Enlightenment writers. Foreign literature of the 18th century

This is the time of the spread of freethinking and faith in the limitless possibilities of man. Who are they, the great enlighteners of Europe.

Era Features

The path to freedom of thought was long and difficult. In almost all countries, until the end of the seventeenth century, social thought was under the control of the church. But gradually the Europeans got rid of the strict way of life. Instead of faith, knowledge began to come first.

The 18th century is the era of the philosophy of freethinking. It was formed by the great enlighteners of Europe. A table listing names, years of life, and most famous works these authors are presented below.

It is based on democracy, the orientation of all types of art and literature to the needs of the common people. The main task prominent representatives of the culture of the eighteenth century was the introduction to the knowledge of everyone and everyone. The movement began in England, but soon spread to France and Germany. It is known that the Russian Empress Catherine II, who paid great attention to the issues of education and the reorganization of society, for many years corresponded with prominent cultural figures. Among them are Voltaire and other great enlighteners of Europe.

Poets were also the most influential figures in world culture. Among them is the aforementioned Voltaire, and other great enlighteners of Europe. A summary of the biographies of some of them is presented in the article.

In Russia, the main reformer of the education system was Lomonosov. He was both a scientist, a literary theorist, and an author of poetic works. But what were the names of those who are discussed in this article? Who are they, the great enlighteners of Europe?

Table

Voltaire

The writer was the son of an official. He graduated from the Jesuit College, studied law, but later, as you know, preferred literature. Voltaire was a man of protest. He could not come to terms with the power and catholic church, so he often left France for several years. However, in other European states, he created satirical works aimed at criticizing the local social order.

In his youth, the French writer was imbued with the philosophy of Epicurus. Even the early writings of Voltaire contain attacks against the church and absolutism. His later work is distinguished by a variety of genres. Among the works created by Voltaire, it is worth noting philosophical stories, journalistic articles and historical writings. The French writer had a significant impact on the development of world culture. His work inspired Russian authors. In the eighteenth century, even the term "Voltairianism" appeared, implying irony, the overthrow of authorities.

Some of Voltaire's works were originally published anonymously. For example, The Virgin of Orleans. The poem tells about the heroine of the French people Joan of Arc. And in such a satirical way that the church put it on the list of banned books.

Jean Jacques Rousseau

This philosopher was a bright figure of French sentimentalism. As a child, he studied at a Geneva Protestant boarding house, then he was apprenticed to a notary. At the age of sixteen, Rousseau left hometown. During his life he tried himself in many professions, often in need. In 1750, Rousseau wrote the treatise from which his literary creativity. Subsequent writings fully responded to the revolutionary spirit that reigned in the cultural world, and allowed the author to be classified among the great people known in history as the great enlighteners of Europe.

Denis Diderot

One of the founders of the idea of ​​advanced thinking did not believe in the spiritual beginning of life. Diderot believed that a person is what society makes of him, as well as other great enlighteners of Europe. Diderot wrote in the genre of prose and dramaturgy. He wrote a number of philosophical treatises.

Parents wanted him to become a priest, but after graduating from a Jesuit college, Denis entered the Faculty of Arts. Diderot earned money by translations for a long time. The French writer worked on the creation of the Encyclopedia for more than thirteen years, collaborating with other educators.

Role in history

The great enlighteners of Europe and their ideas changed people's perception of society and themselves. These philosophers showed that man has a mind, spiritual power. Thoughts that now seem obvious were perceived as bold and crazy ideas until the seventeenth century, or rather, they could be perceived. Before the advent of the philosophy of the Enlightenment, nothing like what Voltaire, Diderot or Rousseau wrote about, hardly anyone would have dared to say aloud. In the Middle Ages, the church was a bad joke. Any freethinking was a sure way to fall into the hands of the Inquisition. In the nineteenth century, some authors (for example, Charles de Coster) began to reflect the horrors of the dark time in their works.

The values ​​proclaimed by the educators began to rightfully be considered democratic. They evoked a wide response among the masses. The work of Voltaire, Rousseau and Diderot inspired many young authors in France, Germany and Russia.

Socio-political processes are reflected in ideological struggle- in the revival of ideological life, in the appearance of a whole galaxy of thinkers who raised in their work the most acute problems of philosophy, sociology, art, and the like. Therefore, the 18th century in France bears the name of the century Enlightenment, and the writers of this era are known in Russian historical literature under the common name of enlighteners.

Enlighteners discussed and disputed the problems of property and attitude towards the people, their opinions were divided on the question of whether to give the people the fullness of the truth or leave it the privilege of the elect; some of them relied on enlightened absolutism, hoping with the help of the "philosopher on the throne" to eliminate the most egregious ulcers of the regime, while others were ready to look for a way out in a popular uprising or even in an all-European revolution.

The fairly widespread literacy in France in the 18th century (historians believe that in France on the eve of 1789 there were more than 47% of literate men, about 27% of literate women) led to the development of book printing. The government, sending writers to the Bastille and burning their books at the stake, thereby aroused even greater interest in them. According to contemporaries, the books of the enlighteners were in everyone's hands.

One of the founders of the French Enlightenment is considered to be a rural curate Jean Mellier(1664-1729), whose composition "Testament" sharply criticizes not only the feudal-absolutist system, but also the foundations of a society built on the appropriation of some of the results of the work of others.

Mellier sought to enlighten the people in order to encourage them to make a revolution. He urged his contemporaries: “Try to unite, as many of you as you are, you and your kind, in order to finally shake off the igotyrannical domination ... overthrow all these thrones of injustice and wickedness everywhere, crush all these crowned heads, knock down pride and arrogance from all our tyrants " .

Charles Louis Montesquieu

An outstanding representative of the educational movement in France was Charles Louis Montesquieu(1689-1755), who occupied

a prominent post in the provincial administration of France (first adviser and then president of the Bordeaux parliament), writer, sociologist and historian. In the anonymous novel Persian Letters (1721), he created a sharp satire on the feudal-absolutist system.

The main thing in Montesquieu's teaching is the distinction of three forms government controlled: despotism, the basis of which is fear, a monarchy based on the "principle of honor", and a republic based on virtue. Recognizing theoretically the advantage of the republic, Montesquieu declared it feasible only in small countries; despotism, according to his teaching, is characteristic of the vast states of the East - Persia, India, China. Thus, the monarchy was declared the most suitable form of government for France.

Montesquieu's views were progressive for their time, although they were imbued with a spirit of compromise. Not recognizing the revolutionary methods of struggle, Montesquieu tried to put a barrier of laws in the way of the arbitrariness of power. Therefore, his teachings found many supporters among the liberal elite. It was reflected in the American constitution and in a number of constitutional documents of the early stages of the French Revolution.

Of all the French enlighteners, the greatest influence on his contemporaries was (Francois-Marie Arouet, 1694-1778), whose name is sometimes used to designate the entire Enlightenment. He was a writer, playwright, essayist, historian and philosopher great talent, who left a deep mark on the development of social thought of his time in France and far beyond its borders.

Voltaire devoted his entire long creative life, which began in 1717 with the tragedy Oedipus, to the struggle against religious fanaticism, against the remnants of serfdom in France, against the court clique. His "Philosophical Letters" struck the reader with the boldness of his thoughts. “I don’t know who is more useful for the state - a well-powdered lord, who knows exactly what time the king gets up and what time he goes to bed, and puts on an important air, playing the role of a slave in the hallway of some minister, or a merchant enriching his country sending orders from his office to Surag and Cairo and contributing to the happiness of the universe.

Voltaire was extremely active in all genres, undertaking to solve the problems of modern exact sciences, poetry, and dramaturgy. The enormous influence of Voltaire on his contemporaries and subsequent generations was determined by the spirit of his freedom-loving, mocking doubt in all the laws and norms of the old world, which gave birth to his sparkling talent, irony, and intelligence. bright creativity.

