer. A major Roman writer was Gaius Julius Caesar, author of Notes on the Gallic War and Notes on the Civil War.
The growth of the power of Rome led to the rise of architecture, which expressed the idea of \u200b\u200bstrength, power and greatness, hence the monumentality and scale of buildings, the magnificent decoration of buildings, decorativeness, greater interest than the Greeks in the utilitarian aspects of architecture: many bridges, aqueducts, theaters were built, amphitheatres, thermal baths, administrative buildings.
Roman architects developed new constructive principles, in particular, they widely used arches, vaults and domes, along with columns they used pillars and pilasters, and the Romans adhered to the symmetry system. Roman architects began to widely use concrete for the first time. In the 1st century BC. Rome has become a huge city with a million people, high-rise buildings and numerous public buildings.
Science developed rapidly, and with a practical roll: one can distinguish the agronomists Cato and Varro, the theoretical architect Vitruvius, the lawyer Scaevola, the philologist Figulus. I
2nd century AD - "golden age" of the Roman Empire. The peoples of the Mediterranean for the first time in history found themselves within the boundaries of one huge power. The borders between individual states, turned into Roman provinces, were destroyed, monetary systems were unified, wars and sea robbery were stopped. Conditions were created that favored the establishment of economic and cultural ties between different areas, the progress of agriculture, crafts, construction, domestic and foreign trade.
The Romans perceived, assimilated and processed the cultural heritage of the ancient Eastern and Hellenistic world. They simultaneously contributed to the familiarization with the Greco-Roman culture different layers population of the western provinces of the empire, spreading Latin and Greek among them, introducing them to economic and technical achievements, mythology, works of art, literature, architecture, scientific knowledge And philosophical theories, with the system of Roman law.
Of the creators of the culture of the "golden age" of Rome, one can note: the geographer Strabo; historians Tacitus, Titus Livius, Pliny, Plutarch; philosophers Seneca and Marcus Aurelius; poets Virgil, whose poem "Aeneid" is the crown of Roman poetry, Ovid, who wrote about love; Petronius and Juvenal - satirists; prose writers Apuleius and Long. Roman law reached a special development. Roman legal norms proved to be so flexible that they can be applied in any public system based on private property.
From the III century AD. Rome entered a period of crisis, which is based on the crisis of the slave system. Political instability increased. The crisis of traditional culture deepened, consumerism intensified, moral decay increased, the desire for pleasures, hedonism was noted.
Reflection of the crisis of traditional Roman culture was the emergence and wide spread of Christianity, which became the state religion.
In 395, the empire was divided into Western and Eastern. In 476, the Western Roman Empire fell under the onslaught of the barbarians, and Byzantium was formed in the east, transforming into a feudal state, the most cultured during the Middle Ages in Europe.
The meaning of ancient civilization.
The ancient tradition was never interrupted either in the West of Europe or in the East of Europe, although there were periods early medieval when much has been forgotten. Certain values of ancient culture were absorbed by Christianity. Latin became the language of the church and science in the Middle Ages. Many achievements of antiquity were preserved and developed by the Arab-Islamic civilization (philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, medicine). The system of Roman law was adapted to medieval Europe. During the Renaissance, antique samples became the subject of study. Ancient art, literature, architecture, theater are connected with modernity by thousands of threads.
The ideas of ancient democracy had a special influence in politics. The idea of Rome as a political and spiritual center that unites peoples also lived on.
The culture of the Ancient World experienced a worldview revolution or, in the terminology of Karl Jaspers, "axial time". As a result of Confucianism and Taoism in China, Buddhism in India, Zoroastrianism in Iran, the ethical monotheism of the prophets in Palestine, and Greek philosophy, for the first time two most important principles are affirmed: universal unity and moral self-sufficiency of the individual.
World religions (Buddhism, Christianity, Islam) have been formed, with an attitude towards the denial of patriarchal values and an appeal to a person who goes beyond tribal norms and carries out free choice. A completely new phenomenon of "conversion" to a religious or philosophical faith arises: the choice of doctrine and the norms of behavior that follow from it.
Until morality was separated from sacral-tribal taboos, and personal moral consciousness without a trace identified itself with public opinion tribal, ethnic collective, an independent act in which a person chooses for himself a way of thinking and a way of life was impossible: a person could violate generally accepted norms, but could not look for other norms for himself. The destruction of the automatism of the tradition of the genus made the life position of the individual a problem and cleared a place for the psychology of "conversion". The authority of tradition, which had previously dominated, came into conflict with the authority of doctrine.
During the period of ancient civilizations, the power of the idea was discovered, as something opposed to the absolutization of ritualism. Based on the idea, it was possible to re-build human behavior among people. The Greatest Discovery ancient civilizations - the principle of criticism. The appeal to the idea, to "truth" made it possible to criticize the givens of human life, together with myth and ritual - the main languages of the archaic worldview. Antiquity set the task: to seek the truth that makes a person free. Man has left the "uterine", pre-personal state, and he cannot return to this state without ceasing to be a man.
Roman culture largely continued Greek traditions, but, taking the culture of Ancient Greece as a basis, the Romans also introduced their own interesting elements. As in Greece, culture was derived from military affairs, politics, religion, and its achievements primarily depended on the needs of Roman society.
Most of all, the Romans developed architecture and sculptural portraiture. The culture of ancient Rome briefly shows that the efforts of the Greeks were not in vain.
The religion of the Romans was not so much complex as disorderly. Many gods, protective spirits, idols did not always correspond to their functions, and then they completely ceased to fulfill them, leaving only the pantheon familiar to us. With the emergence and popularization of Christianity, the Roman religion took on a more slender outline, and the gods have long become mythology. The religions of ancient Rome originated in totemism (the legend of the founders of Rome - Romulus and Remus). Pantheon of the gods of Rome, as well as ritual for the most part borrowed from the Greeks. Zeus - Jupiter, Hera - Juno, Demeter - Ceres, etc. Cult of Jupiter (Temple on the Capitoline Hill). The Romans revered such deities as Peace, Hope, Valor, Justice, who did not possess the features of living personalities. Temples were built in honor of such gods, sacrifices were made. Mythology has not been developed.
