Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below
Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.
Similar Documents
The main problems of studying the history of Russian literature of the twentieth century. Literature of the 20th century as returned literature. The problem of social realism. Literature of the first years of October. The main trends in romantic poetry. Schools and generations. Komsomol poets.
course of lectures, added 09/06/2008
The state of Russian criticism of the 19th century: directions, place in Russian literature; major critics, journals. S.P. value Shevyreva as a critique for journalism of the 19th century during the transition of Russian aesthetics from romanticism of the 1920s to critical realism 40s.
test, added 09/26/2012
The study of childhood, years of study at the gymnasium and relationships in the family of Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov. Descriptions of it hard way into literature. Petersburg ordeals. The influence of childhood and youth on poetry. Poetic testament. The best poems.
presentation, added 12/04/2013
Russian Literature of the Second Half of the Twentieth Century and the Place of "Other Prose" in It. The originality of the works of Viktor Astafiev. Reflection of the social and spiritual degradation of the individual in the works of S. Kaledin. Literary searches of Leonid Gabyshev.
term paper, added 02/14/2012
The growth of the flow of immigration of the intelligentsia. State pressure on literature, free thought. August 2020 cultural pogrom. Fight against counter-revolutionary elements. The emergence of "proletarian" magazines. Ideology public organization Proletcult.
presentation, added 06/19/2014
concept Mass culture, its origin. Commercialization of writing. The Glossy Writer Phenomenon. Genres of mass literature. Faces of mass literature of the USA. Russian literature. Aspects of mass literature in Russia in the 19th century.
abstract, added 06/11/2008
The origin and development of the "superfluous person" theme in Russian literature in the 18th century. The image of the "superfluous person" in the novel by M.Yu. Lermontov "A Hero of Our Time". The problem of the relationship between the individual and society. The appearance of the first national tragedies and comedies.
100 r first order bonus
Select the type of work Course work Abstract Master's thesis Report on practice Article Report Review Test work Monograph Problem solving Business plan Answers to questions Creative work Essay Drawing Compositions Translation Presentations Typing Other Increasing the uniqueness of the text Candidate's thesis Laboratory work Help online
Ask for a price
Most ancient form A. D., (abbreviated as English-language dramaturgy) associated with pagan people. games, - dialogues between two singers (or female with Kim and male semi-choirs) in Nar. ballads (recordings date back to later times).
A turning point in the development of the English drama as art. forms was the appeal (under the influence of Italian humanists) to ancient samples and the emergence of the so-called. correct drama, the next classic. rules. From Ser. 16th century the first “correct” comedies appear - “Ralph Royster Doyster” (c. 1551) by N. Yudalla
The highest flowering of A. d. the Renaissance reaches after 1588, during the period of strengthening the position of the bourgeoisie and the new nobility, in an environment of nat. upsurge caused by the struggle against Spain. At this time, a galaxy of playwrights appears in London, creating bright patterns poetic dramas (Kid, Green, Shakespeare) Main white verse becomes the form of the literary language of a.d., introduced for the first time by Marlo and Kid and replacing the rhymed verse that dominated the drama of the Middle Ages. Prod. of this period are imbued with the ideas of humanism, assert human rights to enjoy all the blessings of life (Marlo), deny feud. - estate restrictions, emphasize the heroism and dignity of people from the people (Green).
After the completion of the creative activity of Shakespeare (1613), the decline of Renaissance art began. The reason for this was the aristocratization of the theater, its deepening gap with the bunks. spectator.
Late 18th century marked the emergence of a new genre of tragedy "nightmares and horrors", akin to the romantic genre of the Gothic novel. The creator of the genre H. Walpole had numerous. imitators who cultivated this type of play in the beginning. 19
Critical approval. realism in English literature, the emergence of socio-critical. novels by Ch. Dickens and W. Thackeray who denounced the vices of the bourgeoisie. society, was not reflected in the AD, the repertoire of theaters was dominated by production. epigones of romanticism - S. Knowles, S. Phillips, and others. The establishment of realism in AD was hindered by government censorship and the hypocrisy of the bourgeoisie, which blocked the access of life's truth to the stage.
Truly realistic. and socio-critical. the character of A. d. acquired in creativity B. Shaw, performing in the 1890s. with their " unpleasant plays"- "Widower's House" (1892), "Mrs. Warren's Profession" (1893, "Stage Society" - 1902).
IN "Unpleasant plays "We have in front of us outwardly quite decent respectable English bourgeois, who have significant capital and lead a calm, orderly life. But this calmness is deceptive. It conceals such phenomena as exploitation, like dirty, dishonest enrichment of the bourgeois at the expense of the poverty and misfortunes of the common people. Before our eyes Readers and viewers of Shaw's plays go through pictures of the injustice, cruelty and meanness of the bourgeois world.It is characteristic that Shaw's plays begin with traditional pictures of the everyday life of a bourgeois family.The second cycle of Bernard Shaw's plays was "Pleasant Plays" These included: "War and Man", "Candida", "The Chosen One of Fate", "Never You Can Tell". In "Pleasant Pieces" Shaw changes the methods of satirical denunciation. In these plays, Shaw aims to throw off those romantic veils that hide cruel truth reality. He calls on people to take a sober and bold look at life and free themselves from the sticky web of prejudices, obsolete traditions, delusions and empty illusions. In the very name - "Pleasant plays" - quite frank irony sounds. In the period from 1897 - 1899. created "Plays for the Puritans" - "The Devil's Disciple", "Caesar and Cleopatra", "Appeal of Captain Brassbound".
How authentic innovator Shaw acted in the field of drama. He approved in English theater new type drama intellectual drama, in which the main place belongs not to the intrigue, not to the exciting plot, but to those tense disputes, witty verbal fights that its characters wage. Shaw called his plays discussion plays.
Other playwrights, trying to show social conditions in their plays, approached naturalism. The well-known novelist J. Galsworthy, who created significant social dramas such as The Silver Box (1909), The Struggle (1909), The Mob (1914), The Stranglehold (1920), and others, contributed to realism in academia.
Creativity was of great importance in the period between the 1st and 2nd World Wars. J.B. Priestley. Representative of a radical petty-bourgeois. intelligentsia, Priestley reflected conflicting tendencies in his plays. Social and ethical bourgeois criticism. society (“A Dangerous Turn”, 1932, “Time and the Conway Family”, 1937, “They Came to the City”, 1943, “The Linden Family”, 1947, etc.) is combined in his work with decadent and mystical. motives ("Music at night", 1938, "Johnson over Jordan", 1939
In 1932, Priestley wrote and staged the play "Dangerous bend" The local conflict of the play "Dangerous Turn" is clearly expressed and fairly straightforward - it is a conflict of truth and lies. The characters form two opposing camps: on the one hand, Robert Kaplan, a "stubborn truth-seeker", a seeker of truth, on the other hand, his relatives and friends - Robert's wife Fred, the Whitehouse spouses, as well as Stanton and Olwen, who believe that without lies and hypocrisy, human existence will become simply unbearable. Maud Mockridge occupies a special position - she acts as a spectator of everything that happens and does not openly express her position on the issue under discussion. The plot of the action becomes a "dangerous turn", when those present from the conversation between Freda and Olwen learn that both of them are hiding some kind of secret. The emergence of a conflict may be due to Robert's decision to reveal this secret - if he had come to terms with the current situation, the action would have developed differently.
In 1937 he graduated philosophical drama "Time and the Conway family". In none of these plays is there a trace of that optimism which determines the general intonation of the novels. Priestley the playwright refers to the image of the intelligentsia and the upper layers of the so-called middle class or "people of society". It shows the moral collapse experienced by these people, their deep emptiness. Refusing any conclusions, and even more so any instructive tendency, the playwright seeks refuge in imaginary objectivity. At the same time, in all his plays of these years, one feels confusion: neither his characters nor he himself can answer the question that arises before them - how to live. Priestley tries to create a theory new drama, opposing it to the traditional "well-made play" or salon-entertaining play. His drama should be active, devoid of any didactic conclusions imposed on the viewer beforehand. Time and the Conway Family” is complicated by a tangible philosophical overtones. The confusion of the author in front of the steady course of time, acting as a terrible monster devouring a person, is noticeable. In the second act, Priestley shows the collapse of the illusions and hopes of several young people, whose images are outlined in the first. The third act develops the first, is its direct continuation. But the viewer already knows where what is happening on the stage will lead to in the future. Through time shifting, Priestley lets the viewer know what's to come. actors- dramas in 20 years, what the future conceals from them - how their bright, but illusory hopes will inevitably collapse. Each piece of the life of this or that person, Priestley wants to say, acquires meaning only if one understands the direct connection of the future with the present, the fragility of the lines between “today” and “tomorrow”. The history of human existence is perceived by the author not as a complex process subordinated to general laws development, but as a predetermined value. The characters act as voiceless puppets in the hands of omnipotent necessity, they are completely helpless before the fate that awaits each of them.