Denis Diderot (1713-1784), the creator and editor of the famous Encyclopedia of Sciences, Arts and Crafts, was of great importance in the development of educational ideology. Among the employees of the "Encyclopedia" were Montesquieu, Turgot, Voltaire, Rousseau, D'Alembert, all the major thinkers of the era, scientists, engineers, doctors.

"Encyclopedia" was at the same time a reference, scientific and polemical publication. Much that the authors could not write for fear of censorship was hinted at and in this form reached the readers.

Philosophers stood out among like-minded people of Diderot Holbach(1723-1789) and Helvetius(1715-1771), who left a noticeable mark on the development of materialistic thought. Holbach is also known as one of the biggest militant atheists of his century; unlike Voltaire, he opposed not only the fanaticism and intolerance of the Catholic Church, but also against religion in general, denying the existence of God.

The political views of Holbach and Helvetius were moderate. Holbach wrote that social “inequality is the backbone of society… Due to the difference between people and their inequality, the weak is forced to resort to the protection of the strong; it also forces the latter to resort to the knowledge, skill of the weaker, if he considers them useful for himself.

From among the people, like Diderot, came out and Jean Jacques Rousseau(1712-1778), one of the founders of a new trend in social thought - egalitarianism. He declared: “Labor ... is an inevitable duty for a social person. Every idle citizen - rich or poor, strong or weak - is a rogue." Rousseau thus expressed the attitude of the working masses of France towards the privileged classes.

Rousseau declares private property to be the culprit of all social evils.

Special meaning has Rousseau's treatise "On the Social Contract, or the Principles of Political Law", in which the author expressed in a clear and figurative form the vague feelings and hidden aspirations of the people. More strongly than any of the writers of the Enlightenment, Jean-Jacques Rousseau set the problem of equality as the main demand of the century.

The Age of Enlightenment also brought forward several advanced thinkers, representatives of utopian communism. They go further than the egalitarians, seeing the source of all the evils of society in private property. Instead, they put forward the ideal of a social order based on the principles of social property, joint labor and egalitarian distribution. History has preserved their names - these are Morelli and Gabriel Bonnot de Mably.

And France was heading towards the impending storm. Rousseau's words from his famous novel "Emil" were passed from mouth to mouth: "We are approaching a state of crisis and a century of revolutions." This "age of revolutions" was already drawing near. The thousand-year-old French monarchy was entering a period of decisive trials.

Ministry of Culture of Ukraine

Kharkiv State Academy of Culture

Department of Cultural Studies

On the course "History of World Artistic Culture"

Subject: European Enlightenment.

Performed:

Correspondence student

Faculty of choreographic art

Group 5C

Vasilenko Victoria

Introduction

2. The influence of social and scientific thought on spiritual culture.

3. Literature of the Age of Enlightenment.

4. Drama and the theater of education.

5. Art of the XVIII century.

6. Conclusion.

7. List of used literature.

Introduction

Epoch European Enlightenment occupies an exceptional place in the history of human civilization due to its global scale and long-term significance.

The Age of Enlightenment completed the transition to a new type of culture. light source (during French the word "enlightenment" sounds like light - "lumiere"), the new culture saw not in Faith, in Reason. Knowledge about the world and man was called upon to give sciences based on experiment, philosophy and realistically oriented art.

The people of the 18th century called their time the century of reason and enlightenment. Medieval ideas, consecrated by the authorities of the church and the all-powerful tradition, were subjected to inexorable criticism. In the XVIII century. the desire for knowledge based on reason, and not on faith, took possession of a whole generation. The consciousness that everything is subject to discussion, that everything must be clarified by the means of reason, was the distinguishing feature of the people of the eighteenth century.

The Enlightenment marked the end of the transition to modern culture. A new way of life and thinking was taking shape, which means that the artistic self-awareness of a new type of culture was also changing. The name "Enlightenment" well characterizes the general spirit of this current in the field of cultural and spiritual life, which aims to replace views based on religious or political authorities with those that follow from the requirements of the human mind.

Enlightenment saw in ignorance, prejudice and superstition the main cause of human disasters and social evils, and in education, philosophical and scientific activity, in freedom of thought - the path of cultural and social progress.

The ideas of social equality and personal freedom took possession, first of all, of the third estate, from whose midst most of the humanists emerged. The middle class consisted of the prosperous bourgeoisie and people of liberal professions, it possessed capital, professional and scientific knowledge, general ideas, spiritual aspirations. The worldview of the third estate was most clearly expressed in the enlightenment movement - anti-feudal in content and revolutionary in spirit.

Feudal culture ceases to be the dominant monolith. Her worldview, values, moral foundations no longer corresponded to the new conditions of life, the new ideals and values ​​of people living in an atmosphere of crisis of the feudal-absolutist system.

Radical changes also took place at the level of aesthetic consciousness. The main creative principles of the 17th century - classicism and baroque - acquired new qualities during the Enlightenment, because the art of the 17th century turned to the image of the real world. Artists, sculptors, writers recreated it in paintings and sculptures, stories and novels, in plays and performances. The realistic orientation of art prompted the creation of a new creative method.

The spiritual current of the Enlightenment first originated in England. Thanks to historical conditions, the principles of enlightenment were expressed in England earlier than in other countries. Here, before anyone else, the emancipation of the intelligent bourgeoisie took place in cultural and political life, which manifested itself in the formation of liberal views in society. It was in England that rationalistic aspirations were formulated, brought into a system that developed a certain independent attitude to the main issues of philosophy, politics and morality. The thinkers of the early English Enlightenment (F. Bacon, Hobbes, Locke, Hume) began to be called freethinkers (English -free thinkers). This name has become firmly established in all European languages.

The founder of all enlightenment philosophy was John Locke (1632-1704), a materialist philosopher, the creator of the doctrine of liberalism, a psychologist and teacher, who himself grew up under the influence of the religious and political movement of his homeland in the second half of the 17th century. John Locke created a theory of knowledge based on the teachings of the psychology of consciousness, laying the foundation for pedagogy as a science that studies personality. He was the first to formulate the idea of ​​unconditional personal freedom based on the natural right of man.

INFLUENCE OF PUBLIC AND SCIENTIFIC THOUGHT ON SPIRITUAL CULTURE

The great idea of ​​the century captured everyone's attention, primarily through literature. Enlightenment literature led to the emergence of a new reader, it increased his desire for self-education. Enlightenment writers called themselves philosophers.

The works of philosophical writers were constantly reprinted in a huge number of copies.

Literature relied on public opinion, which was formed in circles and salons. The courtyard ceased to be the only center to which everyone aspired. The philosophical salons of Paris came into fashion, where Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, Helvetius, Hume, Smith visited. An educated society greedily attacked the then newly published enlighteners. From 1717 to 1724 more than one and a half million volumes of Voltaire and about a million volumes of Rousseau were printed.

Voltaire, real name Francois Marie Arouet (1694-1778), was the recognized leader of the Enlightenment throughout Europe. In his work, more fully and brighter than in anyone else, the social thought of the century was expressed. The whole rationalist movement is often identified with the activities of Voltaire and is called by a common name - Voltairianism. In the famous castle of Ferne, where he lived for the last 20 years, all the educated people of Europe flocked, as if on a pilgrimage. From here, Voltaire sent out philosophical and literary manifestos, led circles in Paris. Even during his lifetime, philosophers and writers erected a monument to him.

Voltaire was a truly great writer - he knew how to comprehend and explain simply and in a beautiful, elegant language the most serious topic that attracted the attention of his contemporaries. He had a tremendous influence on the minds of all enlightened Europe. His evil laughter, capable of destroying age-old traditions, was feared more than anyone's accusations.

He strongly emphasized the value of culture. He portrayed the history of society as the history of the development of culture and human education. Voltaire preached the same ideas in his dramatic works and philosophical stories (“Candide, or Optimism”, “Innocent”, “Brutus”, “Tancred”, etc.).