The Romans are also known for their philosophy, which gave the world the pillars of this science. What are the names of Cicero and Titus Lucretius Cara, Seneca and Marcus Aurelius. Thanks to the works of these scientists, the first philosophical problems arose, many of which have not been resolved to this day.
In science, the Romans also reached a fairly high level, especially for a time when many industries were in their infancy. In medicine, Celsus and Claudius Galen achieved particular success; in history - Sallust, Pliny, Tacitus, Titus Livius; in literature - Livius Andronicus, Plautus, Gaius Valery Catullus, Virgil, Gaius Petronius, Horace, Ovid Nason, Plutarch. It is also necessary to recall the Roman law, which is used by all of Europe. And this is not in vain, because the laws of the twelve tables were written in Rome.
A more familiar remnant of Roman luxury for the inhabitants was the circus, in which gladiator fights were held. Many movies amaze us with burning scenes of battles, but for the Romans this was just one way to spend their free time.
A special place has always been given to the Roman contribution to construction and architecture. The culture of ancient Rome will not even describe half of what was built in the then city-state.
The Etruscans and Hellenes left to the Romans their rich heritage, on the basis of which Roman architecture grew. It is quite natural that most of the buildings were for public purposes - aqueducts, roads, bridges, baths, fortifications, basilicas.
But how the Romans could turn simple buildings into works of art remains a mystery to everyone. Plus, you can add to this the rapid flowering of portraits depicted in stone - the Greeks did not know such a flourishing in this area.
INTRODUCTION
At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. ancient Eastern civilizations have lost their priority in social development and have given way to a new cultural center, which arose in the Mediterranean and was called "ancient civilization". It is customary to refer to it the history and culture of Ancient Greece, as well as Ancient Rome.
In my work, I would like to trace the main directions in the development of Roman culture and highlight a number of features in it. Also, during the analysis, try to determine how great was the influence of the cultures of the conquered countries. Is it possible to consider the culture of Ancient Rome as an independent phenomenon, or did it develop in the course of endless borrowings? Besides, could not the cultural factor in any way contribute to the collapse of the empire? These are the questions I will try to answer in my work.
The center of the future great power - the city of Rome - arose in Latium, in central Italy, in the lower reaches of the Tiber River. An ancient parable, transmitted by Roman historians - Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Titus Livius and the poet Virgil, attributes the foundation of the city to the legendary Romulus and refers this event to 754 - 753 years. BC. on the day of the celebration of the shepherd goddess Palea (April 21).
More than twelve centuries (VIII century BC - V century AD) existed Roman culture, which was a phenomenon more complex than Greek. Rome, later Greece, appeared on the stage of world history and was the capital of an immense empire that captured all the territories around the Mediterranean. The very word "Rome" was synonymous with greatness, glory and military prowess, wealth and high culture.
The Roman mentality differed sharply from the Greek. If the Greeks were an amazingly gifted people in the field of artistic creativity, then the Romans had the greatest ability for practical activities. This main feature The Roman warehouse of character left its mark on Roman culture.
The Romans were good, disciplined soldiers, excellent organizers and administrators, legislators and lawyers. They achieved great success in the field of urban planning and urban improvement, they were excellent rural owners. The Romans created outstanding architectural monuments, striking with the perfection of engineering technology.
The history of ancient Roman civilization is a complex phenomenon. The population of ancient Italy consisted of multilingual peoples who gradually submitted to the authority of Rome. Ancient Rome as a whole means not only the city of Rome of the ancient era, but also all the countries and peoples conquered by it that were part of the colossal Roman power - from the British Isles to Egypt. The Roman Empire was the largest state, covering all the territories adjacent to the Mediterranean. Behind big period(IV century BC - III century) The Roman Republic from a small city-state turned into a world slave-owning power, which was based on imperial power.
“All roads lead to Rome,” says the proverb, as travelers and merchants rushed here from all over the world.
The whole system of culture of Ancient Rome was devoted to substantiating the superiority of the Roman political system, to educating good citizens from the Romans, proud of their belonging to the “master people”. The main value for the Romans was Rome itself, the Roman people, destined to conquer other peoples and rule them for their own happiness. The Roman Empire developed on the basis of large-scale slavery and agriculture, the conquest of vast territories, the conquest of many peoples and cultures, which necessitated the creation of a huge bureaucracy and the development of sophisticated political methods of management.
Story ancient Roman culture is divided into three main stages:
.Early or royal period (VIII - VI centuries BC)
.Roman Republic (v - 1st centuries BC)
.Roman Empire (I - V centuries AD)
The basis of Roman art was ancient Italian culture, in which the art of the Etruscans played a leading role. The Etruscans inhabited these lands from the 1st millennium BC. e. and created an advanced civilization. Etruria was a strong maritime power. Skillful metallurgists, shipbuilders, merchants, builders and pirates, the Etruscans sailed all over mediterranean sea, assimilating the cultural traditions of many peoples inhabiting its coast, while creating a high and unique culture. They began to create something new that the ancient Romans later developed: engineering structures, wall monumental painting, a realistic sculptural portrait. It was from the Etruscans that the Romans subsequently borrowed the experience of urban planning, handicraft technology, the technology of making iron, glass, concrete, the secret sciences of priests and some customs, for example, celebrating victory with a triumph.
However, a powerful cultural movement begins in Rome only at the end of the 3rd century. BC. its main feature was the influence of Greek culture, the Greek language and education. Numerous figures of Roman culture of that time - prose writers, philosophers, doctors, architects, artists - were overwhelmingly non-Romans.
Rome exerted its influence on the Hellenistic territories conquered by it. Thus, a synthesis of Greek and Roman cultures was formed, the result of which was the Late Antique Greco-Roman culture (I-V centuries AD), which underlay the civilization of Byzantium, Western Europe and many Slavic states.
RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY
For the most ancient period of Roman history, the cult of family and tribal patron spirits is especially characteristic. First of all, they included manna - the souls of dead ancestors; the ancient Romans believed in the existence of the afterlife, where the souls of the dead go - these are Orc and Elysium. Penates were also revered - patron spirits of the house and lares, which were patron spirits with broader functions, there are references to lares of crossroads, roads, navigation, etc. important place also occupied the cult of the fire of the hearth, personified in the goddess Vesta. IN ancient beliefs traces of totelism are also traced, for example, the legend of the she-wolf who nursed Romulus and Remus. There were also agrarian cults.
Later, some tribal gods turned into objects of state worship, becoming patron gods of the city-state. The most ancient gods include Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus (Romulus), who were the most important for the Romans. If the first two have correspondences among the Greeks, then the god Quirinus has no analogues in the Greek pantheon.
One of the revered purely Italic deities was Janus, depicted with two faces, as the deity of entry and exit, of every beginning. Olympically, the gods were considered the patrons of the Roman community and were revered by the entire civil community. Among the plebeians, the divine trinity was especially popular: Ceres, Libera-Proserpina - the goddess of vegetation and the underworld, and Liber - the god of wine and fun.
One of the most popular goddesses in Rome is Vesta, the goddess of the hearth and the fire that burns in it. Vestal priestesses served in the temple of Vesta, who took a vow of virginity and chastity. Girls 6-10 years old were selected very carefully, without the slightest flaw. For ten years they were trained, then they were initiated, received the name Amata in addition to their own, and served in the temple for ten years. For violation of the vow of chastity, the punishment was cruel: the sinner was buried in the ground alive. For lesser offenses they could be flogged. Vestal Virgins enjoyed great honor and respect. Insulting them was punishable by death. After serving ten years, they spent another ten teaching the younger generation of priestesses. After all this, the Vestal could return to the family and even get married.
The Romans had many gods of fertility: Flora - the goddess of blooming flowers, Pomona - the goddess of apple trees, Faun and Faun - the deities of forests, groves and fields, and others.
Mythology was practically absent, there were also no images of the gods - they worshiped their symbols, so the symbol of Vesta was fire, Mars - a spear. All the deities were completely faceless. The Roman did not dare to claim with complete certainty that he knew the real name of the god, or that he could discern whether it was a god or a goddess. In his prayers, he also maintained the same caution and said: "Jupiter the Most Benevolent Greatest, or if you like to be called by some other name." And making a sacrifice, he said: "Are you a god or a goddess, are you a man or a woman." On the Palatine (one of the seven hills on which Ancient Rome was located) there is still an altar on which there is no name, but only an evasive formula: “To God or goddess, husband or woman”, and the gods themselves had to decide to whom the sacrifices offered on this altar belong.
Roman mythology is characterized by the animation and deification of abstract concepts and values, such as Freedom, Valor, Consent. Glory stood out in particular. In honor of the outstanding commanders, emperors and their victories, the arches of Triumph were erected, on which the exploits of the victor were depicted.
After the conquest of Greece, there is some transformation of the image of the Roman gods and their convergence with the Greek ones: Jupiter - Zeus, Juno - Hera, Minerva - Athena, Venus - Aphrodite, Mars - Ares, Neptune - Poseidon, Mercury - Hermes, Bacchus - Dionysus, Diana - Artemis , Vulcan - Hephaestus, Saturn - Uranus, Ceres - Demeter. Among the Roman gods, the main Olympic gods stood out under the influence of Greek religious ideas: Jupiter - the god of the sky, thunder and lightning, Mars - the god of war, Minerva - the goddess of wisdom, the patroness of crafts, Venus - the goddess of love and fertility, Vulcan - the god of fire and blacksmithing, Ceres is the goddess of vegetation, Apollo is the god of the sun and light, Juno is the patroness of women and marriage, Mercury is the messenger of the Olympic gods, the patron of travelers, trade, Neptune is the god of the sea, Diana is the goddess of the moon.
Before starting a war with any people, the Romans tried to win over the gods of this people to their side, promising these gods all the necessary sacrifices.
The Roman pantheon never remained closed; foreign deities were accepted into its composition. The inclusion of new gods was thought to increase the power of the Romans. So, the Romans borrowed almost the entire Greek pantheon, and at the end of the 3rd century. BC. the veneration of the Great Mother of the Gods from Phrygia was introduced.
The slaves who arrived in Rome and Italy professed their cults, thereby spreading other religious beliefs.
Priests of the gods were considered officials, in the late Republican period they were elected. The priests observed the cult of individual gods, the order in the temples, prepared sacrificial animals, monitored the accuracy of prayers and ritual actions, and could give advice on which deity to turn to with the necessary request. Also in each temple there were priests who specialized in divination: augurs - predictors of the future by the flight of birds or in relation to their food; haruspex - predicting the future by the entrails of sacrificial animals and by lightning strikes.
The Romans expected help from the gods in specific matters and therefore scrupulously performed the established rituals and made the necessary sacrifices. In relation to the gods, the principle “I give so that you give” worked.
In the imperial period, the cult of the geniuses of emperors was gradually established - first posthumous, and then intravital. Julius Caesar was the first to be deified (posthumously). Caligula declared himself a god during his lifetime.
In the 1st century AD in one of the provinces of the Roman Empire, Christianity was born, which played an important role in the history of world culture.
CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE
In the 1st century BC in Palestine - on the outskirts of the Roman Empire - Christianity arises, and already in the time of Nero (second half of the 1st century AD) there was a Christian community in Rome.
During the I - III centuries. Christianity spread throughout the Roman Empire and beyond. The imperial authorities are suspicious of Christians, attributing to them misanthropy, because Christians of that time not only waited, but also called for the End of the World and the Last Judgment, Christians refused to perform official sacrifices in front of statues of state gods (including emperors). This led to numerous persecutions of Christians, initiated by Nero. They took place with special force under the emperors - Domitian, Trojan, Marcus Aurelius, Decius, Diocletian.