SEAN O'CASEY(1880-1964) Defending the ideologically rich drama of B. Shaw, he opposes supporters of entertaining plays, he fights for the theater of high passions and big ideas all his life. The stages of the national liberation struggle of Ireland form the background of three plays of the so-called "Dublin cycle": "Shadow of the Gunslinger" (1923), "Juno and the Peacock" (1924) and "The Plow and the Stars" (1926).
In them, O "Casey spoke about the real Ireland - the Ireland of the Dublin slums, a bleeding country. The viewer saw life's clashes, the occurrence of which was caused by social storms. The carriers of the positive beginning in his early plays were not the participants in the battles, but the victims of the struggle, mainly women: young girls and mothers crushed by worries and grief.
The playwright's ability to reveal the bright humanistic principle in ordinary working people was deeply innovative. Time of the tragedy "The Shadow of the Arrow»-1920 year. The national liberation uprising was brutally suppressed. The English are atrocious. They are not far behind the detachments of the Irish Auxiliary Police, formed by reactionaries and nicknamed because of confusion. military uniform khaki with black police "black and piebald". Looting and reprisals against the civilian population cause hatred and fear.
The Irish are guerrilla fighting terrorists. “The slums of Dublin are at war with the British Empire. All the might of the army, flanked by gangs of ruthless hooligans, all the forces of the government of the crown, all the monetary power of the banks, took up arms against the ragged girls from tenement houses. The fight is unequal, but the slums will win!” - wrote O "Casey.
O "Casey managed, following B. Shaw and D. M. Sing (1), to reveal the dangerous tendency of the Irish people to a romantic perception of life. O" Casey was able not only to ridicule this dangerous property of the national character of the Irish, but also present it in a tragic aspect. The playwright urged to get rid of romantic illusions, not to die a meaningless death, taught to prepare for a conscious struggle for a better life. At the heart of the play "Plow and Stars" lies the uprising of 1916. The duration of the first two acts is the eve of the uprising, the period of preparation of the civil army for action. The third and fourth acts are the days of the famous Dublin uprising. The name "Plow and Stars" is associated with the emblem depicted on the flag of the civilian army. “On heavy poplin, on a deep blue background, a symbolic pattern stretched in full length and width - a plow, uplifting golden-brown, reddish layers of earth, and above all this a magnificent abundance of stars sparkled, flooding the northern sky with light.”
O "Casey was a member of the uprising. Together with ordinary people Ireland, he took his defeat hard. But he could not fail to see the weak preparations for the uprising, its prematureness, the isolation of its leaders from the people. The tragic sound of the play is connected with this.
In the first place in the play is the tragedy of a woman who lost her husband during the days of the struggle. Before us is the clash of two opposite human natures: Jack and Nora Cliterow, which is the central conflict of the play.
Nora Cliterow loves her husband dearly. She has no other interests, except for the interests of a small family, except for thoughts about the future of the child, how to decorate and furnish the apartment, dress smartly. She seeks to isolate herself from the outside world and does everything possible to prevent her husband from participating in the political life of the country.
But the rhythm of another life, full of struggle and danger, persistently invades a quiet family corner; the homeland calls its sons under the banner of struggle, and Jack Cliterow goes to the camp of the defenders of the independence of Ireland. The fear of losing a loved one drives Nora crazy.
Bricklayer Jack Cliterow is the first and only hero of the tragedies of O'Casey's "Dublin cycle" who takes a direct part in the national struggle and dies in open battle.
The playwright was able to show the process of formation of the character of his hero. At the beginning of events, Clitheroe is a man like everyone else. He has no mature political convictions, he is vain. But here we are listening to Brannon's story and we understand that Jack's ostentatious heroism has grown into a genuine one, that he managed to find his place among the fighters for the bright future of his homeland.
Talking about the personal tragedy of the Clitheroes, the author reveals a topic of great importance - the defeat of the 1916 uprising. Introducing many characters into the play, the playwright sought to give a more complete picture of the life of Dublin on the eve and during the uprising.
Influence of Russian literature
CASEY. Throughout his life, O "Casey considered Russian literature, the work of Chekhov, Tolstoy, Gorky, to be a great school of realism, high artistic skill. Here is his assessment of A. Chekhov's work: “What is the meaning of Chekhov's work for me? a great writer, a great playwright, a great person... A poet, like Whitman, a playwright, like Shakespeare, a great person, like all of them, he seemed to combine everyone in himself. But Chekhov is even more, he is a friend.”
No less deeply O "Casey knew and appreciated the work of L. Tolstoy: "Tolstoy had an extremely deep and courageous mind and a broad outlook ... His powerful intellect was complex and multifaceted. All of Tolstoy's thinking was stamped with poetic spirituality. Such minds combined with a poetic worldview are so rare, their significance for humanity is so great that they are not allowed to die. "O" Casey always drew a lot of thoughts from the treasury of Russian literature: "In my youth I recognized Tolstoy; a little later I heard about Turgenev, but I had no idea about Gorky ... Now Gorky is my comrade ”
In Priestley's plays, the influence of Chekhov's dramaturgy is tangible. In accordance with Chekhov's tradition Priestley strives to convey the drama of everyday life, to achieve a free development of events, to show life with all its halftones, to reveal the characters of not only central, but also secondary characters. Based on tradition Chekhov's drama Priestley also develops his own original techniques, which are associated primarily with special attention to the category of time. In the second act of the drama Conway Time and the Family, Priestley moves the action into the future, trying to imagine what his characters could become, and in the third act returns them again to the time of the first act.
Throughout the history of the United States, European ideas have nourished the spiritual life of the country, receiving a kind of refraction and being enriched by American cultural experience. From the 1830s to the 1920s, America was influenced by Coleridge and Carlyle, Fourier and Owen, Germaine de Stael and Hippolyte Taine, Darwin and Spencer, Tolstoy and Nietzsche, Marx and Dostoyevsky.
A powerful factor influencing American philosophical thought and artistic culture early 20th century was Russian literature. The idols of the Americans were Tolstoy, Turgenev, Dostoevsky, and a little later - Gorky and Chekhov. They were read and promoted, admired the psychological subtlety of the images they created, the depth of the image Russian life, learned from them artistic skill.
The wide popularity of Russian literature in America was no accident. Literature of the USA and Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. were at different stages of development. After a protracted - in comparison with Europe - period of romanticism in American literature at the end of the 19th century. a new artistic method was just beginning to enter widely, the highest point of which was the work of Mark Twain and Henry James. The golden age of Russian realistic literature, opened by the work of Pushkin and Gogol, was nearing its end, the Silver Age was already on the threshold. richest artistic heritage Tolstoy, Turgenev, Dostoevsky was actively mastered by America as it became available in translations.
The rebellion against conventions and various kinds of aesthetic restrictions, the desire to update the literary language, the development of a new artistic method predetermined the unusually great interest of Americans in Russian literature. Mastering the pragmatism of William James and John Dewey, turn-of-the-century Americans felt the need for social and intellectual renewal and were ready to accept and appreciate new ideas and artistic principles. The sentiment that gripped many writers of the time was expressed by Theodore Dreiser in the article "Changes" (1916): "Do not blindly adhere to any religious doctrine or system of state government, moral theory or philosophy of life, but be ready to discard traditional teachings and find freedom and wanting to accept completely new rules is the ideal state of mind." In the same year, a young, then still unknown, Dos Passos remarked: "We turn to Russian literature, because American literature keeps us on a starvation diet" 2 . Too harsh words of the writer reflect a certain state of mind - dissatisfaction with the state of national literature, a sense of a pause in its development, perhaps even decline.