In the lower classes of society, the educators of the aristocratic direction did not see the object of their influence. In their opinion, education is not available to people doomed to manual labor. The people frightened even the radical Voltaire: "When the mob begins to reason, everything is lost."

The democratic trend in the Enlightenment was called "Rousseauism" after one of the most radical enlighteners, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778). He was one of those who spiritually prepared the French Revolution. Rousseau saw the cause of social inequality in private property ("Discourse on the origin and foundations of inequality"). He defended the republican democratic order, justified the right of the people to overthrow the monarchy. His socio-political treatises formed the basis of the activities of the Jacobins.

In his literary works - poems, poems, novels, comedies - Rousseau idealized the "natural state" of mankind, glorified the cult of nature. Rousseau acted as a visionary of the costs of the emerging bourgeois culture. He was the first to speak about the high price of the progress of civilization, which has now become a reality. Rousseau contrasted the corruption and depravity of civilized nations with the life of society at the patriarchal stage of development, mistakenly assuming in it the ideal purity of the mores of a natural person. His slogan "Back to nature" was then used by naturalism, which underestimated the importance of social ties between people. The dream of the natural existence of a natural person in a natural environment well expresses the general mood of the Enlightenment.

Rousseau believed that everything that hinders the natural development of a person should be eliminated through education. Pedagogical views, imbued with humanism and democracy, are expressed in his famous treatise novel Emil, or On Education. Rousseau's writings contributed to the development of psychologism in European literature. His novel in letters "Julia, or New Eloise"and" Confession "became reference books for many generations of educated people throughout Europe.

The biggest event of the century was the publication of the Great Encyclopedia. It brought together all the disparate knowledge and aspirations of the enlighteners into one whole. Hundreds of popularizers and propagandists of the ideas of the Enlightenment participated in the case. The Encyclopedia rallied around itself the smartest people in France.

The purpose of the multi-volume publication is to summarize the knowledge of mankind in all branches of knowledge from a new educational point of view. The encyclopedia became the code of the French Enlightenment. She was not just a vault scientific knowledge, but an active social enterprise, an instrument of philosophical propaganda. It fought against social prejudices and was intended not for scientists alone, but for the whole society.

The first volume was published in 1751 under the title "Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts ...", edited by d "Alembert and Diderot. Over 20 years, 17 huge volumes of text and 11 volumes with explanatory tables, 5 volumes of applications and additions.Two times the publication was suspended by the government, the editors were constantly attacked by the authorities.The success of the public was colossal, the books were quickly distributed throughout Europe.

Denis Diderot (1713-1784), a representative of the democratic direction of the enlighteners, was the editor-in-chief and the soul of the enterprise. For the Explanatory Dictionary, he wrote articles of the most diverse content: on philosophy, politics, grammar, rhetoric, morality, aesthetics, and mechanics. More than a thousand of his articles are devoted to the issues of technology and technology, which he had to study in practice, in workshops. Diderot was the first to make technology dependent on the cultural development of society. He introduced a new spirit into his articles - the spirit of respect for work.

From the 60s of the XVIII century. the industrial revolution began (the transition of manufacturing production to the machine stage, the creation of the material and technical basis for large-scale capitalist production). He had a powerful impact on all aspects of public life: industry, politics, ideology, culture. During this period, the systematic application of the achievements of science to production begins for the first time.

In the activities of the enlighteners, the desire to rebuild society and production on the basis of scientific conclusions was clearly visible. General ideas about the successes of physics and chemistry had a strong impact on society. The mass of new material has enriched the natural sciences. Numerous new species of plants and animals, discovered through the epoch of travel, made it possible for a broad comparative study.

The development of experimental research, the establishment of quantitative relationships between natural phenomena, their exact mathematical expression, the ability of the human mind to understand and use the laws of nature, the creation of new techniques and technologies led to changes in the attitude of people of that time. People were so bold that they even invaded the sphere of religion. They began to consider the existence of various religions as a fact contrary to reason. Traditional formulations are only relative, not absolute, hence a rationalistic religion had to be created. The desire to prove the existence of God by means of reason - deism - has become very popular. Rejecting church-religious dogmas, the deists defended the existence of a deity. The whole of Europe participated in the formation of rationalistic religion: Hume, Bayle, Rousseau, Voltaire, Diderot, Leibniz, Lessing and many others. The recognized enemy of religious tolerance - the Jesuit order, in whose hands was practically the entire education - lost its positions and in 1773 was abolished by Pope Clement XIV. "Rationalist religion" successfully fought superstition - in the middle of the century, the courts of most European countries refused to hear cases on charges of witchcraft.

LITERATURE OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT

New ideas developed in the works of thinkers of the 18th century. - philosophers, historians, naturalists, economists - eagerly absorbed by the era, received a further life in literature.

The new atmosphere of public mentality led to a change in the ratio of types and genres of artistic creativity. The significance of literature - the "instrument of enlightenment" - has increased unusually compared to other eras. Enlighteners in their journalistic activities chose the form of a short, witty pamphlet that could be quickly and cheaply published for the widest readership - Voltaire's Philosophical Dictionary, Diderot's Dialogues. But novels and stories, such as Emile by Rousseau, Montesquieu's Persian Letters, Voltaire's Candide, Diderot's Rameau's Nephew, and others, were supposed to explain philosophical ideas to the mass reader.

The main artistic language of the Enlightenment was classicism, inherited from the 17th century. This style corresponded to the rationalistic nature of enlightenment thinking and its high moral principles. However, interest in the everyday life of the third estate did not fit into the rigid framework of style.

The direction of enlightenment realism was successfully developed in "reasonable" England, which was little attracted by mythological subjects. Samuel Richardson (1689-1761), the creator of the European family novel, introduced a new hero into literature, who until then had the right to act only in comic or minor roles. Depicting spiritual world servant of Pamela from the novel of the same name "Pamela", he convinces the reader that ordinary people can suffer, feel, think no worse than the heroes of a classic tragedy.

The whole group of ideas and dreams of a better natural order received artistic expression in the famous novel by Daniel Defoe (1660-1731) Robinson Crusoe. He wrote more than 200 works of various genres: poems, novels, political essays, historical and ethnographic works. The book about Robinson is nothing but the story of an isolated individual, given to the educational and corrective work of nature, a return to the state of nature. Less well known is the second part of the novel, which tells of a spiritual rebirth on an island far from civilization.

Jonathan Sbift (1667-1745), the author of the no less famous work Gulliver's Travels, looks at the world just as soberly, from a materialistic position. The fictional country of the Lilliputians gives a satirical image of English society: the intrigues of the court, sycophancy, espionage, the senseless struggle of parliamentary parties. In the second part, depicting the country of giants, the dreams of a peaceful life and work in a country ruled by a kind and intelligent monarch, the ideal of "enlightened absolutism", are reflected.

German writers, remaining on the positions of enlightenment, were looking for non-revolutionary methods of combating evil. They considered aesthetic education to be the main force of progress, and art as the main means.

German writers and poets moved from the ideals of public freedom to the ideals of moral and aesthetic freedom. Such a transition is characteristic of the work of the German poet, playwright and Enlightenment art theorist Friedrich Schiller (1759-1805). In his early plays, which were a huge success, the author protested against despotism and class prejudice. "Against Tyrants" - the epigraph to his famous drama "Robbers" - directly speaks of its social orientation. The public resonance of the play was huge, during the era of the revolution it was staged in the theaters of Paris.

The aesthetic direction of romance and the ideal aspirations of Schiller were shared by the great German poet Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749-1832). As a true representative of the Enlightenment, the founder of the German literature of the New Age, he was encyclopedic in his activities: he was engaged not only in literature and philosophy, but also in the natural sciences. His views on the life and worldview of a person are most clearly expressed in poetic works. Goethe's final work was famous tragedy"Faust" (1808-1832), which embodied man's search for the meaning of life. "Faust" is the most significant cultural monument of the turn of the century, in which a new picture of the world appears. In "Faust" a grandiose picture of the Universe is given in its understanding by the man of the New Age. The reader is presented with the world of the earth and the other world, man, animals, plants, satanic and angelic beings, artificial organisms, different countries and era, the forces of good and evil. The eternal hierarchy collapses, time moves in any direction. Faust, led by Mephistopheles, can be at any point in space and time. This is a new picture of the world and a new person who strives for eternal movement, knowledge and active life, full of feelings.