But, despite all the persecution, Christianity continued to live and spread, and by the 4th century it became a force that the emperors themselves had to reckon with. In 313, Emperors Constantine and Licinius issued the Edict of Milan, which proclaimed the equality of all religions, including Christianity, and in 325, Emperor Constantine declared Christianity the state religion. By decree of Theodosius the Great in 395, all pagan temples were closed, from that moment Christianity became the only official religion of the Roman Empire.
Already at the end of I - beginning. 2nd century the Gospels (“Good News”) were written in Greek, the Epistles and Acts of the Apostles were written, as well as the Apocalypse, i.e. the books that made up the New Testament. To discuss and resolve complex theological issues, and first of all, to combat the Arian heresy, which were then hotly discussed by Christians, by decree of Emperor Constantine in 325, a cathedral was created in the city of Nicaea, which became the first of the seven Ecumenical Councils of the Christian Church.
ARCHITECTURE AND MONUMENTAL WALL PAINTING
ancient roman civilization culture painting
In order to understand the general nature of Roman architecture, the reasons for the appearance of giant front squares, large spectacular buildings and memorial ensembles, it is necessary to understand the socio-economic life of Ancient Rome. The development of trade, successful wars and the influx of slaves favor the rise of the economy, the further enrichment of the tribal nobility (patricians), the promotion of the rich from among the common people (plebeians) and the formation of a new Roman nobility - nobles. Increasing wealth inequality; free community members are forced out of the lands and rush to the city, where they are engaged in crafts, petty trade, and become professional soldiers. Wars are turning into one of the main means of profit for the Roman nobility. Generals - the winners were the idols of the Romans, they were given high honors. To commemorate the victories, many days of festivities were held with solemn parades of troops, distribution of bread and money, grandiose performances, and gladiator fights. In accordance with the way of life, the architecture of Rome also took shape - a complex system of public buildings, temples, squares that could accommodate tens of thousands of people.
The Etruscans were the teachers of the Romans. It was they who taught how to build buildings, but very soon the Romans surpassed them in this art. They began to make better use of materials that had already been used before, adapted new ones, and improved methods of construction.
early city It was built without a plan, randomly, had narrow and crooked streets, primitive dwellings made of wood and mud brick. Only temples were large public buildings, for example, the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, built in the 6th century BC, a small temple of Vesta in the forum. Inside the city, wastelands and undeveloped plots were preserved, the houses of the nobility were surrounded by gardens. The sewers were at first open, but then they were covered with wooden flooring, and later with a stone vault.
Roman roads were of great strategic importance, they united various parts of the country. The Appian Way leading to Rome (VI-III centuries BC) for the movement of cohorts and messengers was the first of the network of roads that later covered all of Italy. Near the Aricci valley, the road, paved with a thick layer of concrete, rubble, lava and tuff slabs, went because of the terrain along a massive wall (197 m long, 11 m high), dissected in the lower part by three through arched spans for mountain waters.
At the beginning of the 4th century BC. the fire of Rome after the capture of it by the Gauls destroyed most of the city's buildings. After the fire, the city was surrounded by new, so-called Servian walls. They consisted of the main outer walls and a powerful earthen rampart resting on it, which was supported by another, less high wall from the side of the city.
In the 1st century BC there are multi-storey buildings, villas of the nobility, built of baked bricks and concrete, and even marble. The city was divided into quarters, the quarters were grouped into districts.
The Romans sought to emphasize in their buildings and architectural structures the idea of strength, power and greatness that suppress a person. Hence the love of Roman architects for the monumentality and scale of their structures, which amaze with their size, was born.
Another feature of Roman architecture is the desire for lush decoration of buildings, rich decorations, a lot of decorations, to create mostly not temple complexes, but buildings and structures for practical needs (bridges, aqueducts, theaters, amphitheaters, baths). Roman architects developed new constructive principles, in particular, they widely used arches, vaults and domes, along with columns, they used pillars and pilasters. Arches and vaults were borrowed from the Etruscans.
The arched structure is based on two elements: pillars and an arch resting on them. So, the horizontal overlap is replaced by a curved arch. The rectangular massive shape of the pillars is less individualized than the column.
The brightest example using an arched structure - triumphal arches. These typically Roman memorial structures were erected already in the Republican period. Most often they were established in honor of victories.
Triumphal Arch of Titus was erected in honor of the capture of Jerusalem by the troops of Emperor Titus (180s BC). its architectural appearance consists of a powerful monolith cut through in the center by an arched span. Here we are faced with the decorative use of the order system, characteristic of the Romans: creating a purely visual impression of the constructiveness of the order system by “imposing” it on the wall array. The “facade” of the arch is clearly divided into a base, a middle part, consisting of Corinthian semi-columns and an entablature, and an upper part in the form of a massive attic, where the urn with the ashes of the emperor was enclosed.
Unlike the Greek architects, who drew up the plan of buildings without following the dry geometry of its different parts, the Romans proceeded from strict symmetry. They widely used Greek orders - Doric, Ionic and Corinthian (the most beloved, magnificent order). The Romans used orders only as a decorative, decorating element.
The Romans developed the order system and created their own orders, different from the Greek ones.
Great place in public life the Romans were fascinated by spectacles. Theaters and amphitheatres are typical of ancient cities. Even during the period of the late Republic in Rome, a peculiar type of amphitheater developed. The latter was entirely a Roman invention. If Greek theaters were arranged in the open air, the seats for spectators were located in the recess of the hill, then the Roman theaters were independent closed multi-tiered buildings in the city center with seats on concentrically erected walls. The amphitheaters were intended for the crowd of the lower classes of the capital population, greedy for spectacles, in front of which gladiator battles and naval battles were played out during the days of the festivities.
