Journalism of the 16th century reflected primarily the struggle within the class of feudal lords between the nobility and the boyars. The nobility, in alliance with the state authorities, opposed the reactionary part of the well-born boyars, who defended their rights and lands from the centralization policy of the state.
The leading noble publicists considered themselves defenders of the interests of the whole people. Involuntarily, certain Renaissance ideas and ideas penetrate into the writings of noble publicists.
One of the most interesting publicists of the XVI century. — Ivan Peresvetov. He was a native of Lithuania, served earlier with the Polish king Sigismund I, with the Hungarian king Janusz, in the Wallachian land with Peter IV Rares and in the Czech Republic with King Ferdinand I of Habsburg.
From the Czech Republic, he left for Moscow and here he spoke with various journalistic essays, proposing reforms and defending the equality of all before the state.
As a representative of a new, rising estate - the nobility, interested in the abolition of old privileges, Ivan Peresvetov puts forward the principle of equality of all in the face of the sovereign: "I am all the children of Adam."
He cites the Turkish Sultan Magmet as an example to the Russian Tsar, who ordered to bring "full and mortgaged" books to him and burned them. Magmet's favorite pashas are former slaves, and he "does not know what their father's children are like."
As a representative of the service nobility, nominated on personal merit, Ivan Peresvetov opposes inequality by birth and for inequality created by the government itself, rewarding the best: “Which warrior will be fierce against the sovereign’s enemy to play a death game and will stand firmly for the Christian faith,” Peresvetov instructs , - otherwise exalt the names of such a warrior and gladden their hearts, and add salaries to them from the treasury of their sovereign; and return the hearts of other warriors, and let them close to you, and believe them in everything, and listen to their complaint in everything, and love, like a father to your children, and be generous to them.
Peresvetov stands for the freedom of the country. He writes: "Which country is enslaved, those people are not brave." Against whose violence does Peresvetov oppose? From the whole context of his writings it is clear: against violence and oppression of "nobles", boyars.
The question of freedom arose in the writings of Peresvetov in connection with the need to replace the feudal militia with a regular army.
The first was collected under compulsion, the second was on a salary. Peresvetov constantly emphasizes that it is necessary to fight for a reward, and not under duress: "Keep a warrior like a falcon, and always make his heart happy."
In the XVI century. gradually and cautiously the theological point of view on human society begins to recede into the past. "Laws divine" still retain their authority, but along with references to bible books quite "Renaissance" references to the laws of nature appear.
Yermolai-Erasmus' projects are based on the idea that bread is the basis of economic, social and spiritual life. On the natural order of things in nature, as a model for people to follow in social and public life, refer to a number of writers of the XVI century. Ivan Peresvetov almost never uses theological arguments in his writings.
The development of journalism in the XVI century. associated with faith in the power of conviction, in the power of the book word. Never argue so much Ancient Rus', as at the end of the XV-XVI centuries. The development of journalism is on the crest of a public upsurge of faith in reason, in the possibility of improving society and the state with the arguments of reason.
This faith in reason, by force of conviction, is very characteristic of the rising progressive social group- Servant nobility. It constitutes a characteristic feature of journalism in the era of the formation and strengthening of the centralized state and, at the same time, that inner basis of it, which made it possible to argue, convince, urged to take up a pen, draw up projects and propose reforms.
Ivan Peresvetov repeatedly writes about the meaning of the book word in his writings. In The Tale of Tsar Konstantin, Peresvetov believes that the main reason for Konstantin's failures was that his nobles - "lazy rich people" - gave him the wrong books to read, in which the idea was carried out that the king should not go to war "on a foreign land"; "The king of the book read and tamed."
On the other hand, Peresvetov explains the success of the Sultan again by the influence of books - this time correct and wise.
Another publicist of the 16th century is also interesting. - Yermolai-Erasmus, who defended the interests of the peasants. Belief in the possibility of establishing social justice with the help of persuasion and the good will of the legislator distinguishes the writings of Yermolai-Erasmus, who intended his writings for the sovereign. His “Ruler” and “Prayer to the Tsar” are addressed to the sovereign.
Faith in the power of reason, in the power of personal conviction - characteristic 16th century It seemed that it was enough to convince one's ideological opponents or the government itself of something, and life would develop on a reasonable basis, take a different direction.
This belief in the possibility of achieving fundamental changes through the simple conviction of an all-powerful monarch makes Russian thought in the 16th century related. with Western European ideas of an enlightened monarchy.
In addition to faith in the power of reason, for Russian journalism of the 16th century. Another new feature is also characteristic: the idea has entered the consciousness of society that concern for the welfare of the population is main duty sovereign. The idea of the sovereign's responsibility to the people appeared. This idea was so strong that the tsar himself entered into polemics with his ideological opponents and took care of the ideological interpretation of his policy.
Tsar Ivan groznyj was a temperamental publicist. He owns two letters to Prince Andrei Kurbsky, an extensive message to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery, several diplomatic messages to foreign sovereigns, etc. Grozny made his writings accessible to Russian readers; they were handwritten and read in the 16th and 17th centuries.
In his messages, Grozny advocated strengthening state power against the arbitrariness of the boyars and church authorities. He wrote passionately, with polemical enthusiasm, sometimes sarcastically, sometimes with a deep lyrical feeling, he knew how to taunt his opponent, ridicule him, and convict him of ignorance. Grozny's historical erudition is significant. He is one of the most educated people of his time.
The literary opponent of Ivan the Terrible, Prince Andrei Kurbsky, was also an outstanding writer of his time. Prince Kurbsky belonged to the family of Yaroslavl princes and considered himself a descendant of Vladimir Monomakh.
He was a participant in the conquest of Kazan, and then a prominent military leader in Livonian War. Military happiness did not leave Kurbsky, he advanced and was at one time at the head of the entire Russian army (in 1560), but, fearing to fall under the disgrace of Ivan the Terrible, he betrayed his homeland and fled to the Polish king Sigismund-August.
Kurbsky lived in Lithuania for almost two decades, conducting extensive correspondence, translating patristic works into Russian, and defending Orthodoxy in Lithuania from Catholics and Protestants. In Lithuania, Kurbsky wrote his famous "History of the Grand Duke of Moscow" - Ivan the Terrible.
"History ..." is closely connected with his letters to Grozny, in which he reproaches the tsar for senseless cruelties and to which Grozny responded with his messages full of sarcasm. The biography of Grozny was supposed to serve as an indictment of the despotism of the state and the sovereign. Dobrolyubov wrote: "For himself and for his fellow aristocrats, he takes revenge on John with publicity, history."
For the first time in Russian historiography, a work appeared, the purpose of which was not simply to set out the events associated with a particular country, city, monastery or historical person, but to reveal the causes, the origin of a particular phenomenon.