That was the time when a real cult of Russia arose in America. The atmosphere of that time was determined by Henry May: “Wherever you look, everywhere you can see the fruits of the Slavic genius - both new ones and those that have only now become popular. Literary and art criticism was full of Russian names, such as Diaghilev, Nijinsky, Stravinsky, Chekhov, Dostoevsky. Further, the critic quotes from the influential magazine "Literary Digest" for 1913: "Priority in the world of art and literature has now passed to Russia" (2; p. 243).
The circumstance that the works of Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, and later Gorky and Chekhov were widely translated and printed both in England and in the USA was of great importance for the acquaintance of Americans with Russian literature. The main translator was the Englishwoman Constance Garnet, who accomplished a real feat - the translation of the collected works of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky into English language 3 . In America, Tolstoy's works were translated by Louise Maud, Alina Delano, and Elizabeth Hapgood. The latter translated Tolstoy's treatise "On Life", his autobiographical trilogy and "Sevastopol Tales", as well as "Anna Karenina" and "War and Peace" (together with Nathan Dole), the last two being from French translation. Louise Mood translated "Resurrection".
The activities of publishing houses contributed to the spread of Russian literature in America. So, in 1915. Alfred Knopf announced the start of the "Russian Project". Deciding to specialize in the production of Russian literature, the publisher explained it simply: "Russian literature, like German music, is the best in the world" (2; p. 291). These words, we note, belong to Yale University professor William Phelps, who prefaced them with a book of essays on Russian writers 4 .
It is important, however, to note that publishing houses did not always dare to print the works of Russian writers without cuts. Thus, Tolstoy's religious treatise "The Kingdom of God is within you" and the novel "Resurrection" were cut. Even such a faithful follower of Tolstoy as Ernest Crosby, who did a lot to popularize him in America, believed that the novel should be shortened a bit, so that "questions of gender in the narrative part were revealed less frankly" 5 .
An important factor in the interaction and mutual influence of Russian and American literature was personal contacts. Drawn by an interest in a country that was undergoing powerful political ferment and revolutionary change, as well as by love and respect for its culture—especially literature—American writers and journalists strove to visit Russia, become eyewitnesses of the events taking place there, meet writers whose authority in America was very high. Among the Americans who visited Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, one can name, in particular, the writers Henry Adams and his brother Brooks Adams. They were mainly interested in the political situation in the country. From their trips they got the impression that the country was on the verge of gigantic upheavals, but they refrained from predicting its future. In an article published in December 1900 in the Atlantic Monthly magazine, Brooks Adams wrote: "What the socialist revolution will bring to Russia is impossible to even imagine. But, most likely, the whole world will feel its consequences" 6 .
Journalists of various political orientations also visited Russia - Albert Rhys Williams, James Creelman, Andrew White, Stephen Bonsl, Leroy Scott, Ernest Crosby, William Walling, John Reed. The articles and books that they wrote upon their return to America shaped their compatriots' perceptions of Russia, social movements, the balance of socio-political forces and, last but not least, its spiritual culture.
The reverse process also took place: Russian writers came to America, got acquainted with the literary life of the United States, and their direct impressions were reflected in travel notes and stories, becoming the historical background of their works. But there are few such examples, the most famous of them is Gorky's trip to the United States, which stirred up public opinion.
Pyotr Kropotkin's lectures on Russian literature, delivered by him in Boston in 1901, must have had a definite, though limited, effect on Americans compared to the influence and spread that his socio-political views had in the United States. In the preface to publication of these lectures, he expressed a very subtle understanding of the literary situation in America and the importance for her of acquaintance with Russian literature: “She has a sincerity and simplicity of expression, which makes her attractive to anyone who is disgusted with artificiality in literature. introduces into the realm of art—poetry, prose, drama—almost all the social and political questions that in Western Europe and America are discussed mainly in journalism and very rarely in literature.
Turgenev became the first Russian writer to receive national recognition in the United States and "open Russia to American readers and writers" (3, p. 123). His influence relates primarily to the literary life of the United States in the second half of the 19th century, but it persisted later. Interest in his work was of great importance for the development of Russian-American literary and cultural ties. It is known that Turgenev read Hamlin Garland and Stephen Crane, Frank Norris and Sherwood Anderson, not to mention Henry James, for whom throughout his career the works of the Russian master remained a model of artistic excellence. Following the "Hunter's Notes", American writers also discovered novels - "Rudin", "Fathers and Sons", "Nov", "Smoke", " Noble Nest".
Sherwood Anderson, who constantly read and re-read Turgenev, Dostoevsky, Gorky, Chekhov, wrote about the deep influence of Russian literature on him, and Turgenev in particular. His first acquaintance with Russian literature took place, according to the writer himself, around 1911, when he read The Hunter's Notes: "I remember how my hands trembled when I read this book. I read it avidly" 8. In a letter to Roger Sergel, he noted something in common that is characteristic of the Russian writers he loved: in Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, he found "a reverent attitude to human life, the absence of this eternal didacticism and self-confidence, so characteristic of most Western writers" (8; p .118).
An interesting piece of evidence of Turgenev's unfading importance to the American reader is an article by John Reid, published in 1919 as a preface to the American edition of Smoke. The penetrating eye of the critic notes the graceful form and laconism of style, bright national features, but, most importantly, the acute social problems of the book.
Giving a general description of Turgenev's work, John Reed credits him primarily with the propaganda orientation of his works. Reid quotes the writer as saying that he swore to defeat his "enemy"— serfdom. The theme of the liberation of the peasants, Reed notes, permeates almost all of Turgenev's work, and this consistent and firm position had a tangible public resonance. The "Hunter's Notes", according to the critic, awakened public opinion and caused numerous protests against serfdom. He repeats a phrase he heard somewhere: "Notes of a hunter" is the Russian "Uncle Tom's Cabin". Turgenev's strength, Reid believes, is that he was able to write about political problems without didacticism, creating truthful pictures of people's life and giving the reader the opportunity to draw their own conclusions. The main interest for the critic was the image of Russian society - and not only the 60s of the XIX century, "but the whole era up to 1917." 9: Turgenev showed the weakness and lack of will of the Russian intelligentsia (in "Rudin" and "Smoke"), which was carried away by Western liberal ideas, but was unable to accept the revolution and recoiled from it when it happened. According to Reed, Turgenev belonged to "a galaxy of great Russian novelists who followed Gogol." His books constituted "a true chronicle of an era that has irrevocably passed into the past" (9; pp. 145, 146).
Assessing the role of Turgenev in American and English literature at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, MP Alekseev noticed that those writers who tried to find a way out of the contradictions of their time were looking for support in him; he woke them up critical thought; they learned from Turgenev an intense interest in the truth of life, love for a person, hatred for cruelty, hypocrisy and self-interest" 10.
Indeed, Turgenev, as a master of psychological writing, who knew how to convey the state of mind of the heroes with accurate, mean strokes, an artist who subtly felt the peculiarities of the Russian character, became for American writers the undisputed authority from whom they learned the art of writing.
At the beginning of the 20th century, however, Turgenev's influence waned somewhat: Americans discovered Tolstoy. There was even a kind of "cult of Tolstoy", the spread of which was greatly facilitated by William Dean Howells. The assessments made by him in the 80s of the 19th century do not undergo significant changes over time, but are confirmed and developed in articles written at the turn of the century: Tolstoy's Philosophy (1897) and Leo Tolstoy (1908). After the death of the writer, the latter was reprinted under the title "What are the reasons for the fame of Tolstoy."
Howells highlights the main feature of Tolstoy's prose - the combination of ethical and aesthetic, writes about the writer's ability to show the merciless truth of life, recognizes the enormous moral power of his preaching of love, tolerance, self-sacrifice. The critic closely connects the ideas of Tolstoy's philosophical and religious treatises with his artistic work, admires such features of Tolstoy's talent as sincerity, simplicity and artlessness, the depth of the artistic study of characters. It is these qualities of Tolstoy that many American writers of the 20th century, following Howells, will note, and see his highest merit in a deep comprehension of life and humanistic pathos. According to Hamlin Garland, another passionate admirer of Tolstoy's talent, it was Howells who did more than any other American to interpret the work of the Russian writer: "He always saw the moralist as an artist" (5, p. 162).