After the civil war of 68 - 69 AD, Vespasian, who came to power, began the construction of an amphitheater, known throughout the world as Coliseum. The completion of its construction fell on the reign of the son of Vespasian - Titus (80 AD) in honor of the opening of the Colosseum, hundred-day gladiatorial games were given.
In plan, the Colosseum was a closed oval (524 meters in circumference), dissected by transverse and annular passages. Its central part, the arena, is surrounded by stepped benches for spectators. The appearance, monumental and majestic, is determined by the ring wall, designed in the form of a multi-tiered order arcade: below - Tuscan, above - Ionic, in the third tier - Corinthian, above which Corinthian pilasters were placed.
One of the most perfect examples of a temple with a dome was Pantheon in Rome (c. 120), created by Apollodorus of Damascus. Here, the constructive and artistic tasks of creating a large-span domed space are brilliantly resolved. Rounded in plan (rotondo type), the temple had an 8-column portico of the Corinthian order. The building had a powerful domed volume outside, a single and whole space inside. The interior is dominated by a dome, at the top of which a light aperture is left (a spherical vault, which is a monolithic mass without a frame, rests on a wall 6 m thick). the wall is divided into two tiers: the lower one, where deep niches alternate with massive columns of the Corinthian order, and the upper one, as an intermediate one between the support and the dome.
For the first time in architecture, the main focus has shifted to the interior space, which, with its solemn and festive decision, contrasts with appearance, where the space of monumental volume dominates.
Grandiose dome coverings were used in baths, representing a complex of rooms and courtyards where the Romans rested and had fun. The basis of the composition was ablution halls (baths). Most famous Baths of Caracalla (206 - 216).
The Romans create a type of public square called the forum. Appearing in the Republican period, the forums of the empire acquired a ceremonial appearance, becoming also a grandiose architectural ensemble, which includes many buildings of various functional affiliations, glorifying one or another emperor.
Famous forum of Trajan (trans. floor. II century AD) was created by Apollodorus of Damascus. It included:
.The main rectangular square with a triumphal arch at the entrance and a colonnade behind which were semicircles of trading shops;
.The five-nave basilica of Ulcia, deployed perpendicular to the central axis;
.A small peristyle courtyard with Trajan's column, covered with a continuous ribbon of reliefs depicting the military exploits of the emperor. It was located on the central axis between two symmetrical library buildings;
.The last peristyle courtyard, rounded on the side where the temple of Trajan stood.
The whole ensemble was united by the motif of colonnades and porticos of various sizes, sometimes reaching huge ones.
All these grandiose constructions were demanded by Rome as the center of a vast empire. And indeed, built up with all these structures, rich in monuments, the city in the III - IV centuries. looked impressive. In the III century. a lot of construction was still going on - arches, magnificent baths, palaces were erected. “But, in the words of A. Blok, “there was no longer a single painful place on the body of the Roman Empire,” creative potential gradually faded away. Thus, architecture begins to outlive itself, to become more and more primitive. Perhaps this is due to the fact that in the pursuit of innovation and luxury, the Roman nobility too quickly exhausted the possibilities of borrowed building techniques.
Developing in Rome monumental wall painting. The so-called "Pompeian" frescoes are usually divided into four groups:
."Inlaid style" - II century BC Imitation of facing the wall with squares of multi-colored marble - "House of the Faun".
."Architectural-perspective" style. Between the picturesquely executed columns, pilasters, cornices, large multi-figure compositions were placed on subjects borrowed from Greek painting. The realistic interpretation of images dominates - the painting of the "Villa of the Mysteries".
."Candelabra" style - from the end of the 1st century BC. The most strict and elegant, with a variety of decorative motifs (garlands, candelabra, ornaments) that framed plot images small sizes - "House of Punished Cupid".
."Magnificent" style - from the middle of the 1st century AD. It combines the characteristic features of the second style (promising architectural constructions) and the third (a wealth of ornamental decorations) - murals in the palace of Nero - the Golden House, the house of the Vettii.
SCULPTURE
According to legend, the first sculptures in Rome appeared under Tarquinius Proud, who decorated the roof of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol built by him with clay statues according to the Etruscan custom. First bronze sculpture there was a statue of the goddess of fertility Ceres, cast at the beginning of the 5th century. BC. From the 4th century BC. they begin to erect statues of Roman magistrates and even private individuals. Bronze statues were cast in early era Etruscan masters, and starting from the II century. BC. - Greek sculptors. The mass production of statues did not contribute to the creation of truly artistic works, and the Romans did not strive for this. For them, the portrait resemblance to the original seemed important in the statue. The statue was supposed to glorify this person and therefore it was important that the image was not confused with someone else.
For the development of the Roman individual portrait influenced by the custom to remove the wax masks from the deceased, which were kept in the main room of the Roman house. In sculptural work, the craftsmen apparently used them. The appearance of the Roman realistic portrait was influenced by the Etruscan tradition, which was guided by the Etruscan masters who worked for Roman customers. In this art, Rome reached its greatest heights.
Despite the complexity of the development of a sculptural portrait, the main milestones of this process can be distinguished:
.The period of hard realism - I century. BC. - "Portrait of an old patrician", portraits of Caesar (the birth of a psychological trend)
.The period of the classics (idealization of the image) - con. I century BC - early 1st century - portrait statues of Augustus.
.The period of complicated realism (psychologization and pomposity) - the second half. IV. - portraits of Vitelius, Nero, Flaviev.
.Reminiscence of the periods of realism and classics - II century. - portrait of Plotina, wife of Emperor Trajan, portraits of private individuals, portrait of Antinous
.The period of acute psychologism - III century. - portraits of Caracalla, Philip the Arabian.
.Late period- IV century.
In this area of art, the Romans, using Etruscan traditions, introduced new artistic ideas and created excellent masterpieces, such as the Capitoline Wolf, Brutus, Orator, busts of Cicero, Caesar and others.
From the end of the III century BC. Greek sculpture begins to influence Roman sculpture. When plundering Greek cities, the Romans captured a large number of sculptures. Despite the abundance of originals taken out of Greece, there is a great demand for copies from the most famous statues. Greek sculptors copy originals famous masters. An abundant influx of Greek masterpieces and mass copying retarded the flourishing of their own Roman sculpture.