DRAMATURGY AND THEATER OF ENLIGHTENMENT

A direct road from the realism of the Enlightenment to realism XIX V. laid by the playwrights. The Enlightenment considered the re-education of people to be the main task of art; preaching from the stage seemed to them an effective and convenient form of persuasion. Only Voltaire wrote 54 dramatic works. But the canons of classicism, which the writers of the early Enlightenment adhered to, fettered the development of drama, limited the range of topics and characters.

18th century gave world culture such remarkable artists and theorists of the art of the theater as Sheridan - in England, Voliper, Diderot, Beaumarchais - in France, Lessing, Goethe, Schiller - in Germany, Goldoni - in Italy. The dominance of reason led to the fact that the art of the Enlightenment suffered from rationality, a rational analysis of life required ordered forms. However, the enlighteners, who saw the ideal of a person in a harmonious personality, could not neglect the requirements of feeling when it came to art. The theater of the Enlightenment remarkably expressed both in content and method a new view of the world that was adequate to the era.

Pierre-Augustin Beaumarchais (1732-1799), the greatest playwright of France, acted as a direct follower of Diderot. His hugely popular hilarious comedies Crazy Day, or The Marriage of Figaro and The Barber of Seville were full of devastating satire. Figaro acted as a representative of the opposition of the entire third estate. He changed so many professions that his role as a barber was a temporary guise. The rejection of the old order is based on a rich, despite his youth, life experience. He is more active, more energetic than his master, but he is a servant. Figaro has become a symbol of a commoner who does not ask, but takes his own in the struggle. This is not an abstract concept of bourgeois virtue, but a person in flesh and blood on the stage.

In the same direction, in line with the Enlightenment, there is a reform of the Italian theater, where the ancient comedy of masks has still dominated. Created by the famous Carlo Goldoni (1707-1793), the type of comedy of manners turned out to be unique and found pan-European recognition. Goldoni translated the comedy from dialect to literary language, his plays changed the technique of the actors. It is not for nothing that Goldoni is considered the creator of the national Italian comedy - he created 267 plays. Goldoni's plays show pictures of urban life, the life of various classes. They clearly show the promotion of class equality. The heroes of the plays The Innkeeper, The Servant of Two Masters, and others are socially specific, they are full of awareness of their rights and the ability to defend them.

The nobility, clinging to its privileges, was also the object of ridicule by the English playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751-1816). His "School of slander", "Duenna" denounce the hypocrisy of English society. In his work, the transition from the comedy of positions to the comedy of characters was completed.

The best works of the theater of the XVIII century. - not only the property of the past, they belong to us. Plays by Schiller, Sheridan, Beaumarchais, Goldoni have firmly entered the repertoire of the world theater.

ART XVIII

artistic art XVIII V. seems strangely inconsistent with the ideology of the Enlightenment. Development philosophical ideas followed the path of a revolutionary revision of basic values, and the art of the 18th century was peaceful, comfortable, hedonistic. It seems that the Enlightenment went its own way, and art went its own. But art cannot be seen as a direct illustration of the ideas that dominate society. Art has its own ways of interacting with new forms of worldview.

However, art has also been included in the general dreams of the natural state of man in the natural environment. In contrast to the dominance of frozen classical forms, it was looking for living forms. In painting, one can see the desire for ease. Majestic pieces of music designed for listening in church were replaced by chamber music, lively intonations and melodies. Landscape gardening art of natural English parks developed. 18th century architecture more than ever focused on connecting with the natural landscape environment and in country palace ensembles. On the stage, there was a gradual transition from the conventions and pathos of the classic theater to the natural play of the actors.

In addition to the styles generally accepted in Europe - baroque and classicism - new ones appeared in the 18th century: rococo, sentimentalism, pre-romanticism. Unlike previous centuries, there is no single style of the era, the unity of the artistic language. The art of the 18th century became a kind of encyclopedia of various stylistic forms, which were widely used by artists, architects, and musicians of this era.

In France art culture was closely associated with the court environment. It is no coincidence that the stylistic stages of French art are associated with the names of kings - the regency style, the style of Louis XIV (1643-1715), the Pompadour style. In France, the Rococo style developed more vividly and more consistently than anywhere else - from the French word "rocaille" - a shell, the whimsical and quirky forms of which gave the name to the style. Some art historians consider it a kind of baroque that abandoned monumentality. For others, Rococo is an independent style, which was a product of the Baroque, but changed the inherited features. In any case, Rococo is a stylistic system of an exclusively secular culture that has left its mark on art.

Rococo originated among the French aristocracy. The words of Louis XV (1715-1754) "After us - even a flood" can be considered a characteristic of the mood that prevailed in court circles. Strict etiquette was replaced by a frivolous atmosphere, a thirst for pleasure and fun. The aristocracy was in a hurry to have fun before the flood in the atmosphere of gallant festivities, the soul of which was Madame Pompadour. The court environment partly itself formed the Rococo style with its capricious, whimsical forms.

Rocaille painting and sculpture retained a close connection with the architectural design of the interior and therefore had a decorative character. This intimate art, designed to adorn the leisure of a private person, avoided resorting to dramatic plots, and was frankly hedonistic in nature. The plane of the wall was broken by mirrors and decorative panels in an asymmetric bizarre frame, consisting of curls - not a single straight line, not a single right angle. Rococo art was built on asymmetry.

Rococo dresses up every thing, covers it with garlands of curls, inlays, patterns. The walls of the mansions of the nobility and the wealthy bourgeoisie, built in the classic spirit with strict order forms, are divided into niches inside, richly decorated with silk wallpaper, decorative fabrics, painting, and stucco molding. The unity of the interior was not disturbed by artsy furniture with inlays. Porcelain knickknacks, chests, snuffboxes, and bottles surprisingly went to elegant tables and ottomans on thin bent legs. Porcelain and mother-of-pearl came into fashion. The Sevres Porcelain Manufactory arose in France, and the equally famous Meissen Manufactory in Germany. Works of applied art have taken an important place in the Rococo culture.

In this era, clothes, hairstyles, human appearance became a work of art. The unnatural figures of ladies in crinolines, tanseries, wigs acquired a silhouette that is not characteristic of human body, and seemed like a precious toy in a fantastic rocaille interior.

The founder of Rococo in painting can be considered Antoine Watteau (1684-1721) - a court painter, a favorite of the king and the Marquise Pompadour. (One of the most aristocratic artists was the son of a roofer - and this is also the spirit of the times.) Watteau half created, half brilliantly interpreted the tastes of his era. For us, his paintings seem naive, but contemporaries were delighted with that idyllic Arcadia, which the court of Louis Watteau turned into. He depicted the artificial charming world of the theater and love affairs in a fabulous setting. The heroes of Watteau are pretty lively actresses in wide silk dresses, dandies with languid movements, cupids frolicking in the air. Even the titles of his works speak for themselves: "The Capricious", "The Feast of Love", "Society in the Park", "The Predicament".

Watteau's works are masterpieces of refined painting of soft, delicate shades, which were given names in the spirit of gallant style: "the color of lost time." Watteau had special recipes for paints that produced successful artistic effects. As a painter, Watteau was much deeper and more complex than his numerous followers. He diligently studied nature, wrote a lot from nature. The art of Watteau opened the world of human feelings. It freed itself from the pomposity of the Baroque and partly rehabilitated natural feelings, which was in the spirit of the times. The reflection of his strong creative individuality, his artistic discoveries lay on the entire 18th century. Watteau's strength is that in the realm of dreams he depicted real experiences and feelings of a person.