Tolstoy's popularity in America, albeit in very different ways, was promoted by the brothers William and Henry James. G. James's attitude to Tolstoy was formed in the last decades of the 19th century, however, it was most clearly expressed in articles and letters of 1907-1910. He did not share the creative principles of Tolstoy and his artistic method, remaining to the end of his days an adherent of Turgenev, but at the same time he recognized the enormous scale of his talent. Although G. James warned young "authors against following Tolstoy, his recommendations apparently had the opposite effect. Tolstoy's influence on the strength of the impact on the souls of Americans can be likened to the elements. The venerable American writer could not resist him.
Unlike Henry James, the writer's brother, philosopher, psychologist and one of the founders of pragmatism, William James paid tribute to the mighty figure of Tolstoy. He wrote about it in The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902), which had an undoubted influence on the literary process in the United States. William James quotes Tolstoy's treatise "Confession", in which he found confirmation of his thoughts regarding the possibility of overcoming a painful split personality. He speaks of a phenomenon that is by no means peculiar only to Americans - the struggle of two principles: base and sublime, ideal and material, sinful and righteous: "The soul of a person is an arena of struggle between two warring principles - man himself recognizes them as natural and ideal"; "we have two lives - natural and spiritual; losing one, we gain another" 11 .
William James seems to echo the words of Tolstoy, who characterized Nekhlyudov at the beginning of the novel Resurrection as follows: “In Nekhlyudov, as in all people, there were two people. One is a spiritual person who seeks only good for himself that would be good for other people, and the other is an animal person who seeks good only for himself and is ready to sacrifice the good of the whole world for this good. In this period<...>this animal man dominated him and completely crushed the spiritual man.
For William James, it is extremely important that Tolstoy managed to overcome despair and disbelief in the meaningfulness of life - a kind of ontological skepticism, which, in his opinion, is evidenced by "Confession". Tolstoy's book served the philosopher to substantiate the position of inner harmony, which can be achieved through gradual (lysis), and not sharp (crisis). It is noteworthy that James turned to Russian literature for positive examples.
In the eighth chapter, entitled "Split Personality and the Way to Wholeness," William James wrote about Tolstoy's spiritual crisis and overcoming it with the help of religion, which brought the writer back to life from the abyss of despair. Among the targets of Tolstoy's social criticism, James names "the vulgarity of the world, the cruel imperial policy, the lies of the church, human vanity, the criminality of state institutions" (11; p. 175). He expressed his admiration for the talent of the great Russian writer metaphorically: "The mighty nature of Tolstoy can be compared with an old oak<...>He rejects luxury, falsehood, greed and cruelty, all the conventions of our civilization, and Eternal values sees in things more natural and alive<...>Few can follow his example, for we do not have such natural power. But at least we think that it would be nice to follow in the footsteps of Tolstoy" (11; p. 173).
Henry James with his brother William in Cambridge. Photo. 1905
Tolstoy's influence on American writers of the early 20th century. was deep and multifaceted. Sherwood Anderson, Upton Sinclair, Theodore Dreiser were undoubtedly influenced by his work. Sherwood Anderson studied artistic skill with Tolstoy, which was reflected in his work later, in the late 10s and early 20s of the 20th century. Upton Sinclair, who gained fame at the beginning of the century as the author of the sharply social novels The Jungle (1906), The Capital (1908), The Money Changers (1908), saw in Tolstoy primarily a "socialist writer", a rebel against social injustice, protector of the disadvantaged. He especially singled out Tolstoy's journalism and the novel "Resurrection", about which he spoke highly: "This book<...>more than any other work, did for the destruction of tsarism "(3, p. 213). Sinclair called Tolstoy the greatest writer in the world, personifying Russian genius and moral strength. Upton Sinclair expressed his admiration for Tolstoy directly, sending him a copy of the just published the novel "The Jungle" Traces of Tolstoy's reading of the book are visible in his article "On the Significance of the Russian Revolution", on which the writer was working at that time (3, p. 161).
The impact of Tolstoy's work on the artistic world of Dreiser can be judged both directly, based on his own confessions, and indirectly, by comparing the worldview of the two writers, the problems and poetics of their works. Dreiser turned to Tolstoy's experience throughout his entire creative life, mentioned it in works of art, journalism, and letters. The first works of Tolstoy, which he happened to read while still a student, were the stories "Kreutzer Sonata" and "The Death of Ivan Ilyich", as well as some of Tolstoy's treatises. In Dreiser's early work, Tolstoy's influence is invisibly present in some refracted form: Tolstoy's demand for simplicity and merciless truthfulness in art, expressed in the treatise What is Art, should have impressed the American writer.
The formation of Dreiser during the years of his student youth was influenced by such various writers and philosophers like Tolstoy, Spencer, Darwin, Huxley, Emerson, and later, already in 1908, Nietzsche. "I will never forget the chapter on the unknowable from Spencer's Fundamentals," he wrote in his autobiographical book, "At Dawn" (Dawn). "It completely amazed me." And here is another confession, very important for understanding Dreiser's worldview. He responded in the following way to the publication of the book "Nietzsche's Philosophy" (1908) in a letter to H. Mencken: "If what you write in the preface conveys the meaning of Nietzsche's philosophy, then I can consider myself his like-minded person (he and myself are hale fellows well met)" 1 4 . In another letter to Mencken (in 1916), he admitted that Hardy, Tolstoy and Balzac had the greatest influence on him (however, he spoke very carefully about the concept of "influence" as applied to himself). "After 1906 or so, I became acquainted with Turgenev, Dostoevsky, Maupassant, Flaubert, Strindberg and Hauptmann, but I cannot say that they influenced me, since I learned them too late" (14; v. 1, p. 215 ). "Anna Karenina" by Tolstoy, along with the novels "Madam Bovary" by Flaubert and "Fathers and Sons" by Turgenev, as well as the story by Balzac "Father Goriot", he called one of greatest works world literature (13; p. 186).
In 1893, Dreiser read Tolstoy's treatise "So what shall we do?" 15, which by that time had already been translated into English. Then he became acquainted with the religious and philosophical teachings of Tolstoy. Almost forty years later, the writer recalled how, together with a college friend, he discussed Tolstoy's theories. He doubted that they could be realized: “After all, it is well known what human nature is and how deep into our consciousness Darwin's thesis about the survival of the fittest has penetrated.<...>Tolstoy in his treatise preaches a return to a simple life and work, which would provide a person with only the bare necessities. He calls not to return evil for evil - this is the ancient doctrine of non-resistance. But how to make people accept Tolstoy's postulate and make them act contrary to their wishes? It is clear that this question is very complex both from the psychological and biological points of view. Neither he nor I could solve this problem" (15; p. 362).
Dreiser was generally hostile to writers, whom he called "moralists" and "preachers" (religionists) (15; p. 543). It is not surprising that this side of Tolstoy's work did not find a response in his soul. Unlike Howells, he did not always "see the artist in the moralist." He appreciated Tolstoy, first of all, as an artist, and not the creator of a religious and philosophical doctrine - their views were too different. He himself testifies to this as follows: “The most precious thing to me was then (in my student years — E. O.) Tolstoy the artist, the author of The Kreutzer Sonata and The Death of Ivan Ilyich”<...>I was shocked and delighted with the vitality of the pictures that were revealed to me in them” (5, p. 555).
Dreiser, by his own admission, sought to learn artistic skills from Balzac and Tolstoy. However, his worldview was based on other principles. At this time, he was strongly influenced by the ideas of social Darwinism, of which Tolstoy was a fierce opponent. In Dreiser's first novel, Sister Kerry (1900), in depicting the struggle for existence, in which the less worthy win, one feels the author's fascination with the doctrines of H. Spencer, but on the whole the book goes far beyond this teaching. It also clearly shows the features of naturalism, and the influence of Tolstoy is almost indistinguishable.