LITERATURE
Roman literature arises as imitative literature. The first steps of Roman fiction are associated with the spread of Greek education in Rome. Early Roman writers imitated classical Greek literature, although they used Roman subjects and some Roman forms.
During the development of civil society, literature has become one of the leading means of dialogue with the authorities.
At the end of the III century. BC. in Rome, the Latin literary language is formed and on its basis - epic poetry. A whole galaxy of talented poets and playwrights appears, who usually took Greek tragedies and comedies as models. One of the first Roman tragedians was a freedman Livy Andronicus , a Greek by origin, translated into Latin the "Odyssey" by Homer (III century BC). His works played an important role in the development of Roman literature. They introduced the Romans to the wonderful Greek literature, mythology, with epic and theater. Livy Andronicus laid the foundation for Roman fiction.
The younger contemporaries of Livius Andronicus were Roman poets Gnaeus Nevius (c. 274 - 204 BC) and Ennius (239 -169 BC). Nevy wrote tragedies and comedies, borrowing plots from Greek authors, but the influence of Roman life in his works is felt much stronger than in Andronicus. Nevius compiled poems about the first Punic War (264 - 241 BC) from summary prior history of Rome. Ennius was the first to describe in verse the entire history of Rome, arranging events by year. Ennius' main work was the Annales, but he also wrote tragedies and comedies like his predecessors. Ennius was the first to introduce a hexameter into Latin literature - a more harmonious poetic size at the Greeks. Livius Andronicus and Gnaeus Nevius wrote their works in archaic Saturnian verse.
The largest Roman writer of the late III - early II century. BC. was Titus Maccius Plautus (254 - 184 BC), actor by trade. He compiled 130 comedies, of which only 20 have come down to us. He worked only in the comedy genre. The plots of the comedies were very diverse - scenes from family life, from the life of mercenary warriors, and urban bohemia. One of the indispensable heroes of Plautus' comedies were slaves - cunning, resourceful, dexterous and greedy. In terms of plot and character, Plautus' comedies are imitative. His characters have Greek names, and his comedies are set in Greek cities. The comedies of Plautus are usually published in alphabetical order. The first is called "Amphitryon". Comedy was the most popular boastful warrior". The comedy was probably directed against mercenary troops and reminded the audience of the victory over Hannibal. Despite the fact that the action of Plautus' comedies is played out in Greek cities, and their heroes bear Greek names, they contain many lively responses to Roman reality. In his comedies, to a certain extent, the interests and views of the broad masses of the urban plebs are reflected.
Roman comedy and tragedy developed largely under the influence of Greek models and were considered non-Roman genres. Originally a Roman literary genre, the ball was the genre of the so-called satura. This is a mixture of different verses - long and short, written in Saturn and other sizes. As a literary genre, satura received a deep development in creativity Gaia Lucilia (180 - 102 BC). He wrote 30 books of saturas, where he denounced the vices of contemporary society: self-interest, bribery, moral decay, perjury, greed. Plots for satur Lucilius gave real life. These plots marked the beginning of the realistic trend in Roman literature.
Roman poetry, 1st c. BC. climbed to a new, higher level. Many poets lived at this time, but among them are more prominent - Titus Lucretius Car (95 - 51 BC) and Gaius Valerius Catullus (87 - 54 BC). Lucretius owns a wonderful poem "On the Nature of Things" in six books. This philosophical poem expounds the teachings of the Hellenistic philosopher Epicurus about the nature of the gods, about the origin of the earth, sky, sea, about the development of mankind and human culture from the primitive state to the time of Lucretius. In the poem, the Latin language reached a new height; the language of farmers and warriors, short, abrupt and poor, thanks to the art of Lucretius, turned out to be capacious, rich, full of shades, suitable for conveying the finest human feelings and deep philosophical categories.
Catullus is the greatest poet of the end of the Republic, a master of lyric poetry. He wrote small poems, where he described the feelings of a person: love and jealousy, friendship, love for nature, etc. A number of poems are directed against the dictatorial intentions of Caesar, his greedy slanderers. The poetic work of Catullus was influenced by Alexandrian poetry with its special attention to mythology, sophistication of the language, and the author's personal experiences. In the world of lyric poetry, the poems of Catullus occupy a prominent place. His poetry was highly appreciated by A.S. Pushkin.
Drama and poetry were the main, but not the only, types of Latin literature. In parallel, prose developed. Until the 2nd century BC writings in prose were rare and were brief records of historical events and legal norms. Early Roman prose, like poetry, was imitative.
The first prose work in Latin was Mark Portia of Cato the Elder (II century BC) "About agriculture". Cato published about 150 of his speeches, wrote a Roman history, an essay on medicine, oratory.
The most prominent Roman writers, masters of the prose word, lived and worked in the 1st century BC. BC. Mark Terence Varro (116 - 27 BC) - a unique writer, wrote about 74 essays in 620 books. The main work of Varro is "Antiquities of divine and human affairs" in 41 books. Works - "On the Latin Language", "On Latin Speech", "On Grammar", "On the Comedies of Plautus". He also wrote a treatise "On Agriculture", where the issues of agriculture are presented in an elegant literary form. "The Menippean Satura" in 150 books is a cheerful and witty poetic work. The merits of Varro in the development of Roman literature were so great that a monument was erected to him, the only Roman writer, during his lifetime.
Mark Tullius Cicero (106 - 43 BC) - wrote in various prose genres: philosophical works(“On the limits of good and evil”, “Tusculan conversations”, “On the nature of the gods”, etc.), legal writings (“On the state”, “On duties”), speeches (“against Verres”, “against Catiline”, "Philippis against Anthony"), on the theory of oratory ("On the Orator", "Brutus"), numerous letters.