Such a phenomenon, which Kurbsky wished to explain in his "History ...", was the cruelty of Grozny, the "fierce persecution" he began against people, especially those who tried to be independent, and which brought innumerable disasters to the country.
The answer given by Kurbsky in his "History..." is quite in the spirit of the 16th century: evil advisers are to blame for all this. Kurbsky, like Peresvetov, believes in the power of reason, in the power of conviction. Therefore, evil or good advice can change the character of the king, direct history along a new path. It all started with the fact that Ivan was left an orphan without a father, and the caretakers and "petters" encouraged bad inclinations in him.
The first childish cruelties of Ivan are described picturesquely in history, how he threw animals from high porches and, having gathered around him the same young tomboys, rushed with them on horseback through squares and markets, robbing, beating and killing husbands and wives. The beginning of the cruelty of the king was stopped by two wise and young men - Alexei Adashev and priest Sylvester from Novgorod.
They came to the king and, with their reasonable advice, corrected him for a while, like doctors "rotted gagrinas shearing and cutting with iron, or wild meat growing on a wound, cutting right down to living meat."
The Council of the Young, the “chosen one”, formed under the tsar, directed the tsar on a good path and delivered victories to Russian weapons. Describes in detail the Kurbsky military campaigns of Grozny and the capture of Kazan.
At the same time, Kurbsky pays special attention to Grozny's advisers and their advice. The appearance of evil and selfish advisers, who sought to assert their influence over the king by encouraging his passions, brought to an end the prosperous period of his reign.
On the third day after the Kazan capture, the tsar “burped something ungrateful” and instead of “thanks to the governors and all his army,” he became angry with one of the participants in the capture, and new troubles arose from that.
The king began to listen to bad advice, of which the most bad was given to him by one elder: "And if you want to be an autocrat, do not keep a single wise adviser for yourself." Kurbsky describes in detail how anger grew in the tsar, fueled by the fear of independent opinions and advice.
From explaining the reasons for the persecution, Kurbsky proceeds to detailed and picture descriptions the very persecutions and outrages of Grozny, the corruption of morals that came as a result of general fear and the ruin of the country. Before us is the first political pamphlet in Russian literature, expanded to detailed history reign of Ivan the Terrible.
In the "History of the Grand Duke of Moscow" the traditions of the Russian military story, accusatory sermons and writings of Maxim the Greek affected, however, for all that, "History ..." stands out for its independence individual style, harmony and energy of presentation.
Summing up the literary development XVI century, it is necessary to emphasize the features of the new in the field of art form. The 16th century was marked by complex and versatile searches in the field art form, in the field of genres.
The stability of genres is broken. The development of journalistic thought caused the emergence of new forms of literature. Business forms penetrate into literature, and elements of artistry penetrate into business writing.
The themes of journalism are the themes of a living, concrete political struggle, and many of the topics, before penetrating into journalism, served as the content of business writing. That is why forms of business writing become forms of journalism.
A strong artistic stream has been introduced into the "Acts" of the Stoglavy Cathedral. "Stoglav" is a fact of literature to the same extent as a fact of business writing. An element of fiction enters vigorously into the chronicle. in the mouth historical figures the annals are invested with invented speeches.
In the XVI century. for literary purposes, diplomatic correspondence is used. The form of diplomatic correspondence is used for purely literary purposes in a fictitious, purely literary correspondence allegedly between the Turkish Sultan and Ivan the Terrible.
Diplomatic messages, resolutions of the cathedral, petitions, article lists become forms of literary works. They testify to the process of slow secularization of literature.
Finally, in the 16th century Another significant phenomenon appeared, which in the future was destined to decisively change the nature of literature - printing.
In 1564, the "first printed" "Apostle" (a book of apostolic letters read in the church during some divine services) was published, published in Moscow by Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets. This edition is amazing in many ways. The text of the "Apostle" was carefully checked and edited.
It didn't have a single typo. Font, decorations, illustrations were made carefully and thoughtfully. The publication has been in preparation for ten years. There is evidence that the "first printed" "Apostle" was not in fact the first printed book in Rus'. Even before him, other church books were published in some printing houses unknown to us.
Shortly after the publication of their first books, Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets moved to Lithuania, but the printing of books continued, first in Moscow and then in Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda near Moscow. In total, in the second half of the XVI century. about 20 printed books were published, and the “Apostle” of 1597 itself came out in a very large circulation for that time: 1050 copies were published.
Story world literature: in 9 volumes / Edited by I.S. Braginsky and others - M., 1983-1984
Russian political thought receives significant development in the works Vladimir Monomakh, who went down in history not only as an outstanding statesman and military figure of Ancient Rus', but also as the author of several works. His famous "Instruction" is not only a set of everyday moral advice, but also a political testament of the prince. Vladimir Monomakh puts forward the tasks of a national order, considering it the duty of the prince to care for the welfare of the state, for its unity. He called for an end to civil strife, warning that because of them "the Russian land will perish ...".
On the whole, the "Instruction" is colored by personal feeling. Vladimir is not only a statesman, but also a feeling person, keenly experiencing life events. He is concerned about the problem of the ethical responsibility of a person for what is happening, the problem of maintaining compassion, justice, honor, diligence. His "Instruction" can be fully called one of the first journalistic works.
left a considerable literary legacy Kirill Turovsky. A large number of works that have come down to us testifies to the considerable popularity of the works of this ancient Russian thinker in Russian society. Of particular interest is the "Parable of the Human Soul and Body", in which the author, in a symbolic and allegorical form, reveals the essence of the relationship between body and soul, raises spiritual and moral problems. The conclusion that Cyril of Turovsky draws from his reasoning is unequivocal: each person must strengthen his soul and expel bodily temptations, only then will the gates of the Kingdom of Heaven open before him.
Daniil Zatochnik is one of the most enigmatic ancient Russian authors. In the “Prayer”, in the figurative form of allegory and aphorisms, the author sarcastically depicted the life and customs of his time, the tragedy of an outstanding person who is haunted by need and trouble. Daniil Zatochnik is a supporter of a strong and “formidable” princely power, to which he turns with a request for help and protection. Daniel puts the intellectual power of a person above all, stands up for the defense of human dignity. a wise man In an effort to get out of a disastrous, hopeless situation, he cannot and must not compromise his human dignity, go against his conscience.
Morality and politics are closely intertwined in "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". Consciousness of the need for unity, joint action against the Polovtsy, a call for the resurrection of the old ideals of “brotherly love” - this is what is in the center of the author's attention. This work is a political speech written in the genre of political rhetoric and intended to be announced at the princely congress.
The events of the Mongol-Tatar invasion caused the appearance in ancient literature of a poetic work “A word about the destruction of the Russian land”. It is similar in theme and style to the Tale of Igor's Campaign. These monuments have much in common: high patriotism, a manifestation of national self-consciousness. The central theme of “Words about the destruction of the Russian land” is sorrow for the Russian land desecrated by foreign invaders. This theme is developed by the author on the basis of a contrasting opposition between the ruin of Rus' and its recent past.