The German scholar Horst-Jurgen Gerick sees in this novel a "stylistic affinity" (Affinitat) to Tolstoy's artistic manner, 16 which is hard to agree with. Rather, one can speak of stylistic similarity to the manner of Dreiser's compatriot Jack London. It is no coincidence that some chapters of the novel resemble London's essays, as well as certain places from the book "People of the Abyss", which appeared three years after "Sister Kerry", but in this case it is hardly legitimate to talk about influence (and then about Dreiser's influence on London) Rather, we are talking about typological convergences here.
The moral pathos so characteristic of Tolstoy was alien to Dreiser, about which he spoke unequivocally in a letter to one of his correspondents in January 1919. Regarding Johan Boyer's novel The Great Famine, he wrote: “In my opinion, the novel should not be like religious treatise. Its idea should lie rather in the material than in the spiritual plane. In life, of course, both of these elements are present, but the artist pursues one goal - to show life in the "whole" ("in the round").<...>Boyer is a real artist, although he strives to embody a spiritual message (if, of course, one can call a writer with such a big flaw an artist).
He is similar to Tolstoy in that he seeks to teach<... >His book is like a sermon, and I don't like that. To see this weakness of hers, it suffices to compare it with Saltykov's novel The Golovlevs, Madame Bovary by Flaubert, Cousin Bethta, or Balzac's Father Goriot" (14; v. I, p. 258). By the way, Dreiser highly valued Saltykov-Shchedrin's book "Lord Golovlev" and called its author "the greatest writer of Russia, and perhaps the world" (14; v. Ill, p. 847).
Like Tolstoy, Dreiser strove for merciless truth, but his truthfulness has other aesthetic characteristics than Tolstoy's truthfulness. So, in "Sister Kerry" the inexorable process of personality degradation is shown - the gradual physical degradation of George Hurstwood, who in the life battle "all against all" turned out to be one of the least adapted and died in the abyss of the New York Bowery. Kerry Meiber adapts, but her success in life is accompanied by moral degradation.
A different picture appears before us in "Jenny Gerhardt" (1911). It is quite possible that the outline main character The novel was influenced by female images from Anna Karenina - Dolly Oblonskaya and Kitty Shcherbatskaya. These women, unlike Anna Karenina, are endowed with the gift of self-sacrifice and genuine, not selfish love. Jenny Gerhardt has something in common with these Tolstoyan heroines.
In 1901, Tolstoy, in an interview with the American journalist Andrew White, noted that the literature of the United States is "not on the crest, but in a deep valley between high waves 17. If he had had a chance to read Dreiser's novels, he might have softened his assessment.
The theme of art, which first appeared in Dreiser's work in "Sister Carrie" and developed in the novel "Genius" (1915), was partly suggested to the author by Tolstoy's article "What is Art" 18 . She obviously made an impression on Dreiser, although he did not share all of Tolstoy's aesthetic views. In "Sister Carrie" one can hear echoes of words about "the contagiousness of art 19 , which, according to Tolstoy, requires originality, clarity of meaning and sincerity. Dreiser endowed the last of these qualities to Carrie Meeber when she happened to play the only time in an amateur production of a melodrama Augustine Daly "In the light of gas lamps" "Simplicity and artlessness" 20, which so captured the audience - in the eyes of Dreiser, especially valuable qualities. But the writer did not make Kerry great actress, proceeding from her artistic task: to show two processes in parallel - the withering of her acting talent and moral degradation. No wonder her acting in vaudeville and operettas was not distinguished by either depth or originality, and her fame was artificially inflated.
Although Dreiser did not share many of Tolstoy's beliefs and was skeptical of his teachings on non-resistance to evil by violence, he considered it his duty to defend the writer when, in 1909, Theodore Roosevelt led an anti-Tolstoy campaign in the United States. Former american president published a scathing article in Outlook magazine, in which he called Tolstoy's views "stupid and fantastic", and called some aspects of his teachings (renunciation of property, denial of the state, philosophical anarchism, pacifism and the famous non-resistance to evil by violence) - dangerous and even "immoral" 21 . He took as "intervention" in the internal affairs of America the words of a Russian writer who condemned the discriminatory ethnic policy of the American government and the war with Spain.
These ideas were voiced with great force, in particular, in Tolstoy's article "To Politicians" (1903), where he called on Americans - quite in the spirit of Thoreau - to civil disobedience. “The little-known American writer Thoreau,” Tolstoy wrote in 1903, “in his treatise on why a person is obliged to disobey the government, tells how he refused to pay the American government 1 dollar of tax, explaining his refusal by the fact that he does not want his dollar to participate in the affairs of the government, allowing the slavery of Negroes.Isn’t it possible and should feel the same towards his government, not to mention a Russian person, but a citizen of the most advanced state of America with its actions in Cuba, the Philippines, its attitude towards Negroes, the expulsion of the Chinese. .." (19; vol. 35, pp. 208-209).
Theodore Roosevelt was not afraid for nothing. The method proposed by Thoreau and developed by Tolstoy became, as history has shown, one of the ways of expressing civil protest. Apparently, Theodore Dreiser also understood this, although in his younger years, as already noted, he doubted the effectiveness of Tolstoy's ethical teaching. Later, in Thoreau's Living Thoughts (1939), he praised Thoreau as a philosopher and "moral reformer". It can be assumed that his own views on the theory and practice of civil disobedience have undergone some change. Dreiser's defense of Tolstoy from the invectives of Theodore Roosevelt indicates that the contradictions in his assessments of Thoreau and Tolstoy are smoothed out. Two factors could play a certain role in this: Tolstoy's extreme popularity in America and Dreiser's deeper acquaintance with his work.
Attention is drawn to the roll call of voices and ideas in Russian and American literature: Tolstoy saw much in common with US writers in the first half of the 19th century, who were occupied with philosophical and social problems that also worried him; many of the thoughts of Thoreau and Emerson, Harrison and Parker resonated in his soul. They reinforced his own convictions, gave impetus to reflection and search. And vice versa, the thoughts of Tolstoy the philosopher and the humanistic philosophy expressed in his works of art and treatises, which combined individualism and community and taught people in their own life, requiring daily decisions and actions, invariably follow their convictions and build relationships on the basis of brotherly love, won him many admirers and followers in America.
Tolstoy's influence also affected American journalism. At the beginning of the century, many of those who came to Russia considered it their duty to visit Yasnaya Polyana and talk with the great writer, which testifies to Tolstoy's great authority in the United States. This interest was prepared both by the wide dissemination of Russian literature in America and by the development of the revolutionary movement in Russia.
In 1903 James Creelman, a correspondent for the New York newspaper The World, visited Tolstoy in Yasnaya Polyana. The interview he took, reprinted in many newspapers, evoked enthusiastic responses from Americans and was perceived as Tolstoy's appeal to the American people: the Russian writer urged Americans to return to the ideals embodied in the works of Thoreau, Emerson, Whittier, Harrison. Creelman, although he did not agree with much of Tolstoy's philosophy, considered him "the greatest of the most truthful people" (5, p. 434).
The well-known American journalist and active participant in the socialist movement William English Walling visited Russia in 1905-1907 as a correspondent for several American newspapers and magazines. His reports, published in the magazines In-Dependent, Outlook, Nation, Colliers Weekly, World Today, were included in the book Message to Russia. The World Significance of the Russian Revolution (1908). It went through several editions and was even translated into Russian and published in Berlin.
Walling's book is a valuable eyewitness account, a document that reflects the atmosphere of those turbulent years, the struggle of ideas, the confrontation of various political and social forces. American journalist met with statesmen, politicians, writers, talked with Tolstoy, Gorky, Korolenko, whom he visited during a trip to the Poltava province. He spoke respectfully of Tolstoy's social preaching, Gorky's rebellious spirit, spoke of Korolenko's political views, whom he called "Russia's best publicist."
The materials for the book were not only personal impressions and conversations. Walling addressed the Russians periodicals published abroad, such as Correspondent Russe or the Socialist-Revolutionary monthly Russian Tribune, published in Paris, used articles by American journalists Albert Edwards and Harold Williams in Colliers Weekly and Harpers Weekly, and many other sources. Based on rich historical material, Walling's book is written by a talented pen and includes descriptions of places and events in the genre of a travel diary, sketches of characters, vivid publicistic and emotionally colored appeals to the reader, philosophical reflections, excerpts from letters, official documents, periodicals.