A major Roman writer was Julius Caesar (100 - 44 BC), author of "Notes on the Gallic War" and "Notes on the Civil War". Acting as a writer, Caesar pursued political goals: to justify his aggressive and often treacherous actions in Gaul, to blame his opponents for unleashing a civil war.
In the "Golden Age of Augustus" (27 BC - 14 AD), Roman literature reached its highest peak: masterpieces were created world literature enriched her treasury. This heyday is associated with the work of such poets as Virgil, Horace and Ovid.
Publius Virgil Maro (70 19 BC), he owns three main works that glorified his name - "Bukoliki" (42 - 39 BC), a poem about agriculture "Georgics" (37 -30 years BC) and the historical and mythological poem "Aeneid" (29 - 19 BC).
Quintus Horace Flaccus (65-8 BC), contributed to the formation of imperial ethics, the morality of a loyal new regime, more than any of the other poets. Was one of the favorite poets of Augustus. He wrote several well-known works: a small collection of poems of a satirical nature, epods and satyrs, four books of "Ods", or "Songs", of a lyrical nature, two books of "Messages", or "Letters". By order of Augustus, Horace wrote the majestic hymn to the Roman state "Song of the Century". Horace owns the poetic manifesto of the prophetic mission of the poet - the famous "Monument". Subsequently, based on the "Monument" of Horace in Russian poetry, the great Russian poets Derzhavin and Pushkin created similar "monuments".
Publius Ovid Nason (43 BC - 18 AD), the main theme of creativity was love, as one of the most important manifestations of human relationships. Two poetry collections have been written - "Elegies", or "Songs of Love", and "Heroides" (letters from heroines known from mythology to their beloved). The infamous treatise - "The Art of Love", served as the main reason for the exile of the poet. In the second period of his work, Ovid wrote two large historical and mythological poems, Metamorphoses and Fasty. By the time of the link are works - "Letters from Pontus" and "Tristia", "Sorrowful Elegies".
From works prose literature a worthy place is occupied by a grandiose historical work Tita Livia (59 BC - AD 17) "From the Foundation of Rome" in 142 books.
Roman literature cannot be imagined without Plutarch (c. 46 - c. 126) he owns 227 works, of which more than 150 have survived. Plutarch's literary heritage can be divided into two categories: a series of treatises on moral topics, including religion, philosophy, politics, literature and music, and biographies.
CONCLUSION
Shaken by the powerful blows of the barbarians, the Roman Empire was heading towards its death. ancient art completed its journey. After the death of Constantine (337), the crisis of the ancient order sharply worsened in Rome. The attacks of the barbarians on the borders of the empire intensified, the Romans lost almost all their provinces. In 395, the Roman Empire was finally divided into Western and Eastern. The city of Rome remained the capital of the western half, and the city of Constantinople, founded by Constantine on the site of the former Greek colony of Byzantium, became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire (future Byzantium).
In 410 and 455, Rome suffered a terrible defeat - first from the Goths, and then from the Vandals. In 476, the commander of the German mercenaries stationed in Italy, Odoacer, deposed the infant emperor Romulus-Augustulus. This event is considered to be the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
The Eastern Roman Empire did not perish under the blows of the barbarians and lasted for almost a thousand years.
With the end of the Western Roman Empire, the ancient culture, which had a great influence on the subsequent development of the European peoples, became their common property, the basis of the entire culture of the new Europe. Most early images the identity of this culture manifested itself at the level ancient forms folk art, in particular mythology, the plots of which have been the richest material for painters, sculptors, composers, and poets for many centuries.
Ancient Rome gave Europe a developed jurisprudence, from which the modern system of law grew, and also left a rich cultural heritage that has become part of the life and culture of modern mankind. Majestic remains of Roman cities, buildings, theaters, amphitheaters, circuses, roads, aqueducts and bridges, baths and basilicas, triumphal arches and columns, temples and porticos, port facilities and military camps, high-rise buildings and luxurious villas amaze modern man not only for its splendor, good technology, quality of construction, rational architecture, but also for its aesthetic value. In all this, there is a real connection between Roman antiquity and modern reality, a visible proof that Roman civilization formed the basis of European culture, and through it of all modern civilization generally.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.Grinenko G.V. Reader on the history of world culture. Tutorial- 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Higher education, 2005. - 940 p.
2.History of Ancient Rome: Proc. for universities on special "History" / V.I. Kuzishchin, I.L. Mayak, I.A. Gvozdev and others; Ed. IN AND. Kuzishchina. - 4th ed., revised. and additional - M.: Higher. school, 2001. - 383 p.
.Pivoev V.M. Culturology. Introduction to the history and philosophy of culture: Textbook / V.M. Pivoev. - Ed. 2nd, revised. and additional - M.: Gaudeamus; Academic Prospect, 2008. - 564 p.
.Sadokhin A.P. World art culture: a textbook for university students / A.P. Sadokhin. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: UNITY - DANA, 2008. - 495 p.
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This ancient culture also played a key role in the history of European and world culture. The countries we refer to today as Western Europe, came out in their foundations from Ancient Rome and actually exist within the former Roman Empire.
Many fundamental spiritual ideas and norms of social life, traditional values, socio-psychological stereotypes, transmitted by Rome to Europe, for more than one and a half thousand years, up to the 19th century, formed the basis and arsenal, language and form of European culture. The foundations of law and state organization, the idea of democracy, civil responsibility, separation of powers, a stable set of plots and artistic images were assimilated by Europe from antiquity through Ancient Rome.
The initial stage of the formation of ancient Roman culture covers the XIII-III centuries. BC e. By the end of the VI century. BC e. Rome developed as a city-state Greek type. The first circus for gladiator fights was built here, handicraft and construction equipment, writing, etc. were used.
Religion ancient rome was animistic (recognizing the existence of spirits), and also contained elements of totemism - the veneration of the Capitoline she-wolf, who, according to legend, brought up the brothers Romulus and Remus - the founders of the city. The deities were originally impersonal, asexual, over time they acquired a humanoid character. The Roman sought help from the gods in his daily life, as if entering into an agreement with the deity and waiting for his favor after fulfilling promises and obligations. Gods were not depicted in artistic culture.