Serapion is the most prominent church preacher of the 13th century. From his work, 5 teachings have been preserved - vivid monuments of the tragic era. In three of them, the author paints a vivid picture of the defeat and disasters that have befallen Rus', considers them God's punishment for sins, and preaches the path of salvation in popular repentance and moral cleansing. In two other teachings, he denounces belief in witchcraft and gross superstitions. This is one of the finest examples of ancient Russian church teaching eloquence.
It can be concluded that the works of ancient Russian literature not only react sharply to political events in the country, but also raise spiritual and moral problems.
Journalism of the 14th – 17th centuries
The idea of the unity of the people did not lose its relevance in the subsequent period - from the 14th to the 17th centuries, but acquires a new aspect: the people must unite not only to protect the state, but also to manage it, that is, it is necessary to create a class-representative monarchy as the best form of government For Russia.
The desire to justify the struggle of Ivan the Terrible against the boyars and to prove the need for a strong independent autocratic power was most clearly expressed in the writings of Peresvetova I.S.- a publicist of the late 16th and early 17th centuries, the author of "Epistole" and "Big Petition". Peresvetov puts forward the principle of equality of all in the face of the sovereign, fights against inequality by birth and advocates inequality created by the government itself, rewarding the best.
“Russian word” is one of the brightest democratic publications of the 60s. This magazine, published for six years, enjoyed great prestige among the progressive reader. On all the main problems of socio-political life during its heyday (1863-1865), the Russian Word, although not always consistently, but passionately and selflessly, defended revolutionary democratic positions. Activities on its pages D.I. Pisareva- an outstanding revolutionary, a remarkable literary critic and publicist, a talented propagandist of natural science.
Almost all political or social phenomena of the second half of the nineteenth century were reflected in the work F.M.Dostoevsky. On the pages of the novel Crime and Punishment, he argues with revolutionary democrats, nihilists, supporters of other ideas that became widespread in the 60s years XIX century. In 1876, he founded and began to single-handedly publish a separate publication similar to a monthly magazine called "The Writer's Diary". This magazine was an extraordinary success with readers, multiplying the glory of Dostoevsky - a writer and publicist.
Publicistic and editorial activity M.E. Saltykov Shchedrin in Otechestvennye Zapiski was a new stage in the work that he had begun in Sovremennik. In the journalistic cycles “Signs of the Times” and “Letters about the Province”, Saltykov-Shchedrin, as if summing up the post-reform decade, raises questions that worried all the staff and readers of “Notes of the Fatherland”: what has changed in the life of Russia after the reform of 1861? Why did the social upsurge of the 1960s not bring the expected results? What is the reason for the failure of the revolutionary movement? The writer saw the reason for the failure of the struggle in the fact that the “movement of reformers”, as he conditionally called the movement of the 60s, was too heterogeneous. Although serfdom was legally abolished, the satirist argued that serfdom lives in everything - “in our temperament, in our way of thinking, .... Everything, no matter what we turn our eyes to, everything comes out of it and relies on it ” . One of the main themes of his literary activity is the exposure of liberalism. Indifference to the pressing issues of our time, the desire for personal well-being dominates a liberal society. But it is these qualities that determine their future defeat, the writer believes.
Conclusion
Journalistic works are a reflection of the epoch, topical topics of the time, therefore they are closely connected with the historical, economic and social processes taking place in the country.
The main themes of the works of ancient Russian literature are the problem of the unity of the people in the face of external danger, as well as spiritual and moral problems.
One of the most important topics for church publicists of the XII-XIII centuries, the theme of human morality and his service to the Lord, the problem of human dignity and honor, moral purification became.
Publicists of the 14th-16th centuries criticized the political regime and expressed sympathy for the plight of the peasantry. And in this era, the theme of human dignity, the mind, does not lose its significance.
The main question raised by publicists of the 17th-18th centuries is the peasant one. Particular attention is also paid to the decline in the morality of the ruling strata. The authors see the solution of social and political problems in the education of the masses.
Publicism of the 19th century reflected the turbulent socio-political life of Russia, and this period can be considered its final design as an independent literary genre.
We see that epochs and political structures of society are changing, but for journalism the theme of the spiritual morality of each person and society as a whole remains eternal.
Bibliography
- Zabikhova Sh. Publicism as a kind of creativity//Electronic course on journalism "Mass Communication" . - unesco.kz
- Karavashkin A.V. Russian medieval journalism: Ivan Peresvetov, Ivan the Terrible, Andrey Kurbsky. - M. 2000.
- Tumanov Dmitry Valerievich. We create with a golden pen. - Kazan, 2000.
- History of Russian journalism of the XVIII-XIX centuries. Ed. prof. Zapadova. - M., 1973.
- Esin B.I. History of Russian journalism of the 19th century. - M. 2003.
- (from the word public, public) area of literature, which has as its subject topical socio-political issues, resolving them from the point of view of a certain class in order to directly influence society and therefore contains ... ... Literary Encyclopedia
Publicism- PUBLICITY (from the word public, public) that area of literature that deals with political, public issues in order to hold certain views in a wide range of readers, create, shape public opinion, ... ... Dictionary of literary terms
PUBLICITY- 1) the science of public law; 2) a set of newspaper and magazine articles, brochures, etc., discussing national or public interests. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Pavlenkov F., 1907. PUBLICITY ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language
PUBLICITY- (from lat. publicus public) a kind of works dedicated to topical issues and phenomena of the current life of society. It plays an important political and ideological role as a means of expressing the pluralism of public opinion, including the emerging one ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
PUBLICITY- PUBLICISTICS, journalism, pl. no, female (from lat. publicus public) (book). 1. Literature on socio-political issues. Russian journalism of the 60s. 2. Genre, style, characteristics such literature. A novel full of... Dictionary Ushakov
Publicism - specific genus literature, which considers topical problems of the life and activities of society, its culture, politics, philosophy, economics, etc. See also: Literary works Publications Financial Dictionary Finam ... Financial vocabulary
PUBLICITY- (from the Latin publicus public), a kind of works devoted to topical problems and phenomena of the current life of society. Exists in verbal (written and oral), graphic representation (poster, caricature, etc.), photo and ... ... Modern Encyclopedia
PUBLICITY- PUBLICITY, and, wives. Literature on topical social and political issues of our time, the current life of society. Artistic item | adj. journalistic, oh, oh. Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov
journalism- noun, number of synonyms: 6 film journalism (1) literature (24) radio publications ... Synonym dictionary
Publicism- discussion in the press of pressing issues of social and political life. These questions can also be the subject of scientific research, but the generality of the subject should not lead to confusion between the field of science and P. The difference is determined primarily by motives ... ... Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron
PUBLICITY- See PUBLICIST VV Vinogradov. History of words, 2010 ... History of words
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1. Journalism - an appeal to topical issues in an emotional, evaluative manner. IN journalistic works the position of the author plays the leading role. Therefore, the history of Russian publicism can be regarded as the history of Russian publicists.