For Walling, Russia in 1905-1907 is the only country in the world that is experiencing spiritual ferment, a country that is ahead of others not only in social thought and ideals, but also in many areas of cultural life. "Influenced ordeals and great suffering, the Russian people have become accustomed to a deeper and more intense spiritual life, and therefore his new word, his message to the world should deeply impress all countries "24. The time has come, Walling wrote in the preface, "to assess the significance of the first act of the great revolutionary drama. The second act has not yet begun, and its end is far ahead "(23; p. XII). These words echo Walling's conversation with Tolstoy. They have preserved for us one more evidence that the great Russian writer could penetrate into the innermost essence of events, predict the course of history.
The figure of Tolstoy occupies a special place in the book. The author considered him a successor to the revolutionary ideas of Rousseau. “Tolstoy is now the greatest opponent of capitalism in Russia and in the whole world,” Walling wrote, and his social program, although it seems impractical, is in fact “the greatest threat to the existence of tsarism” (23; p. 434). The writer valued Tolstoy as a defender of the oppressed peasantry, noted the revealing power of his journalism.
In a conversation with Tolstoy, whom Walling visited at Yasnaya Polyana on May 12, 1906 (shortly after the convocation of the First Duma), he admitted that he was going to live in Russia for several years to observe the course of the revolution. To this Tolstoy replied that he would have to live in Russia for fifty years. "The Russian Revolution is the greatest drama, which consists of several acts. This Duma is not even the first act, but only the first scene of the first act, and, as always happens with the first scenes, it is a little comical" (23; p. 7) . In the 1917 edition of the book, Walling developed the image found by Tolstoy: "The second act will undoubtedly be played at the end or shortly before the end of the present war with Germany and Austria" 25 . Walling's words proved to be prophetic.
During the meeting of the two writers, the discussion turned to the methods of social protest, the possibility and justification of violence. According to Walling, Tolstoy remarked that in this regard he "largely agrees with famous anarchists- Thoreau, Bakunin, Kropotkin, Proudhon and others "(23; p. 449). The American writer, obviously, understood the limitations of Tolstoy's position on this issue. However, he did not speak out, like Korolenko, against Tolstoy's doctrine of non-resistance to evil by violence, for he saw how much evil the reciprocal violence brings in the village where the real Civil War. On the other hand, he accurately assessed the historical futility of terrorism, individual acts of revenge, which were carried out by the "Combat Organization" of the Socialist-Revolutionaries.
Walling's book contains not only an analysis of the revolutionary situation in Russia, but also reflections on the development of philosophical thought in Europe and America. The rejection of the ideas of social Darwinism forced Walling to look for opposite phenomena in Russian culture and philosophy. And he found them in Tolstoy's teachings, 26 in which he was attracted by the preaching of spirituality and moral perfection, nonconformism and the rejection of violence. Under the influence of a conversation with a writer, he formulates his vision of ways social progress as follows: "We must stop opposing social progress to personal improvement, stop trying to uphold principles with the help of force. We must, together with him (Tolstoy. - E.O.), carry out non-resistance to evil in our actions!" (23; p. 449) At the same time, Walling emphasizes, Tolstoy understands nonviolence as active resistance to evil.
Largely due to his acquaintance with the work and personality of Tolstoy, Walling came to the conclusion about the leading role of Russia in the field of spiritual life. For him, "light from the East" (Lux Orientalis) came precisely from Russia. By the way, Walling's stay in Russia - together with his wife, Anna Strunskaya, and her sister, Roza Strunskaya - had other consequences for the expansion of literary contacts between the two countries. Anna Strunskaya presented Tolstoy with the second edition of the book "Letters of Love" (Letters of Kempton-Weiss), written by her together with Jack London in 1902. Roza Strunskaya translated into English excerpts from Tolstoy's diaries, as well as Gorky's book of religious quest "Confession" 27 .
Walling's views and his Russian impressions could not help but influence Jack London, who knew him closely through Anna Strunskaya. It was no coincidence that he chose Walling as the prototype of the hero from the unfinished novel The Murder Bureau (1911), the plot of which is indirectly connected with Russian events. The main conflict of the novel is the clash of two ideologies: the life philosophy of the head of the Murder Bureau, Ivan Dragomilov, and the socialist Winter Hall, a staunch opponent of terror, carried out by an "initiative personality." Hall was based on William Walling. This is evidenced not only by the portrait resemblance, but also by a number of characteristic details. London calls his hero a "millionaire socialist", namely these words were used in the American press in relation to Walling, the grandson of a prominent politician and heir to a large fortune.
Like Walling, Winter Hall is a brilliant journalist, author of many articles and books. He spent a year in Russia, where he witnessed the events of 1905, studied the tactics of the revolutionaries in the fight against the autocracy. He came to the conclusion that the time of the "rider on horseback" had passed. In an ideological dispute with Dragomilov, Hall wins. He proves to his opponent that the activities of the Murder Bureau are antisocial or, as he said, "socially inappropriate." (Interestingly, in a conversation with Walling, Boris Savinkov characterized the actions of Russian terrorists with similar words.) Having admitted defeat, Dragomilov accepts an order from Hall to destroy himself. As a result, having eliminated all members of the organization, he himself perishes. Hall and Dragomilov's daughter, Grunya, remain to live, demonstrating the triumph of the principles of "humane socialism", devoid of any shade of Nietzscheanism, the principles of which Dragomilov professed.
Walling's views (and possibly Azef's case, about which he could get information from the press or from acquaintances) influenced London's assessment of the methods of Russian revolutionaries. The evolution in his views on the problem of violence is obvious: if in the essay "Revolution" he welcomed the explosion of Sozonov's bomb, then in the novel "The Murder Bureau" he unequivocally condemned the SR tactics of terror.
Tolstoy's influence artistic creativity and social views - both direct and indirect (as evidenced, in particular, by the case described above) - became, at the beginning of the 20th century, perhaps the most significant part of Russian-American literary ties. IN early-century the first attempt was made to put Tolstoy on stage. The choice fell on "Resurrection" 29. The staging of the novel had been going on for several years in Paris, at the Odeon theater. The American premiere took place in New York in February 1903. According to most critics, the performance was unsuccessful because it did not convey the essence of Tolstoy's novel. However, he gave impetus to critical discussions about the writer's work. In one of the reviews, the theater columnist for the Evening Post wrote about Resurrection: “The book contains a lot of fantastic and utopian, which will remain so until a radical transformation of all mankind takes place. But its value does not lie in savoring vice, not in a scrupulous description of poverty and moral decline, but in an analysis of the causes that gave rise to them, in the psychological insight of the author, in a fiery philanthropic spirit that permeates the book, in a deep study of national life and customs, in an ardent desire to protect human interests "(29. p. 194).
Interesting is the testimony of Ernest Crosby, who, in a letter to Tolstoy, mentioned the play he had seen by the American playwright (whose name he does not name) "Lea Kleshma", written under the influence of the novel. the main idea play, according to Crosby, lies in the fact that even in the most hardened criminal there is a spark of good (5; p. 398). In addition to Resurrection, some time later, The Power of Darkness (Guild Theatre, 1920), The Living Corpse (Plymouth Theatre, 1918) were staged on the New York stage, and Anna Karenina was staged ( theater "Herald", 1907) 30 .
An anonymous critic from the Evening Post pointed out quite accurately the reasons for Tolstoy's colossal influence on the American consciousness at the beginning of the century. It was a time when Americans yearned not only for the truth brought to light by the muckrakers, but also for a different kind of truth, in the frame of a utopian doctrine built on the foundation of an optimistic worldview like that which fueled the work of the transcendentalists. The Puritan ideals that shaped the American character remained influential in the 19th and 20th centuries, changing under the influence of changes in social and spiritual life. It is no coincidence that the preaching pathos of the author of "Resurrection" found such a lively response in the souls of many Americans.