Socio-political organization of Ancient Rome (Republican period). In 510 BC. e. Rome became an aristocratic slave-owning republic and subjugated the entire territory of the Apennine Peninsula. At the same time, the first code of Roman law was written - “The Laws of the XII Tables” (mid-5th century BC). Jurisprudence reached a high level of development: in the 1st century. BC e. there was already an extensive legal literature. The Roman Republic and Roman law became an example for all subsequent generations. A great state was created in which the wisdom of government and oratory were encouraged. Every citizen who aspired to become a political and statesman, had to perfectly master the techniques of rhetoric - this helped to become famous, win the love of the people and get the opportunity to be elected by the people to a high public office. The supreme legislative body of the Roman Republic was the Senate, which led foreign policy, finances, state property, was in charge of military life, etc.
During this period, Greek culture had a huge impact on Roman culture. This is reflected in religion, philosophy, literature. From the 3rd century BC e. the Roman gods began to be identified with the Greek ones: Jupiter - with Zeus, Venus - with Aphrodite, etc.
Literature in ancient Rome was originally of a compilation nature - the first works in Latin were translations from Greek, and the Greeks were the first Roman writers.
Architecture, which reached a high level of development in ancient Rome, was also formed under the influence of ancient Greek culture. At the same time, the buildings of the Romans also had distinctive features: they sought to emphasize the strength and power that dominated a person. For these purposes, monumental buildings were erected, magnificent decoration of buildings was used: columns of triumphs striving for the sky, magnificent decoration of balconies. Greater interest was shown not in temple complexes, but in buildings for practical needs.
Roman architects developed new design principles - arches, vaults, domes, pillars, pilasters. In II-I BC. e. widely used concrete, vaulted structures. New types of buildings appeared:
1 basilicas (trade transactions were made, a court was held);
2 amphitheaters (gladiator fights were arranged);
3 circuses (chariot competitions were held);
4 terms (a complex of bath rooms).
Arises new type monumental building (triumphal arch).
During military campaigns, the Romans exported huge quantities of material values and works of art from Greece: statues, paintings, ceramics. Copying of Greek masterpieces began. All this did not contribute to the flourishing of Roman art proper.
From 31 BC e. a different period begins in the history of ancient Rome (the period of the empire) and a qualitatively new Mediterranean culture is emerging. One of the conditions for its prosperity was the strengthening of the material and economic potential of the empire, which provided favorable conditions for the creation cultural property, gave rise to a special social stratum - the ancient intelligentsia: teachers, masters of rhetoric, philosophers, poets, writers.
The centers of culture were the cities in which there were theaters, amphitheaters, circuses, stadiums,
temples, etc. The population was characterized high level literacy. The system of school education and upbringing included 3 levels - primary, secondary, higher. Graduates of the highest level prepared for the state, practical and cultural activities. Higher education began to emerge.
One of the most important achievements of Roman culture of this period - literature (Apuley, Pliny the Younger, Virgil, Horace, Ovid). The grand scale of the Roman Empire left its mark on literary form. In comparison with Greek samples, the works of Roman authors were distinguished by greater drama, a more sober analysis of reality.
The science. In comparison with literature and art, the achievements of science in ancient Rome were not so significant. Geographical and medical knowledge gained a certain distribution, but signs of regression, backward movement, and rejection of advanced views that had been formed in previous historical periods were increasingly manifested. For example, in astronomy, the geocentric system of Ptolemy (Earth is the center of the universe) was recognized, and yet already in the 3rd century. BC e. there was a heliocentric system of Samos.
In the I-II centuries. n. e. society's attention shifted more and more to ethics due to the decline in morals, increased consumerism, rampant passions. During the Empire, the emperor-philosopher Marcus Aurelius (II century AD) was considered to be among the outstanding thinkers. He thought about ethics, the gap between the ideal and reality, his own imperfections.
Art culture. Unlike science in this area, the ancient Romans created the greatest works, which to this day remain unsurpassed masterpieces of world artistic culture. These are achievements in the field of architecture: the Romans developed an arched ceiling and a system of vaults (unlike the Greeks), a closed enchanting vault (dome); built two of the most famous architectural monuments - the Colosseum, the largest amphitheater of the ancient world, and the Pantheon - a temple in the name of all the gods (a round building covered with a grandiose dome with a diameter of more than 43 m, the reproduction of which became possible only in the 19th century, with the invention of reinforced concrete structures) .
Religion. Throughout the territory of the Roman Empire in the first centuries of its existence, the influence of Eastern cults increased. Many miracle workers, mystics, prophets appeared. More and more adherents found astrology, superstitions. But in the end, the religious faith that proclaimed monotheism, equality of all before God, posthumous reward for a virtuous life. It was Christianity that attracted the sympathy of the slaves, the poor, all the oppressed, who thirsted for justice. The disciples of Christ, the "apostles", dispersed around the middle of the 1st century. n. e. around the world preaching new faith. They also founded numerous Christian communities.
At the end of the II century. n. e. a crisis began in the Roman Empire: a frequent change of emperors, the separation of provinces, the emergence of independent rulers in various parts of the empire. In 395, the empire splits into Western (Rome) and Eastern (Constantinople). Already in the first half of the IV century. Christianity becomes the dominant religion, the destruction of pagan temples begins, the Olympic Games are banned.
Eastern Roman Empire existed until 1453 as the Byzantine Empire. Its culture became a continuation of the Greek, but in a Christian version. The Western Roman Empire ceased to exist in 476 (the last emperor was deposed). This year is considered the end of the ancient world, beginning of the Middle Ages. On the ruins Western Roman empires, the so-called barbarian states arose, the population of which, to one degree or another, was attached to the Greco-Roman culture.
Ancient Rome adequately fulfilled its historical mission, preserving Greek culture for Europe through the transmission and replication of its values.