2. Journalism arose much earlier than journalism. Publicism is rapidly developing with the advent of journalism. These include the activities of Novikov (magazines "Truten", "Pustomel", "Painter", "Purse"), the dispute between Catherine 2 with his publications and hers ("Vsyakaya Vyachina").
3. In the era of the Great Reforms of Alexander 2 in the second half of the 19th century.
Liberal direction, all journalism.
Liberal-Western (“Russian Bulletin”, “ Domestic notes”, “Bulletin of Europe”, etc.) they were joined by entertaining weeklies and newspapers (“Voice”, “Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti”, etc.)
Slavophile (“Russian conversation” by Koshelev and a group of newspapers of the Aksakov brothers (“Molva”, “Sail”, “Den”, etc.)
Soil brothers Dostoevsky "Time" and "Epoch".
4. A number of traditional topics can be singled out, which were addressed by almost all well-known Russian publicists.
The role and mission of literature. For example, Nikolai Gavrilovich Chernyshevsky in the 50s of the 19th century put forward the idea of the public service of literature. The socially transformative role of literature was also argued by Nikolai Aleksandrovich Dobrolyubov. Earlier, Vissarion Grigoryevich Belinsky put forward and substantiated the theory of realism, foreseeing the development of Russian literature for many years to come. Content literary work he considered from the side of the development of literary, moral, social principles. The state of literary life was reflected in the articles of Bestuzhev, Kuchelbeker, Ryleev. In them, publicists asserted the originality of Russian literature, the civic orientation, and the orientation towards the nationality. The idea of the civil purpose of literature, the materialistic view of art was developed by Dmitry Ivanovich Pisarev. The exposure of aesthetics was for Pisarev tantamount to a struggle with routine, inertia, and stagnation.
Closely related to the theme of the role of literature topic about the purpose and understanding of journalism as a kind of professional business. Here, too, the work of Belinsky is significant, who in the essay "Nikolai Alekseevich Polevoy" defined journalism as the arena of a stubborn battle for opinions, outlining its goal - the formation of public opinion. Belinsky developed a whole theory of journalism.
Since the dawn of journalism, leading publicists have speculated about the Russian national character. The first surge of publications on this topic is associated with anti-serfdom sentiments in the first half of the 19th century and the subsequent peasant reform. Valuev's Slavophile collections affirmed the communal and religious beginning of the Russian people, this beginning determined the role of Russia in history. The materials of the collections were devoted to various aspects of the history, culture and life of the Slavic peoples. They were attended by Khomyakov, who wrote a lot about Russia's place in Europe. Even earlier, in the 18th century, Alexander Radishchev published an article in the journal “Conversing Citizen” (which, however, is only attributed to him) “A conversation about who the son of the Fatherland is.” In this article, Radishchev stated that Russian serfs cannot be called sons of the Fatherland, because they are under the yoke of slavery.
the idea of a Russian national character developed by Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky. The ideology of "nomadism" was substantiated in his speeches in the magazines "Time" and "Epoch". He saw the originality of the Russian people in such traits as "complicity" and "all-humanity", finding "a point of connection and reconciliation." In Vremya, Dostoevsky paid attention to moral value the elimination of serfdom, the protection of the individual. Nevertheless, Dostoevsky opposed the Slavophile doctrine.
immortal images pompadours, foam skimmers, grimy Foolovites, Poshekhons, who became common nouns and reflected the eternal problems of Russian life created by Mikhail Evgrafovich Saltykov-Shchedrin.
Place of Russia in Europe. Slavophiles wrote a lot about this. For example, Ivan Vasilievich Kireevsky, in the article "Review of the current state of literature" in the journal "Moskvityanin", gave an overview of the general direction and features cultural development Russia compared to Western Europe. In the letters of Pyotr Chaadaev, the common idea is that the starting points for Western world and we were too different to ever come to the same results (for example, revolutions). This is primarily due to the different experience of mastering Christian culture. Solzhenitsyn.
The theme of the Motherland (military journalism). The rise of military journalism is observed during Patriotic War 1812. The course of the military campaign was widely covered, for example, in the magazine Son of the Fatherland. Ivan Krylov spoke with fables during the Patriotic War in Grech's Son of the Fatherland.
During Russian-Turkish war Suvorin, with his publications, raised the authority of the Novoye Vremya newspaper. Vasily Nemirovich-Danchenko, the first Russian war correspondent, from Russian-Turkish to the First World War. Larisa Reisner with essays "Front" during the Civil War.
In Soviet times, during the Great Patriotic War, the role of a detonator was played by the publicism of Mikhail Sholokhov. For example, his story "The Science of Hatred", published in the Pravda newspaper in 1942. This story played a role in the development of "hate propaganda" and the emergence of one of the most famous military slogans "Kill the German!". Boris Gorbatov is also known for his military journalism, for example, the story "The Unconquered" of 1943 about the patriotism of the Soviet people under the German occupation. Simonov, Grossman, Tolstoy, Ehrenburg.
Religious journalism. The publicism of Nikolai Berdyaev was based on the spiritual being of a person, his moral foundations and metamorphoses of morality.
5. Politics is always interesting. Free Russia, everyone fought, fought the Bolsheviks.
6. And in the 1920s, journalism was different. In the 30s - the glorification of the new man, the Stakhanovites, the transformation.
7. End of 19 beginning of 20 - feuilletons. In Soviet times - Ilf, Petrov.
The formation of Russian journalism in the XVIII century. Social economic development Russia at the end of the XVII - early XVIII century, it required overcoming economic and cultural backwardness, reorganizing the state apparatus, strengthening defense power, and building manufactories. The historically conditioned transformations in the field of economy, politics and culture were carried out by Peter I: the reform of central and local government, the subordination of the church to the state, the creation of a regular army and navy, the planting of manufactories, the establishment of printing houses, etc. The reforms contributed to strengthening the international authority of the Russian state and received approval and support in the journalistic works of I. Pososhkov, F. Prokopovich and a number of other public figures.
However, the transformations were carried out at the expense of increased exploitation of the masses, which caused their discontent, which was manifested in the Astrakhan uprising of 1705-1706, the unrest of hired workers at Moscow light industry enterprises in 1721-1722, the performances of peasants in the 1720s. in connection with the introduction of the poll tax, etc.