Yet Tolstoy influenced American writers in different ways. He was perceived and evaluated, in accordance with the peculiarities of the worldview, creative attitudes, and temperament. Some—there were a minority of them (Henry James and Theodore Roosevelt were among them)—although they recognized Tolstoy's artistic talent, they did not share his belief in the "religious principle of conscience," and his teaching, at best, left them indifferent. They also rejected certain provisions of Tolstoy's aesthetics, which demanded a person who was irreconcilable to evil, sensitive to the pain and suffering of a person, calling him to the spiritual self-improvement of art; they were disgusted by the preaching pathos of his later stories, and the recommendations in the spirit of the Sermon on the Mount seemed beautiful-hearted and too lofty to follow in life.
Others - they were in the majority - on the contrary, perceived Tolstoy's work as a kind of unity of the ethical and aesthetic (Howells said this best), admired the writer's artistic innovation, his deep democratism and the scale of social criticism. It is no coincidence that among those who were influenced by Tolstoy were socialists and radicals (Upton Sinclair, William Walling, Michael Gold31), thinkers and philosophers (in particular, William James), writers who sought to overcome the "tradition of decency" still palpable in literature. and reflect the merciless truth of life (Jack London, part naturalists).
The next step in introducing America to Russian literature was acquaintance with the work of Dostoevsky. Its beginning refers to the last decade of the nineteenth V. As early as 1889, after reading Crime and Punishment, Howells urged writers to learn from Dostoevsky (later, however, he changed his mind). However, the recognition of Dostoevsky's genius did not come immediately. Many of the American writers of the late 19th century—Henry James, Stephen Crane, Hamlin Garland, Frank Norris—did not accept it, mainly for aesthetic reasons. Henry James spoke of his lack of compositional unity, saw a serious flaw in what he called "disregard for style", "looseness" and "wastefulness" 33 .
In the 10-20s of the XX century. the peculiar cult of Tolstoy began to gradually give way to the passion for Dostoevsky. This was facilitated by the publication of the collected works of the writer in the translation of Constance Garnet. No less important is the fact that under the influence of the events of the First World War public consciousness was prepared to receive tragic world Dostoevsky. Its popularity in the late 10s coincided with a turn in the artistic consciousness and a change in the philosophical orientation of American prose writers, which was later reflected in the work of the Jazz Age writers, in the poetics of Dos Passos and Faulkner. The first to notice this, perhaps, was Randolph Bourne. In 1917, in an article about Dostoevsky's work in the journal Diel, he wrote about the novelty of Dostoevsky's artistic method, which he saw in showing the depths of the human psyche, painful passions, "sinister and grotesque quirks of human thinking." It is no coincidence that he sharply spoke out against classifying Dostoevsky's novels as "unhealthy, pathological, harmful" literature.
The author of the article determined exactly what role Dostoevsky was to play in American literature and life: he was necessary to expand the artistic horizons of his compatriots; they needed to grow up, "to free themselves from the pomposity and prejudice of ideas about human psychology" (34, p. 266). It was necessary to shake the established principles of Victorian morality, enshrined in literature, to destroy aesthetic taboos. This was only possible for a great talent, an artist of extraordinary strength and a special vision of life. He considered Dostoevsky to be such an artist. Analyzing the originality of his poetics, Born emphasizes the artistic innovation of the writer, such a quality as the involvement (immanence) of the artist, when it seems that the author does not move away from his characters, but seems to merge with them. In "Double" and "Possessed" this involvement is brought to the limit. The critic expressed his thought thus: "The work seems to tell itself" (34, p. 267). The significance of Dostoevsky, according to Born, was that he helped writers change their aesthetic guidelines, and critics - to justify the need to more boldly reflect the complexity of the world.
Among those who admired Dostoevsky's talent were Dos Passo, Floyd Dell, Sherwood Anderson. Dos Passos read and reread Crime and Punishment in the mid-10s. Noting the decline of Turgenev's popularity during these years, he spoke of the special significance of Dostoevsky's poetics, his ability to make the reader "totally live this novel" (3, p. 250).
Around the same time, Floyd Dell explained the reasons for Dostoevsky's extraordinary popularity in an article on his work published in 1915 in the New Review magazine: gave us a new understanding of the truth" (3, p. 249). In another article that appeared in 1916 in the journal Massiz, he noted that the great Russian writers Tolstoy, Turgenev and Dostoyevsky had changed the whole direction of literature in English.
Sherwood Anderson repeatedly wrote and spoke about the influence of Russian literature on him. He became acquainted with the works of Dostoevsky in the early 10s, when he had already published his first novel, but had not yet created famous cycle stories "Winesburg, Ohio" (1919). Anderson called Dostoevsky the only writer before whom he was "ready to kneel" (8; p. 70). In all literature, he wrote, there is nothing equal to The Brothers Karamazov. He also highly appreciated other works of Dostoevsky: "Demons", "The Idiot", "Notes from the House of the Dead".
The influence of Dostoevsky on the formation of Anderson as an artist can already be judged from the first collection of stories, which was distinguished by the novelty of the subject and courage in showing the human psyche. Anderson managed to inhale new life into the American genre of the short story, which was experiencing a serious crisis at that time. He went against the established - and almost exhausted - tradition and refused to use exotic backgrounds, action-packed plots, spectacular or comforting endings in stories. In the "simple stories" that made up the collection Winesburg, Ohio, he showed the life of a provincial town with its small joys, base passions and deeply hidden tragedies. Sherwood Anderson expanded the scope of the story to include depictions of irrational impulses, oddities of character, feelings of compassion and humility. The psychological depth of the short stories distinguished him from other American writers of that time, and it was achieved not without the influence of Dostoevsky.
The statements of many US writers, and most importantly, their works, confirm the correctness of Randolph Bourne's judgment that Dostoevsky became a measure for determining the aesthetic and moral maturity of Americans, their ability to perceive unpleasant truths about themselves and about human nature in general.
At the beginning of the XX century. America met another Russian writer, first through his works, and then through performances before an American audience - in Philadelphia and Providence, Boston and New York. It's about about M. Gorky. In 1901, a translation of his story "Foma Gordeev" was published in America. Jack London immediately responded to the publication, writing a review article that was published in the November issue of the San Francisco Impressions magazine. In addition to the story, at the beginning of the century, a collection of short stories "Twenty-six and One" and the novel "Mother", which Gorky wrote in America in the summer of 1906 (it was published in Appleton Magazine in 1907) were published in the USA. Later, in the early 1910s, the play "At the Bottom" was translated and printed, and in 1919 it was staged on the American stage.
The artistic world of Gorky became for American readers a real shock, an aesthetic discovery. His works have received critical acclaim. In 1917, Randolph Bourne published an article in the New Republic magazine "In the World of Maxim Gorky", in which he evaluated the autobiographical books of the writer "Childhood" and "In People". Their main advantage, according to the critic, is the truth about the unbearable "abominations of life." The sensitive analytical look of the critic caught the main thing in his books: the author's ability to clothe in art form the idea of the ability of a Russian person to resist evil. He is impressed by Gorky's optimism, his indestructible hope, thirst for life, love for people, "fortitude of the soul." The critic considered Gorky's great merit to be that he managed "to achieve a balance between the realism of the depiction and the sympathy of the artist" (34; pp. 68, 269).
Russian experience, captured in the books "Childhood" and "In People", helped Randolph Bourne to substantiate his own aesthetic principles: preference for "moral", responsible art over art far from the life of the people. Gorky's example was an argument for him in a dispute with American writers, whose work, in his words, "takes a person exclusively into the realm of fantasy and thus reconciles him with existing world". The strength of Gorky is that his works "are marked not by escapism and detachment from reality, but, on the contrary, by close connection with it and its deep comprehension" (34; p. 70). Bitter people's life, the merciless truth of the image and deep optimism, which - it is quite obvious - appealed to American critics. No wonder he quotes the words he especially liked from the first part of the Gorky trilogy: "Our life is not only amazing because it is so prolific and fat layer all bestial rubbish, but by the fact that bright, healthy and creative nevertheless victoriously sprouts through this layer ... arousing indestructible hope for our rebirth to a bright, human life "(34; p. 268). The critic took Gorky important place in the history of literature, as evidenced by his high appreciation of the writer's autobiographical books. He called the trilogy one of the greatest literary biographies.