Not all artists who called themselves his students had this depth of feeling. After the death of Watteau, Francois Boucher (1704-1770) took his place at court. A very skilled craftsman, he worked a lot in the field of decorative painting, made sketches for tapestries, for painting on porcelain. His fame grew rapidly, his works were diligently sold out. His mythological and pastoral subjects were very suitable for the decoration of the rocaille apartments. Boucher was the first to bring into fashion small drawings and sketches, which earlier artists kept only for themselves. These sketches, depicting shepherd idylls, flirtatious mythological scenes with nymphs and cupids, were sold like hot cakes. Typical plots are The Triumph of Venus, The Toilet of Venus, The Bathing of Diana. In the works of Boucher, the mannerisms and eroticism of the Rococo era were expressed with particular force, for which he was constantly accused by moralist educators.

After studying this chapter, the student will: know

• chronological boundaries of the era;
• ideological prerequisites for its emergence;
• the main representatives of the educational movement;
• how new ideas are reflected in various fields social life; be able to
• characterize the contribution of Thomas Hobbes, René Descartes and Benedict Spinoza to the preparation of the Enlightenment;
• determine the specifics of the Enlightenment in various countries;
• characterize the genesis and evolution of the enlightenment movement; own
• the concepts of "natural man", "enlightened absolutism", deism;
• an idea of ​​the main features of enlightenment literature.

18th century went down in history European culture like the Age of Enlightenment. It has another name - “the age of Reason”, which brings to mind the definition given to the Enlightenment by the German thinker Immanuel Kant (1724-1804): “Enlightenment is a person’s exit from the state of his minority, in which he is through his own fault. Immaturity is the inability to use one's reason without guidance from someone else. Immaturity due to one's own fault is one that is not due to a lack of reason, but to a lack of determination and courage to use it without the guidance of someone else. Sapere aude! Have the courage to use your own mind! - such is, therefore, the motto of the Enlightenment.

Kant sees the goal of the Enlightenment in the intellectual freedom of the individual, people must free themselves from the oppression of authorities and learn to think independently. Any kind of belief - religious, scientific, political, philosophical - has a basis, a reason, but which they believe in. In the Age of Enlightenment, this basis begins to depend on the individual himself, who now had to bear greater responsibility for his beliefs. Old authorities such as God, the king, the Bible, tradition are gradually losing their power, and experience, analysis, logic, and reason take their place. However, such a change was a long and difficult process.

Among historians, there is no consensus on what date the Enlightenment era should start from. The most popular is the date from English history - 1688, when a change of power took place in the country, which received the name of the "Glorious Revolution". The conflict between the English Parliament and King James II ended with the fact that the Dutchman William of Orange was invited to the throne, and James II was forced to flee to France. This event put an end to the controversy divine origin royalty, and showed that great success can also be achieved in politics if you rely on reason, and not on tradition and religious prejudices. The end of the Enlightenment was the French Revolution of 1789, when a decisive attempt was made to translate the ideas of the Enlightenment into real life.

The fact that the beginning of the Enlightenment is more often associated with a date from English history is quite natural, since it is England that is considered the birthplace of this ideological movement. Here, earlier than in other countries, new ideas began to influence social and political life, and the activities of the English philosopher John Locke and the famous scientist Isaac Newton became a serious incentive for the formation of an educational ideology. Enlighteners from other countries were looking for a source of inspiration in English philosophy and politics. So, Montesquieu and Voltaire studied the English constitution, creating their political theories.

However, the foundation of the Enlightenment was laid much earlier, and such Western European thinkers as Francis Bacon, René Descartes, Thomas Hobbes and Benedict Spinoza played a significant role in this process.

Francis Bacon(1561 - 1626) developed an experimental method of scientific research, which is often called "Bacon's method." In his essay "New Organon"(1620) he outlined the basic principles of the new method: the researcher must obtain knowledge from the surrounding world through observation, experiment and hypothesis testing. Bacon's teaching was the first step towards the Enlightenment precisely because of its empirical orientation. His ideas will be developed in the works of J. Locke, J. Berkeley, D. Hume, K. Helvetius, P. Holbach, D. Diderot.

Rene Descartes (1596-1650) also anticipated some of the Enlightenment doctrine. He was a brilliant scientist who made significant discoveries in mathematics and physics. His main philosophical works are "Discourse on Method, to direct your mind well and seek the truth in the sciences"(1637) and " Reflections on First Philosophy, which proves the existence of God and the difference between human soul and body"(1641), in which there is a break with traditional metaphysics, which studied the nature of reality, and a shift of interests to the field of epistemology, whose interest was connected with how a person knows the world. The purpose of his research was also far from metaphysics: Descartes wanted, using reason, to prove the existence of God. His strategy was to find some foothold of which we are absolutely sure, and from there, to deduce evidence for the presence of God in the universe. In search of the most general and logically irrefutable truth, he comes to the following conclusion: “So, having discarded everything about which we can somehow doubt, and, moreover, imagining all these things as false, we easily assume that there is no God there is and is no sky, nor any bodies, that we ourselves have neither arms nor legs, nor any body whatsoever; but it cannot be that, by virtue of all this, we who think in this way are nothing: for to suppose that a thinking thing does not exist at the same time as it thinks, would be an obvious contradiction. And therefore the position I think, hence, I exist - primary and most reliable of all that can appear to someone in the course of philosophizing.

It is from this position that Descartes deduces the existence of the whole world and God, and its logical consequence is the assertion that our mind and body are, in a sense, separate entities. We may doubt the existence of our bodies, but not our thought processes. Descartes came to the conclusion that our mind and the physical world (including our bodies) are composed of different substances. The uniqueness of man lies precisely in the fact that he combines these two substances, while animals, for example, consist of only one. The existence of God is also manifested in the fact that he endowed our minds with innate ideas that enable us to correctly understand the world. The reliance of Descartes in his theory on reason, as opposed to faith, found a wide response from the thinkers of the Enlightenment.

Ideas Benedict Spinoza(1632-1677) and Thomas Hobbes(1588-1679) were almost unknown to their contemporaries, but had a significant impact on the next generation of philosophers. Spinoza brought the mechanistic philosophy of Descartes to its logical conclusion. He did not accept the division of the world into physical and mental proposed by Descartes. Instead, he tried to prove that the universe must be a simple unity of thought and matter. It followed from this that there is only one substance, which is God, and thought, matter are the attributes of God, or the fundamental properties of the substance. In such a universe, everything must have its causal explanation. Individual things, acting on each other, are connected by a rigid chain of mutual causation, and in this chain there can be no breaks. All nature is endless row causes and effects, which in their totality constitute an unequivocal necessity. Spinoza's theory leaves no room for chance, free will and miracles. Good and evil do not exist here as absolute concepts. These ideas were further developed in the Enlightenment in the writings of the German philosopher Leibniz.

Thomas Hobbes tried in his writings to turn politics into a science with clear and logical principles, similar to the rules of geometry. His sober look on the nature of politics, he recalls the Italian Renaissance thinker Nicolo Machiavelli. But Hobbes goes further than his predecessor. He does not perceive power as a given, it must be confirmed by a system of laws and must be in balance with natural human rights.