Associated with the political, economic and cultural needs of the country, the first printed newspaper Vedomosti (1702-1727) reflected in its essence the contradictions of the era of Peter's reforms. On the one hand, it has become an important phenomenon national culture, contributed to the democratization of the language, carried out an educational function. On the other hand, it served the purposes of propaganda of the internal and foreign policy of the government, monopoly influenced the opinions of readers in a monarchical spirit.
The newspaper was published under the direct supervision of Peter I, its status was determined by the requirements that the tsar made to printed materials: “... so that those drawings and books are printed to the glory of our great sovereign, our royal majesty, the high name and our entire Russian kingdom among European monarchs blooming, the most praise and the general benefit and profit of the people.
Companions of Peter I - Yakov Sinyavin, Boris Volkov - who actively supported his reforms, took part in the preparation and publication of Vedomosti and, in their judgments about the newspaper, showed concern for the efficiency, accessibility, and quality design of the publication.
Taking into account the purpose of the publication and the interests of the readers of Vedomosti, B. Volkov speaks of "news" as the most important feature of the newspaper, without which it loses its specificity and turns into a "memory for the sake of historians." To ensure the regularity of the publication and efficiency of the newspaper, he proposes to print it in such a way "that there is one new sheet in stock." His statement about the purpose of Vedomosti is based on the ideas of modernity and common good: “Our revisions are revered for a brief consistent history and are indulged in printing for the benefit of the people and a tray to the highest persons.”
The newspaper was founded personally by Peter the Great, who considered the newspaper as an important means of fighting for reforms and asserting the power of the Russian state. His decree on the establishment of the newspaper read: “December 1702 on the 15th day Great Sovereign The Tsar and Grand Duke Pyotr Alekseevich of all great and small and white Russia, the Autocrat indicated, according to his personal great Sovereign decree: Chimes, according to our Gazette, which are sent from different states and cities to the State Ambassadorial and other orders, from those orders send those statements to the order books of the printing business, and as those statements will be sent, they will also be printed at the printing house, and those printed statements that remain behind the tray (i.e., after gratuitous distribution to the king and his dignitaries) - to be sold to the world at the proper price.
The first copy of the printed newspaper that has survived to this day is dated January 2, 1703 (O.S.). However, indirect evidence indicates that two issues of Vedomosti were published back in December, in any case, handwritten originals were found in the archives and copies.
Vedomosti was published in the form of a book, smaller than a quarter, that is, much smaller than the newspaper format we are used to. Usually the issue consisted of four pages, sometimes eight, ten, less often sixteen or more. Sometimes the newspaper was published on one sheet, the text on which was printed on only one side. Scientists subsequently found out their purpose - for sticking to walls, fences and lampposts (such as leaflets or posters). The text was placed in one column, typed in Cyrillic, and the number dated February 1, 1710 was typed in civil type. The change to civil type made the newspaper more accessible to readers.
The editor-in-chief from 1703 to 1714 was Fyodor Polikarpovich Polikarpov, a typical person of Peter the Great's time: like Menshikov, Makarov and many other "chicks of Petrov's nest", he came from an humble family, but, thanks to Peter, he received the desired education and was considered one of the most educated people then Russia. Historian, poet, translator, author of the famous "Trilingual Lexicon". It is safe to say that it was under Polikarpov that the newspaper business really arose and developed in Russia.
After Polikarpov, another no less educated journalist, Mikhail Avramov, an adherent of antiquity, became the editor-in-chief of Vedomosti. Peter respected him so much that he forgave Avramov's attacks on the emperor's excessive love for innovations in Russian life and customs.
The first Russian printed newspaper was administered by the Monastyrsky Prikaz, but control of Vedomosti was also entrusted to the Collegium of Foreign Affairs. Materials for the newspaper were supplied by such famous figures of the time of Peter the Great as G. Golovin, P. Tolstoy, P. Shafirov, A. Dolgoruky, B. Kurakin, B. Volkov, N. Musin-Pushkin, F. Golovin. And Pyotr Alekseevich himself often took part in the publication of his brainchild.
The newspaper contained materials on military affairs, on issues of technology and industry, the production of artillery pieces, and the construction of the fleet. A large proportion of publications was devoted to the victories of the Russian army, especially in major battles at Poltava, Gangut, in the Baltic states. Along with military theme the pages of the newspaper reflected the problems of civil life: the foundation of a new capital - St. Petersburg, the construction of cities and fortresses, the development of trade. Here you can also find information about education, about the successes of science and culture. Official documents, ambassadors' reports, departmental materials served as a source of operational information. Also, information was drawn from foreign newspapers, the circle of which expanded compared to the 17th century due to newspapers coming from cities such as Leipzig, Paris, Amsterdam.
The record was the circulation of the Vedomosti issue of March 22, 1703. The sovereign ordered to print more, and four thousand copies were issued. They were not even half sold out, and already in April of the same year the optimal circulation was established - a thousand, but it should be noted that in general the circulation of Vedomosti was inconsistent: it ranged from 150 to 4000 copies (the issue with the message about the Battle of Poltava was printed in the amount of 2500 copies). The circle of readers was formed mainly at the expense of the nobility, officials, employees of departments, whom the tsar obliged to purchase books and newspapers, a few literate people. The demand for the newspaper was not high, and it sold slowly, despite the rather low cost - one penny, and some issues cost even less. As a result, a huge number of unsold copies accumulated in the warehouses of printing houses, which many years later were loaded onto a barge and lowered down the Neva. Over the long years of lying in damp holds, Peter's Vedomosti was compressed and petrified. Many years later second-hand book dealers became interested in the cargo, who acquired this mass by weight, and, wielding, literally cut down with an ax the few books of Peter's reign that were preserved inside this mess. Issues of the newspaper "Vedomosti" known reasons managed to save units.
Petrovsky Vedomosti gives examples of the use of color printing. In the letter of Peter I about the victory over the Swedes near Poltava, the first paragraphs are printed with cinnabar (it is mercury sulphide, one of the long-known red mineral paints, it occurs in nature in finished form and represents mercury ore. It is also used in painting as oil and watercolor paint, in calico printing, wallpaper and wax production). The reader associates color printing with the importance of the published message.
In Vedomosti, vignettes and screen savers appear, which have a decorative purpose. To separate artistic text from the usual, and also to emphasize its special importance, the greeting verses of M. Abramov to Peter I are surrounded in Vedomosti by a picture frame.
Vedomosti was predominantly informational in nature. As a "news paper", they carried out their political tasks not only through a biased selection of facts, commenting on them, but also by placing them on the page. So, Vedomosti kept silent about the temporary failures of Peter I during the Northern War, but reports of victories were given catchy, on the first pages, and sometimes in special editions. The form of presentation and commentary on such a significant event as the uprising led by K. Bulavin confirm the political tendentiousness of the newspaper: “The Don Cossack, thief and apostate Kondrashka Bulavin intended ... to start a riot. He gathered several thieves and like-minded people to himself, and sent charming letters to many cities and villages, calling for his like-minded thieves ”(1703, July 20).
In the notes of Vedomosti, transmitting author's attitude to depicted facts, describing events in detail, commenting on statements, there is a tendency to sprout information genres - reportage, report, interview. Correspondence on military topics contains the rudiments of an analytical examination of the facts. The development of genres in Vedomosti proceeded intensively, as did the entire economic, political and cultural life of Russia in the era of Petrine reforms.
So, Vedomosti was printed until 1711 in Moscow, then in St. Petersburg. The price per room was from 2 to 8 money, i.e. from 1 to 4 kopecks (their compositor's daily earnings were 3 money). Periodicity, volume of the issue, format and even the title of the newspaper were not stable.
Thus, in the first decades of the 18th century, the only type of periodical in Russia was the newspaper, which acquired its own typological features in content, design, and a system of genres (mainly informational, among which the note played a dominant role). After the death of Peter I at the time of the beginning palace coups Vedomosti ceased to exist, the printing business was taken over by the Academy of Sciences and Moscow University. Changes have taken place in the state of the periodical press due to the development and specialization of the economy and science, the awareness of journalism of its capabilities: the number of newspapers has increased, their geography has expanded, a magazine has appeared, scientific and special periodicals have become stronger. With the transfer of the press to the jurisdiction of the Academy of Sciences, scientists came to the periodicals, became its head, so the popularization of the achievements of science came to the fore.
Academic journalism 1728–1759 Since 1728, the Saint-Petersburg Vedomosti has been published; G.F. Miller became their first editor. From 1728 to 1742 the newspaper had an appendix "Historical, Genealogical and Geographical Notes". Since 1756, Moscow University began publishing "Moskovskie Vedomosti". In January 1755, the first issue of the journal "Monthly Works, for the benefit and amusement of employees" was published, its editor was G. F. Miller.
Carrying out scientific and educational tasks, academic journalism turned to the genres of scientific and popular science articles, reviews, and essays. So, in the "Notes to the Vedomosti" articles by J. Shtelin on the history and theory of dramaturgy and poetry are published. With articles on literary themes appears in the "Monthly Works" V. Trediakovsky. G. Miller publishes a series of articles of a local history nature, setting out the results of his ten-year stay with a scientific expedition in Siberia. Articles by M. Lomonosov, V. Tatishchev and other scientists have made a significant contribution to the development of not only domestic but also world science and culture.
The genre of review served as the task of educating the reader. They considered both scientific works and literary, Russian and foreign ones. As a rule, reviews were a retelling of the work and its general assessment with minor elements of analysis. Sometimes they gave way to annotations for new books with excerpts from them. Academic publications introduced the reader to the history, geography, ethnography of Russia and other countries in the genre of an essay.
Newspapers were still dominated by informational genres, magazines gravitated towards analytical ones. "Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti" allocated 2-4 pages for advertisements, which amounted to one-third to half of the issue. The announcement department had a permanent heading "For news" and contained information about new books, contracts, and sales. At first, ads were separated by lines, then thematic blocks appeared with titles: “Sales”, “Contracts”. Gradually, the announcement department separated from Vedomosti and began to be published in the form of Additions (supplements) with a special price for them.
Moskovskiye Vedomosti, following the model of Sankt-Peterburgskiye Vedomosti, printed advertisements both in the main part and in the Supplements, where they were grouped under permanent headings. Under the heading "Sale" it was reported about the sale of books, horses, honey. Nearby, the sale of a 23-year-old hairdresser was announced; girls who can wash and iron clothes.
The issues of efficiency, accessibility of periodicals, which received substantiation earlier than others, are considered by G. Miller in the “Forewarning” to the first Russian journal, guided by the goal of drawing attention to the publication a large number readers (“the number of inquisitive spectators is growing”, there is a need for “a publication that would provide readers with food for thought and means for further self-development”). He makes demands on the journal for the novelty of judgments (“new invention”); simplicity, clarity of presentation (“write in such a way that anyone, no matter what rank or concept they may be, could understand the proposed matters”); variety of materials (“it is necessary, depending on the difference of readers, to always change materials, so that everyone, according to their inclination and willingness, can use something”). (Monthly works for the benefit and amusement of employees, St. Petersburg, 1755, January, pp. 5–6).
Judgments about the efficiency, regularity of publication, diversity and brevity of the presentation of published materials are made taking into account the reader's psychology and are substantiated by it. “The reader,” this policy statement says, “is insensitively instructed when, in certain time receives a few leaves suddenly; and this instruction is usually more firm in him soon than the reading of large and lengthy books. Moreover, his curiosity is always multiplied when the time comes when a new sheet or a new part of such a work has to go out of print. Rarely does anyone not want to read it; and for its brevity, it cannot bore anyone, and hardly anyone will leave it from their hands without reading it from beginning to end.
G. Miller tried to study the reader of the magazine in practice and conducted a study of subscribers to the Monthly Essays, taking as a basis the classification social sign. In the name of the first Russian magazine, its purpose was also defined - serving the benefit and amusement of readers. These words appeared more than once on the title pages, in the programs of editions of the 18th century. and to a certain extent expressed the existing view on the purpose of the periodical press. Associating the purpose of the publication with its content, G. Miller directly addressed the issue of the benefit and entertainment of the reader through periodicals. In his opinion, politics, economics, manufactories, and poetry can take place in a periodical. But not all of them are useful. The formula "benefit and entertainment" was implemented in the content and structure of the first popular science and literary journal: science occupied the main place in it and was clearly separated from literature.
Specific questions journalistic activity, the moral character of a journalist, his place in society, freedom of creativity was considered by M. Lomonosov earlier than others in the article “Discourse on the duties of journalists when presenting their essays, designed to maintain the freedom of philosophy”, published in an Amsterdam magazine.
M. Lomonosov characterizes journalism as a special kind of activity. The work of journalists, in his opinion, is creative and aimed at serving the truth: “The forces and good will- that's what is required of them. Forces - to thoroughly and competently discuss the many and varied issues that are included in their plan; will - in order to keep in mind only the truth, not to make any concessions either to prejudice or passion.
Proving the incompetence of critical reviews of foreign journalists about his scientific works, M. Lomonosov simultaneously solves a number of theoretical issues: about the tasks of scientific periodicals, requirements for published materials on scientific topics, genre features reviews on scholarly works, responsibilities of reviewers. (Monthly works for the benefit and amusement of employees, St. Petersburg, 1755, January, p. 8).