In the theory of Hobbes, reasonable reasons for the subordination of citizens to their rulers were determined and at the same time it was indicated that government should be based on a system of laws, and first of all, laws that guarantee the life of subjects. The English philosopher gave a detailed description of the state of nature, i.e. what a person's life turns into without order and law, or what is usually called civilization. Following the main natural laws - the desire for self-preservation and satisfaction of needs - a person often comes into conflict with other people who pursue the same goals. To avoid mutual destruction, people are forced to agree on the principles of relations with each other. As a result of this agreement, the state appears. A person was forced to cede part of his natural rights and freedoms to the state in order to receive guarantees of peace and security in return. Hobbes did not say that all states arose from voluntary agreement, there were also those that were created through violence and submission. It was the idea of ​​a social contract that was popular with the Enlightenment. She found especially active support from the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

One of the central figures in the history of the European Enlightenment is John Locke(1632-1704), sometimes he is even called the "father of the Enlightenment", thus emphasizing the significance of his contribution to the formation of a new ideology. Locke's writings were fundamental to the enlightenment movement. "An Essay on Human Understanding» (1690) and "Thoughts on Education"(1693). Fundamental to the Enlightenment was Locke's controversy with the "theory of innate ideas", one of the supporters of which was Descartes. Locke rejects this theory and argues that a person at birth has no knowledge, his mind is like a blank slate (tabula rasa), and he receives all his ideas in the process of life. It is experience that fills this blank slate with its signs: “All ideas come from sensation or reflection. Let us suppose that the mind is, so to speak, white paper without any signs or ideas. But how does he get them? From where does he acquire that [their] vast stock, which the active and boundless human imagination has drawn with almost infinite variety? Where does he get all the material of reasoning and knowledge? To this I answer in one word: from experience."

From these considerations follows another important conclusion: if a person receives knowledge through the senses from the outside world or through thinking, then these processes can be in a special way organized and through them it is possible to influence the formation of a person, i.e. a person can be educated. This idea became the cornerstone in the foundation of the Enlightenment: through upbringing and education, to create not only a more perfect person, but also a more perfect society. This ideological attitude is also reflected in the name of the era - "Enlightenment". It is quite natural that Locke was one of the first to seriously address the problems of education in his works. In the treatise "Thoughts on Education" he distinguishes five sections of education: physical, mental, religious, moral and labor. All of them should, according to Locke, be in close relationship. It is noteworthy that he formulates the goal of moral education as follows: “if from an early age children are taught to suppress their desires, this useful habit will make them disciplined; as they grow older and more sensible, you can give them more freedom in cases where reason speaks in them, and not passion: for the voice of reason should always be listened to.

Emphasis on the dominant role of reason in behavior will be decisive for the enlightenment concept of man. The strengthening of the authority of reason was also facilitated by scientific discoveries Isaac Newton(1642-1727). For example, the three famous laws of mechanics set forth in "Mathematical Principles natural philosophy» (1684-1686) demonstrated that all the variety of movements in physical world can be reduced to three reasonable laws. His discoveries in optics showed that the variety of colors of the surrounding world is born from a simple white beam. Enlighteners valued Newton not only for his scientific genius, but also for the fact that the research method he discovered could be used in philosophy. D'Alembert, in one of the articles in the Encyclopedia, pointed out with respect: “Newton, whose path was prepared by Huygens, finally appeared and gave philosophy the form that it seems to have to preserve. This great genius saw that the time had come to banish vague conjectures and hypotheses from physics, or at least show them their true place, and that this science should be subordinated exclusively to experiments and geometry.

Enlighteners did not deny the importance of passions for a person. They are, in their view, a stimulus to development. If a person has no desires, he will not seek to change his position. However, it is important that passions be under the control of the mind, then the development of the personality will occur in accordance with the enlightenment ideal. Often, to illustrate their concept of man, enlighteners used the image of a ship, where sails and wind were likened to passions, and the rudder was likened to reason. The English poet Alexander Pope resorts to the same image in his Essay on Man:

Our helmsman is the mind, whose power is indisputable;

For sails, however, the wind is a passion.

(Translated by A. L. Subbotin)

In the Age of Enlightenment, interest is awakened again in the problem of the “natural man”. For the Enlighteners, a “natural person” is a person whose nature developed in accordance with natural laws and therefore revealed itself most fully and harmoniously. It is much easier to achieve such a result if the formation of personality takes place far from civilization, as it introduces distortions into the original harmony. Therefore, the restoration of the natural harmony of Robinson Crusoe, the hero of Defoe's novel, takes place on a desert island, where the influence of civilization is minimized. Crusoe's upbringing as a natural person also presupposes the subordination of passions to reason. In the first part of the book, the hero depends on his desires and imagination, and, by his own admission, "... I blindly obeyed the suggestions of my imagination, and not the voice of reason." Since the passions (sails and wind) and reason (the helm) are at odds, it is quite natural that Robinson suffers a shipwreck, both real and symbolic. Once on a desert island, Robinson learns to subdue passions and be more reasonable in his actions and attitude to life. Somewhat later, Friday joins Robinson, representing another version of the "natural man" - "noble savage."

The theory of "natural man" was further developed in the works of Jean-Jacques Rousseau "Discourse on the Sciences and Arts" (1752), "Discourse on the origin and foundations of inequality between people" (1755), "Discourse on the social contract" (1762). Rousseau already more radically contrasts “natural man” with “public man,” i.e. shaped by civilization. Civilization under consideration French philosopher only as a source of negative influence. In his concept of "natural man" reason is no longer perceived as a positive factor, since it is a product of civilization. The "natural man" is not guided by reason, but listens to the "voice of the heart."

In his program of education, which Rousseau outlined in Emile, or on Education, he also seeks to weaken the impact of civilization on his student. The book opens with the statement: "Everything comes out good from the hands of the Creator, everything degenerates in the hands of man." Until the age of 16, Emil (that is the name of the pupil), in order to avoid this bad influence, is at a distance from society. Much attention is paid to it physical education, moral upbringing involves the formation of "good feelings", "good judgments" and " good will". The only book available to Emil during this period is the same Robinson Crusoe.

Many enlighteners did not accept the views of Rousseau, they set as their goal just the formation of a “natural person” in a civilized society. For example, Voltaire in the philosophical story "The Innocent" (1767) argued that the "state of nature" itself is only a rough basis, which can be ennobled only by the influence of civilization, without this influence a person will remain a savage.

On early stage Enlightenment is dominated by an optimistic view of man and the world. The so-called "philosophy of optimism" was first systematically and thoroughly expounded by the German thinker Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716). The main thesis of his treatise "Experiences in theodicy” (“theodicy” literally means “justification by God”) boils down to the following: since this world was created by God, it means that it cannot be imperfect. Leibniz also found justification for the existence of evil. He argued that without the presence of evil, the world would be less perfect. Very often good is born as a result of correcting and overcoming evil. Thus, the free will of man is good, but it presupposes the possibility of sin. If God did not allow the existence of sin, then there would be no free will. Therefore, the German philosopher concludes, our world is the best possible world.

Similar ideas have spread among European enlighteners. In England, the Earl of Bolingbroke, the Earl of Shaftesbury, and the poet A. Pope fell under their influence. However, in the middle of the century, the "philosophy of optimism" is experiencing a serious crisis, and many begin to treat it with skepticism. Especially sharp was the criticism from Voltaire, who survived the period of enthusiasm for the teachings of Leibniz, but then disappointment came and in the story "Candide, or Optimism" he caustically ridiculed the ideas of the German thinker. Voltaire shows that the "philosophy of optimism" is isolated from reality and provokes a passive attitude towards life - if we live in the most perfect of worlds, then there is no need to improve or correct something.

In the political sphere in the 18th century, the theory of "enlightened absolutism" gains influence. It already received clear outlines in the writings of Hobbes, who considered the monarchy the most perfect form of government. Enlighteners believed that in conditions of strong centralized power, it is much easier to carry out "reasonable" reforms. It is important that the ruler be a truly enlightened person who can understand that his interests in a broad perspective coincide with the public good. Among the supporters of "enlightened absolutism" were Voltaire and Kant. Although Voltaire, during his stay in England (1726-1729), recognized the virtues of a parliamentary republic with a limited monarchy, which was established in this country, the activities of the French parliament gave rise to a persistent hostility to this form of government. The French parliament mainly reflected the interests of the aristocracy and the clergy, and its position in relation to politics and social life was often more conservative and reactionary than that of the French king. For example, when Louis XV wanted to abolish legalized torture, Parliament refused to support this initiative.