In his opinion, a journalist "scientific, insightful, fair and modest" can successfully carry out his duties. He must be able to grasp the “new and essential” in writings, free his mind from any prejudice, and be especially attentive to writings recognized as “worthy of publication by people whose combined knowledge should naturally exceed that of a journalist.” He should not "rush to condemn hypotheses", "steal from any of the brothers the thoughts and judgments expressed by the latter", be "highly aware of his superiority." In connection with the purpose and content of the publication, M. Lomonosov solves the problems of his internal organization, substantiates the provision on collegial discussion of materials published in the journal.
The scientific works of M. Lomonosov had a beneficial effect on the development of the periodical press, dedicated to the basics literary language, first of all “A short guide to rhetoric, composed for the benefit of lovers of sweet speech” (1743), published in a revised and supplemented form in 1748 under the title “A short guide to eloquence”. Describing the conceptual and emotional aspects of public speech, M. Lomonosov spoke about the logical connection between concepts, the equalization of words and concepts, on the one hand, and on the other hand, about the purity of style, vivid image, beauty and power of the word. The excerpts from the speeches of Demosthenes and Cicero, the dialogues of Lucian of Samosata and Erasmus of Rotterdam served as a kind of illustration to these arguments of the scientist.
Lomonosov's doctrine of the "three calms" contributed to the democratization of the Russian literary language, the eradication of ancient Church Slavonicisms from it, and the strengthening of living nationwide linguistic elements.
The process of primitive accumulation of capital, the growth of the social division of labor and commodity production, and the expansion of trade met the needs of the emerging bourgeoisie. With the development of the productive forces, new, capitalist relations took shape, which took shape in the depths of the feudal system by the 1760s. The ideas of the Russian Enlightenment were being formed, which sharply condemned the feudal system and advocated transformations that cleared the way for the bourgeois development of the country.
During the period of decomposition of the feudal-absolutist way of life, the formation of capitalist relations and the strengthening of the ideology of the bourgeoisie, which, fighting for power, preaches the idea of individual freedom, a new literary trend is being formed - sentimentalism, which sharpened society's attention to the inner world, human feelings, causing compassion for the social lower classes. Russian sentimentalism takes shape as a national phenomenon, influenced by European culture. The brightest artistic embodiment of the idea of citizenship, the extra-class value of a person was received in the work of the Enlighteners, addressed to social issues, real life.
These ideas were carried forward in the periodical press, mainly private, which arose in 1759, when private capital penetrated into the publishing business. The appearance of private publications, which gave vent to the oppositional moods of society, contributed to a split in the single camp of official periodicals, which, in turn, led to the emergence of various concepts of the press and exacerbated the controversy between the emerging democratic concept of journalism and the official, protective one.
The satirical press of the 1750s - 1770s The democratic trend in Russian literature and journalism asserted itself in the fight against the idea of serving art, the press solely for the amusement and amusement of the reader and viewer. The controversy around the functions of satirical and literary critical genres. The officially enforced view of the tasks of the satirist to amuse the reader, ridiculing human shortcomings, found a theoretical interpretation and practical implementation in the Vsyakaya Vsyachina magazine led by Catherine II. Democratic journalism N. Novikov, D. Fonvizin, I. Krylov saw the right of the satirist to portray the shortcomings of modern social reality, and the duty is in serving the truth, in educating a true son of the fatherland. In the field of literary-critical genres, the democratic trend defended the right of the author to consider not only the merits, but also the shortcomings of the work, not only the positive, but also the negative phenomena of literary life, to give them a public assessment. The problem of public opinion confronts Russian and foreign thinkers at the moment when bourgeois relations begin to take shape in the depths of the feudal system, and means an attempt to philosophically approach such a political issue as supreme power and the masses.
The struggle between the polar concepts of journalism found its most striking embodiment in the controversy between N. Novikov and Catherine II. In the course of the controversy, both sides sought to form public opinion and act as its spokesmen, as evidenced by their frequent appeals to readers, the publication of letters on their behalf. In the controversy with the crowned opponent, N. Novikov could count on success only with the support of public opinion. “I am very pleased with that,” he wrote, “that the lady“ All sorts of things ”has given me to the judgment of the public. The public will see from our future letters which of us is right.”
N. Novikov, like his predecessors, considers the purpose of the periodical to serve the benefit and amusement of the reader. However, unlike them, he perceives the benefit and entertainment not in isolation, but in unity and in connection with the task of enlightening society. He equally relates what was said to the work of a journalist and writer, to a magazine and a newspaper. “Every writer,” he says, answering a question about the purpose of his journal Truten, “should have two subjects: the first is to teach and be useful; the second is to amuse and be pleasant; but that one should be considered excellent before both, who will be so happy that he will be able to unite both of these objects into one.
In the preface addressed to the readers of Trutnya and entitled “Why am I needed in society”, N. Novikov explains what works are published in the journal: “... especially satirical, critical and other ones serving to correct morals, for such works are of great benefit, and this is my intention.” N. Novikov believes that society can be benefited by a seal condemning vices. He does not separate the criticism of vice from the criticism of the bearers of vice: "Criticism on the face will have more effect than, as it were, it is written on a common vice." Vice for him is a social evil, and major vice- "the unbearable yoke of slavery."
A prominent place in Novikov's concept of press is given to the personality of the journalist. In the preface to the first issue of his magazine "Riddle", under the title "What I used instead of a preface" (1770), the requirements for a journalist are defined. According to him, “to be able to compose well, you need teaching, a sharp mind, sound reasoning, good taste, knowledge of the properties of the Russian language and grammatical rules, and, finally, a true concept of things.” Lomonosov wrote about these virtues of a journalist. In Novikov's moral code of a journalist, moreover, the qualities arising from his concept of the press are named - critical talent (“It is as difficult to criticize correctly and with taste as it is to compose well”), social activity (“There is nothing that would not be subject to criticism "; a journalist should "rush into political affairs").
N. Novikov speaks in favor of the orientation of the journal towards a like-minded reader. N. Novikov has a constant conversation with him on the pages of his publications, advises, shares plans, waits for letters from him and answers questions, places approving reviews about the effectiveness of publications. The circulation of Drone was 1240 copies in 1769.
Noting the success of his magazine "The Painter", N. Novikov writes that "this work fell into the taste of our mix." worthy son the fatherland for him is an educated, honest, "defender of the truth" tradesman, who devoted his life to serving the motherland.
In contrast to Novikov's, Catherine II draws up her own set of rules, duties and personal qualities of a writer. In her opinion, the writer must first of all burn with "love and loyalty to the sovereign." From these positions, she defines the personal qualities of the writer: the beauty of the soul, purity, virtue, kindness, peacefulness. According to Catherine II, a journalist, occasionally touching on vices, should not name specific persons: "do not aim at persons, but only at vices." Her prescriptions to writers on this score are particularly categorical: 1) never call weakness a vice; 2) to preserve humanity in all cases; 3) not to think that it would be possible to find perfect people, and in order to ask God to give us the spirit of meekness and condescension.