Some of the European monarchs were carried away by the idea of ​​"enlightened absolutism", and even tried to carry out some reforms in their countries, following the advice of the enlighteners. But more often such reforms were superficial and did not at all imply a serious restructuring of society on more just principles. They only had to somewhat reduce the growing tension in relations between classes in order to prevent serious social upheavals. Enlightened monarchs included King Frederick II of Prussia, King Joseph II of Austria, Empress Catherine II of Russia. They corresponded actively with the enlighteners, invited them to the court, and published projects of their future transformations. So, Catherine II was in constant correspondence with Diderot and Voltaire, and provided them with financial support. She bought Diderot's library and appointed him lifelong caretaker of her own library, with maintenance paid for him from the Russian treasury.

However, the theory of "enlightened absolutism" also had opponents. It was not accepted by Montesquieu, who believed that if the fate of reforms depends on one person, then there is always a threat that everything will turn back with a change in his views or his death. Montesquieu himself put forward the idea of ​​the division of power into legislative, executive and judicial. Later, this principle of building power was used in many modern democracies.

The growth of the authority of reason, the successes of the natural sciences could not but affect the attitude of the enlighteners to religion. New approaches to religion are already found in I. Newton and J. Locke. The discoveries made by Newton did not shake his faith at all. On the contrary, having discovered that the whole variety of movements in the physical world can be reduced to a few reasonable laws, he saw in this proof of the existence of a divine plan at the basis of the universe. Locke also tried to reconcile reason and faith. Denying innate knowledge, the philosopher also did not accept the theory that a person is born already with faith in God. Faith, Locke believed, had more rational foundations; without God, the very existence of man and his relationship with the world would have no meaning. Reason is the most important tool for man in understanding the world, but this does not mean that divine revelation is impossible. It may not be accessible to rational understanding, but it should not be contrary to reason - such is the conclusion of Locke.

The followers of Newton and Locke later tried to prove the reasonableness of the Christian doctrine, and this quality, they believed, should be available to any reasonable person. Enlighteners sought to establish moderation and rationality in relation to religion in European society. Excessive emotionalism and mysticism in matters of faith, which were defined as "enthusiasm", caused condemnation. This approach found support among the English bourgeoisie, who often viewed the relationship with God as a kind of trade deal. IN Catholic countries it was more difficult to form such a position, since the Catholic Church was initially focused on a more emotional relationship of the believer with God.

Widespread in the 18th century. received deism, one of the religious and philosophical trends, which recognized the existence of God and the creation of the world by Him, but denied most mystical and supernatural phenomena, as well as religious dogmatism. It became very popular in deism to liken God to an architect or watchmaker, who started the clock mechanism of the Universe and removed himself from any interference in its existence. Deism gave great freedom to a person, but also imposed on him a great responsibility for everything that happens in the world.

The enlightenment movement was not homogeneous in all countries Western Europe. It has already been noted that the Enlightenment originates in England and it is here on initial stage it takes on a major impact. The writings of the English Enlightenment philosophers become a source of ideas not only for Europe, but also for America. At the same time, the Enlightenment movement in England was quite moderate. It developed after the "glorious revolution", when the bourgeoisie - the main stronghold of the new movement - solved its urgent tasks. The English Enlighteners were interested in questions of moral perfection, in common problems human relationship with the environment.

In France, it was formed on the eve of the revolution and therefore often had a more radical character. The French enlighteners were more resolute in religious matters, among them there were many not only supporters of deism, but also those whose positions were close to atheism. To some extent, this position was due to the fact that they had to deal with the Catholic Church, which was more authoritarian and conservative. Many articles published in the Encyclopedia had an anti-religious orientation. Thus, Diderot in his materials not only asserted the freedom of a person to choose and profess any religion, but also to remain outside the faith. The philosopher was sure that atheism would not cause any damage to society, since morality does not depend on religion at all.

More often, the French turned to social and political problems, were interested in various types of government. It was in France at the end of the century that an attempt was made to translate the ideals of the Enlightenment into real life. During the first meeting of the National Assembly, which drafted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, there were many references to Rousseau's theory of the social contract. In the first stage of the revolution, he became the most popular philosopher. His bust was installed in the hall of the National Assembly, a little later, the remains of Rousseau were transferred to the Pantheon. Robespierre was a great admirer of Rousseau. However, this first attempt to implement some of the ideas of the French Enlightenment ended in failure.

More successful was the American Revolution. After her victory, the constitution of the new nation took into account many of the ideas that originated within the enlightenment movement. The most important of them was the principle of separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial, as well as the principle of religious tolerance. The Declaration of the Rights of Man proclaimed the inalienable right of man to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. The inclusion of these positions in the "Declaration" was also inspired by the Enlightenment.

In Germany, due to its fragmentation, the enlightenment movement did not have a significant impact on social and political life, with the exception of Austria and Prussia, where Joseph II and Frederick II tried to play the role of enlightened monarchs. However, the German Enlightenment gave very abundant shoots in philosophy and drama.

In Italy, which was as fragmented as Germany, the rise of the enlightenment movement begins only with mid-eighteenth V.

and is more moderate than in France. As a rule, the programs of the Italian educators focused on the practical issues of the economy, agriculture, reforming the tax system, trade, legislation, and school education. A feature of the culture of Italy in the XVIII century. was the emergence of the so-called "Catholic Enlightenment" with its center in Rome. This movement united many leaders of the church, moderately sympathetic to some reformist ideas and trying to reconcile them with religious doctrine. Literature also joined in the propaganda of new ideals. During this period, the Italians achieved especially significant success in theatrical genres. There is no doubt that the 18th century in Italy was the century of the theater.

Enlightenment ideology left its mark on the literature of the 18th century. First of all, it should be noted the noticeable influence of philosophy on it. Often during this period, literature became a kind of testing ground for various philosophical ideas and theories. Many educators have used art form to convey their ideas to contemporaries (Rousseau, Voltaire, Swift). It was in the XVIII century. a genre of philosophical story appeared, in which philosophical theory subjugated all other elements of the genre.

In addition, in the literature of the XVIII century. the didactic principle is enhanced, it seeks to enlighten and educate its reader. In this regard, the role of journalistic genres increases in the literary process. In the American Enlightenment, journalism occupies a dominant position, since it was here that literature was especially closely dependent on the political situation.

At the beginning of the century, the popularity of documentary genres noticeably increases. Memoirs, diaries, correspondence are actively beginning to be published. In many ways, this growth of interest was associated with one of the main provisions of the educational ideology: the environment has a significant impact on the formation of a person. Documentary genres more objectively represented the relationship of a person with the outside world. Passion for documentaries affected fiction. The authors of early enlightenment novels often passed off their works as a report of real events and gave them the form of diaries, letters (Defoe, Richardson, Montesquieu). This trend led to an increase in realistic tendencies in the literature of the first half of XVIII V. In this regard, many domestic researchers have identified enlightenment realism in a special direction in Western European literature. The works of Defoe, Richardson, Fielding, Diderot, Lessing were correlated with him. Western European literary historians, when describing the literature of the 18th century, almost never use this term.

IN early XVIII V. classicism, however, does not disappear from the literary scene. The authority of reason and the desire to strengthen the educational principle in art turned out to be close to both the Enlighteners and the classicists. However, the aesthetics of classicism in the Enlightenment is undergoing a number of major changes. For example, the relationship between feeling and duty is changing, the conflict between which was the main mover of action in the tragedy of classicism. But already in the dramaturgy of Voltaire, who, although he was guided by traditions French theater XVII century, did not want to follow them unconditionally, the feeling acquires a new quality. Formerly it opposed duty. Now it itself was perceived as a duty of man in relation to himself and his own nature. It opposed a deceitful, "false debt" to an unreasonable state or dogmatic faith. New approaches to the principles of classic aesthetics can also be found in the work of the English poet Alexander Pope. This renewed classicism was named enlightenment classicism.

Just as in the enlightenment movement there were almost parallel optimistic and skeptical attitudes towards new ideals and the possibility of their embodiment in real life, in literature, a tendency opposing rationalism arises quite early, which focuses on feeling, on the emotional sphere of a person and which, closer to the middle of the century, will give life to sentimentalism. One of the hallmarks of sentimentalism is the hero endowed with sentimental sensitivity. Sentimental sensitivity is a very complex and capacious concept. It also implies an extraordinary internal responsiveness of the personality, when a slight external influence is enough to evoke in the hero a bizarre connection of feelings and thoughts. Sensitivity is also based on a new system of ethical criteria. Possession of it gives additional value to the individual. If the enlighteners believed that a “reasonable person” would treat others in the same way as he would like them to treat him, then sentimentalists simply believed that a “sensitive person” was not capable of bad deeds. sentimental sensitivity and new type perception of the world and relationships with other people.

As a reaction to the crisis of educational ideals, one can also consider the emergence in the second half of the 18th century. pre-romanticism. The pre-romantics seek to escape from the present, which did not justify their hopes, into the past: into the world of the Middle Ages, Celtic mythology, and Old Norse poetry. They contrast the rationalism of the Enlighteners with an interest in the fantastic, fabulous, mystical, and irrational.

In general, it can be noted that the literary process in the Enlightenment is noticeably more complicated than in the previous century. In the 17th century, the development of literature was largely determined by the confrontation between classicism and baroque. In the XVIII century. there are many more such factors.

Questions and tasks for self-control

• 1. Why is the beginning of the Enlightenment associated with a date from English history?
• 2. What is the essence of the scientific method of research proposed by Francis Bacon?
• 3. Why did John Locke's controversy with the "theory of innate ideas" turn out to be so fundamental for the formation of enlightenment ideology?
• 4. What was the meaning of the enlighteners in the concept of "natural man"?
• 5. What arguments did Gottfried Leibniz use to prove the perfection of the world in which man lives?
• 6. What is deism?

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Problems of the Enlightenment in World Literature. - M., 1970.

Turaev, S. V. Introduction to Western European literature 18th century / S. V. Turaev. - M 1962.

Chernozemova, E. N. History of foreign Literature XVII-XVIII centuries: Workshop / E. I. Chernozemova, V. N. Ganin, Vl. A. Lukov. - M., 2004.

Age of Enlightenment: From History international relations Russian literature / otv. editor A. S. Kurilov. - M., 1982.

Enlightenment is considered the stage of development of European culture late XVII - early XIX century. Rationalism, mind, science - these three concepts began to come to the fore. The basis of the ideology of the Enlightenment is faith in man. The eighteenth century is the time high hopes man on himself and his abilities, the time of faith in the human mind and the high purpose of man. Enlighteners were convinced that a healthy fantasy, imagination, feeling must be formed. Books began to appear in which writers wanted to put as much information as possible about the world around people, to give them an idea of ​​other countries and continents. Of course, one cannot but recall such famous people as Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau. A whole variety of genres from the scientific encyclopedia to the parenting novel appears during this period. Voltaire in this regard said: "All genres are beautiful, except for the boring."

Voltaire(1694-1778)

Voltaire's creative heritage is enormous: fifty volumes of six hundred pages each. It was about him that Victor Hugo said that "this is not a man, this is an EPOCH." Voltaire still has the glory of an outstanding scientist, philosopher, poet. What can be found in Voltaire's Philosophical Letters? The principles of philosophy, which are still relevant today: tolerance, the right to freely express one's own thoughts. And what about religion? It was also a hot topic. It turns out that the enlighteners, in particular Voltaire, did not reject the existence of God, but rejected the influence of God on the fate of man. It is known that the Russian Empress Catherine the Great was in correspondence with Voltaire. After the philosopher's death, she wanted to buy his library along with their correspondence - however, the letters were bought and subsequently published by Pierre Augustin Beaumarchais, author of The Marriage of Figaro.

By the way, Voltaire's working day lasted from 18 to 20 hours. At night, he often got up, woke his secretary and dictated to him, or wrote himself. He also drank up to 50 cups of coffee a day.

Jean Jacques Rousseau(1712 - 1778)

Also, like Voltaire, he is a French philosopher, one of the most influential thinkers of the 18th century, the ideological predecessor of the French Revolution. In his first works, Rousseau expressed the provisions of his worldview. The foundations of civil life, the division of labor, property, the state and laws are only a source of inequality, misfortune and depravity of people. Proceeding from the idea that a person is naturally endowed with a propensity for good, Rousseau believed that the main task of pedagogy is the development of good inclinations invested in a person by nature. From this point of view, Rousseau rebelled against all violent methods in the matter of education, and especially against the cluttering of the child's mind with unnecessary knowledge. Rousseau's ideas influenced the French Revolution, they are written into the American Constitution, his pedagogical theories still make themselves felt indirectly in almost every school around the world, and his influence on literature has survived to this day. Rousseau developed his political ideas in a number of works, the peak of which is the treatise On the Social Contract published in 1762. “Man is born to be free, but meanwhile he is everywhere in chains.” These words, which begin the first chapter of the treatise, went around the whole world.

By the way, Jean Jacques Rousseau was the author of a musical dictionary and wrote the comic opera The Village Sorcerer, which became the ancestor of French vaudeville operas and lasted on the French opera stage for more than 60 years. As a result of his conflict with the church and the government (early 1760s, after the publication of the book "Emile, or On Education"), the suspicion inherent in Rousseau acquired extremely painful forms. He saw conspiracies everywhere. It was his "Social Contract" that inspired the fighters for the ideals of the French Revolution; Rousseau himself, paradoxically, was never in favor of such drastic measures.

Denis Diderot(1713-1784)

French philosopher-educator - foreign honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Founder and editor of the Encyclopedia, or explanatory dictionary sciences, arts and crafts. In the philosophical works of Denis Diderot, being a supporter of an enlightened monarchy, he made an irreconcilable criticism of absolutism, the Christian religion and the church, defended (based on sensationalism) materialistic ideas. Literary writings Diderot are written mainly in the traditions of the realistic novel of the Enlightenment. If the bourgeoisie sought to destroy the class barriers between themselves and the privileged nobility, then Diderot destroyed class barriers in literary genres. From now on, the tragedy became more humanized. All classes could be represented in a dramatic work. At the same time, the rationalistic construction of characters gave way to a real depiction of living people. Like Voltaire, he did not trust the masses of the people, incapable, in his opinion, of sound judgment in "moral and political matters." Diderot maintained friendly relations with Dmitri Golitsyn. As an art critic, he wrote annual reviews of art exhibitions - "Salons". And from 1773 to 1774, Diderot, at the invitation of Catherine II, traveled to Russia and lived in St. Petersburg.

Montesquieu (1689-1755)

Full name is Charles-Louis de Seconda, Baron La Brad i de Montesquieu. French writer, jurist and philosopher, author of the novel "Persian Letters", articles from the "Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts", the work "On the Spirit of Laws", a supporter of a naturalistic approach to the study of society. Developed the doctrine of the separation of powers. Montesquieu led a simple, solitary life, and with full spiritual strength and deep seriousness he concentrated on the task of an observer, thinking and seeking the norm. The post of President of the Parliament of Bordeaux, which Montesquieu inherited in 1716, soon began to weigh him down. In 1726, he resigned this position, but, as owner of the castle of La Brede, he faithfully maintained the corporate convictions of the parliamentary aristocracy.

He was a type of French aristocrat, already rare at that time, who did not allow himself to be caught by the temptations of the court, and became a scholar in the spirit of noble independence. Great travels in Europe, undertaken by Montesquieu in 1728-1731, had the character of serious research trips. Montesquieu actively visited literary salons and clubs, was familiar with many writers, scientists, diplomats. Among his interlocutors, for example, can be attributed to the French researcher contentious issues international law by Gabriel Mably.