Her next regulation of the merits of a writer - the testament of the author of "Tales and Fables" - is sustained in the same polemical spirit: "do not think for a long time and not much", "do not chase after the mind, do not chase after embellishments", "funny is best, smiling is preferable to deplorable actions ". In an effort to give satire a didactic and humorous character, Catherine II relied in her statements on the judgments of Style and Addison from the English magazine The Spectateur. Borrowed from The Spectateur by Sundry Stuff, "I Have Two Kinds of Readers," the very idea of changing social reality was denounced and moralizing with entertainment was preached as a means of attracting more readers.
As for the program of journalistic activities, justified by N. Novikov, Catherine II explained it with pride, which "is the beginning of an obscene act, bad poetry, ornate writing." According to her, this is a terrible disease (“The patient will take it into his head to build castles in the air, all people do not do this, and the government itself, no matter how diligently it tries, pleases nothing”).
Journalism of the last quarter of the 18th century. During the period of public upsurge, which contributed to the flourishing of the satirical press, which ended with the peasant movement led by E. Pugachev, Catherine II countered direct and open judgments of N. Novikov and his associates with advice and instructions. After the suppression of the uprising and following the events of the French Revolution of 1789, the empress takes repressive measures against dissidents. Novikov was declared a "state criminal" and imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress in 1792.
However, democratic journalism has not lost achievements in the field of theory. D. Fonvizin calls the writers guardians of the “common good” and sees their duty in “raising their loud voice against abuses and prejudices that harm the fatherland.” Answering in his magazine, which did not see the light, “Friend of Honest People, or Starodum” to the question “why do we have so few speakers?”, D. Fonvizin establishes a connection between art and political life, the conditions of modern reality: “Demosthenes and Cicero in that a land where the gift of eloquence in mere laudatory words is limited, there would be rhetoricians not better than Maxim Tiryanina". In his opinion, " true reason a small number of speakers is a disadvantage in cases in which the gift of eloquence might appear.
N. Karamzin contributed to the enrichment of ideas about printing in the last quarter of the 18th century. He began his journalistic work in one of the Novikov publications (“Children's Reading for the Heart and Mind”), when they substantiated the ideas of self-knowledge of the individual, influencing the reader's feelings. In an article titled "What Does an Author Need?" (1793) N. Karamzin answered the question as follows: "a kind, tender heart." He saw in the author a sensitive personality with a rich inner world, able to empathize with the reader. N. Karamzin sought to influence not only the mind, but also the feelings of readers in particular, and this, of course, contributed to the expansion of the readership, the involvement of less prepared, gravitating towards education circles.
This is evidenced by the program of the Moscow Journal compiled by him. Periodical N. Karamzin was oriented to a wide circle of readers both by the content (“I will try to make the content of the journal as varied and entertaining as possible”), and by the very presentation of the material (“to teach us, so to speak, inconspicuously, feeding our curiosity with a pleasant narrative”). In this magazine appeared his story " Poor Lisa", which struck the feelings of readers with the unfortunate fate of a peasant girl deceived by a nobleman; travel essays "Letters of a Russian traveler" - diary entries about a trip to European countries, about meetings with prominent writers, philosophers and ordinary peasants, artisans.
Associated with the name of N. Karamzin language reform 1790s The doctrine of the "three calms" became obsolete in connection with new trends in public life and literature. Recognizing the variability and development of the norms of the literary language, N. Karamzin comes up with the idea of a general literary norm that would meet the requirements of good taste and social needs. He draws attention to the purity of the style, condemns such phrases as "as a result of which, in order", noting that "this is too ordered", takes care of the simplicity, accessibility of the printed word to various layers of readers.
At this time, interest in the language of the press intensifies. A. Radishchev in a letter to A. Vorontsov in October 1798 defined the requirements for the language of periodicals as follows: “Among all time sheets, whether French or in German that I have come across in the last ten years, there is not one that is written in a style as concise, as strong and consistent with the subject, as a sheet of the London Mercury.
The traditional approach to the purpose of the press - serving the benefit and amusement of the reader - did not satisfy A. Radishchev for the reason that the idea of "common benefit", officially implanted in the era of absolutism, masked social inequality. He also has no hopes for an enlightened monarch in the matter of correcting public mores. In one of the notes to the translation of Mably's "Reflections on Greek History" A. Radishchev stated: "Autocracy is the state most repugnant to human nature." The crushing of despotic power is possible when the unity of word and deed is achieved: "the verb of truth will crush it, the deed of courage will dispel it." He refracted in a peculiar way the ideas of "social contract" and "natural law", which became widespread in the works of European enlighteners. According to A. Radishchev, the people can and must win and defend their rights by force: “Much has been written about the law of peoples ... Examples of all times show that law without force was always honored as an empty word in execution.” A. Radishchev expressed these thoughts in the book “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”, for which he was declared by Catherine II “a rebel worse than Pugachev” and exiled to Siberia.
Last quarter of the 18th century - a period of intensive search for new ideas and forms in Russian journalism. New types of magazines appeared: theatrical - "Russian Featr" (1786), literary-critical - "Moscow Journal" (1791-1792), historical - "Russian Store" (1792-1794). There are new types of weeklies: critical and bibliographic - "St. Petersburg Scientific Gazette" (1777), medical - "St. Petersburg Medical Gazette" (1792-1794). Such a variety of periodicals as an almanac is being formed:
literary - "Aglaya" (1794), musical - "A pocket book for music lovers for 1775". For the first time, a private local history journal was published in the province - "Solitary Poshekhonets" (1786, Yaroslavl). The orientation of publications towards a certain contingent of readers is more clearly manifested: for women - "Fashionable Monthly Publication, or Library for the Ladies' Toilet" (1779), for children - "Children's Reading for the Heart and Mind" (1785-1789). The attention of the periodical press to literature, art, history, and philosophy is growing. A magazine and a newspaper more clearly define their specificity in content, design, and genres. Democratic-minded journalists actively use analytical genres, and above all articles, conversations, treatises, to spread their political and philosophical ideas.
Review questions
1. The importance of the Petrine newspaper Vedomosti for Russian journalism. What was the nature of the information in Vedomosti?
2. Literary activity of G. F. Miller.
3. The role of M. V. Lomonosov in the development of Russian journalism in the 18th century. Analysis of Lomonosov's article "Reasoning about the duties of journalists ..." (main ideas, moral requirements for a journalist).
4. Name the most significant satirical magazines in the 1750s - 1770s. Activities of N. I. Novikov, D. I. Fonvizin and I. A. Krylov. What is the difference in views on the satire of Novikov and Catherine II?
5. List the main genres of academic satirical publications of the 18th century.
6. What moral qualities, according to N. A. Radishchev, should citizens of Russia have?
7. What are the trends that prevailed in domestic journalism V late XVIII V.