Gorky was perceived by many in America as a successor artistic traditions Tolstoy, spokesman for revolutionary sentiments in Russia. So, in particular, treated the writer Jack London. His review of "Foma Gordeev" deserves to be told about it in more detail.
For the American writer, Gorky is "genuinely Russian" in his perception and understanding of life. London, familiar with the work of Turgenev and Tolstoy (he read The Nest of Nobles and Sevastopol Tales), had great respect for Russian literature, appreciated the in-depth "introspection of Russians", the passion of their social protest. He used the review of Gorky's story not only to express his own sympathies, but also for literary controversy directed against the authors of entertaining reading, sentimental and far from life novels (light and airy romances). “From his clenched mighty fist come not elegant literary trinkets, pleasant, delightful and deceitful, but living truth - yes, heavy, rude and repulsive, but the truth” (34, p. 209).
Foma Gordeev symbolizes, in the eyes of London, the protest of a strong man, but broken by the environment, who painfully thinks about the meaning of life - and does not find it. "... Spinning in a frenzied whirlpool of life, circling in the dance of death, blindly chasing something nameless, vague, in search of a magical formula, the essence of things, the hidden meaning - a spark of light in pitch darkness, in a word, a reasonable justification for life, Foma Gordeev goes to madness and death "(34; p. 211). He was defeated in the struggle of life because he thought about the meaning of life and lost to successful merchants who "sing a hymn to strength", proclaim freedom unrestricted, ruthless competition.
It is noteworthy that the tone of London's article differs from that which colored other speeches of the writer of those years: from the article about Kipling written in the same 1901 "These bones will rise again" and a number of journalistic essays in which competition and the struggle for existence are presented ( quite in the spirit of William Sumner) as a condition for the survival of the strongest and fittest individuals and races.
Undoubtedly, the writer produced great impression the very figure of Gorky, in whose fate he saw a resemblance to his own fate. He noted and commented on the autobiographical nature of the story as follows: unlike his hero, the author found the meaning of life and found hope. Gorky's example obviously strengthened London's hope that it is possible to assert goodness both in life and in creativity. London highly appreciated Gorky's novel as a "healing book" that awakens the dormant conscience of people and can involve them in the "struggle for humanity" (34; p. 212). Jack London was, of course, biased in his assessments. His perception was left a certain imprint by his own philosophy of life and adherence to the artistic method, marked by strong features of naturalism. Gorky's realism seemed to him more effective than Tolstoy's artistic method, and Turgenev's realism generally seemed "tedious", if not "boring". Not sharing the philosophy of Tolstoy, London, of course, could not appreciate the depth of his artistic creations, but this did not prevent him from considering Tolstoy a great writer. London ends the article with high praise for Gorky, calling him a follower of Tolstoy and Turgenev: "The mantle from their shoulders has fallen on his young shoulders, and he promises to wear it with true grandeur" (34; p. 212).
Gorky's story received favorable reviews in America, and one of them, written by Abraham Kahan, was published in the Bookman magazine in 1902 and was called Tolstoy's Robe (6; p. 158). Judging by the title, London's article did not go unnoticed.
Howells also spoke highly of Gorky's artistic method. In one of his critical essays in 1902, he called his realism "stormy and visual to the point of tangibility" 35 . in the same year, the Diel magazine spoke of Gorky's stories with great praise. Van Wyck Brooks later wrote in the same journal (v. LXII, 1917; at that time his editors included famous writers and philosophers - Thorsten Veblen and John Dewey): "America and Russia are in many ways opposite: Russia is the richest of countries spiritually, America is the poorest; socially Russia is the poorest country, and America is the richest" (2; p. 243). These words are reminiscent of the conclusion made by William Walling after his stay in Russia in 1905-1907, where he met with Russian writers, publicists and cultural figures.
Gorky revealed to the reader what the world of the "bottom" looked like. His tramps were perceived as new characters in literature, although they had an American counterpart - tramps (hobo), described by Jack London. According to the American researcher Ivar Spektor, Gorky "was the first to show the world of vagabonds, and this is his main contribution to Russian literature" 36 . But the Americans first saw the image of the social bottom, of course, not in Gorky, but in Dostoevsky. In an effort to better express their literary preferences, critics were not always objective. The very fact of such tendentiousness can be partly explained by the deep impression of reading new works of Russian literature.
Gorky's play "At the Bottom" was highly acclaimed by critics. The theater columnist for the New York Sun, James Hueneker, in an essay on this play (he had seen it staged in a Berlin theater), noted its stunning truthfulness and complete lack of theatricality. Interestingly, he compared her mise-en-scenes with the paintings of the little Dutchmen Teniers and Ostade 37 . "Is it possible to show deeper the character of a person who has lost his place in society? Gorky's play, although it sometimes causes a feeling of disgust, awakens in us pity and horror<...>Compared with the vulgar little plays made in Paris, which come to America every year, this drama of social outcasts contains a moral lesson" (37; p. 283).
Describing the tastes of the American audience, which demanded entertainment, Hueneker expressed the idea that Gorky's play would not be successful in America and might even bring persecution of the author. The critic's fears were not justified. The play was staged in 1919 by Arthur Hopkins, although it was not as successful as in Germany (30; pp. 299-300).
In his book on Russian theater in America, Oliver Sayler writes that before 1918, Russian plays were rarely staged on the American stage. In addition to the already mentioned dramatizations of two novels and plays by L. N. Tolstoy, he talks about the productions of the historical trilogy of A. K. Tolstoy (the New York theater "Knickerbocker"), Gogol's "Inspector General", Leonid Andreev's plays "Days of Our Life" and "Anatem ". He also mentions the unsuccessful production of Chekhov's The Seagull in 1916 (30; pp. 299-305).
Ivar Spektor, who evaluated The Lower Depths already in the 1940s, interpreted the play in many ways differently from Huenecker. Gorky's heroes, he wrote, are spiritually richer than Chekhov's, "they regard the poverty in which they find themselves as a condition for freedom." The author, in his words, "discovered a whole world in the world of the bottom" (36; p. 245).
Gorky's popularity in America at the beginning of the 20th century. can be explained both by interest in Russia, its culture and the revolutionary movement that swept the country, and by the wide response in the press to his works. When Gorky arrived in America in April 1906, a warm welcome was prepared for him. According to William Phelps (4; pp. 219-220), at a meeting dedicated to the creation of a fund to help the Russian revolution, where Gorky was present, Mark Twain made a short speech. “With all my heart,” he said, “I sympathize with the movement for the liberation of the country that has unfolded in Russia. I am sure that it will be crowned with success. Any such movement deserves approval and the most serious and unanimous assistance from our side ...” 38
However, the very next day a scandal broke out that prevented Howells (and not only him) from personally welcoming the Russian writer to American soil. The fact is that they did not want to place Gorky in hotels with M.F. Andreeva. The campaign against him in the press was launched by the World newspaper, the same newspaper that had published an interview with Tolstoy three years earlier. There were demands to send Gorky out of America. He himself wrote to D. B. Krasin in April 1906 about this: “The World newspaper published an article in which it proved that, firstly, I was a bigamist, and secondly, an anarchist. I printed a portrait of my first wife with children, abandoned by me to the mercy of fate and dying of hunger. The fact is shameful. Everyone shied away from me. Kicked out of three hotels. I settled in with an American writer and waited - what will happen? 39
The incident with Gorky caused a storm of indignation in Russia 40 . With a letter of protest, published in the newspaper "Early Morning", large group cultural figures, among whom were Mamin-Sibiryak, Nemirovich-Danchenko, Sologub. So different reaction in America and Russia it is by no means explained by political considerations: the American press was dominated by the concept of "decency" (a modification of rigorous puritan morality), in Russia there was much greater freedom of belief. It also helps to understand the atmosphere of that time in America that even Mark Twain - despite his free-thinking - refused further meetings with the writer. Later, Howells remarked about this: "He (Gorky. - E.O.), of course, is a simple person and a great writer, but you can’t do such things!" (6; p. 160) Several years later, this episode was also recalled by Upton Sinclair, who did not forgive Howells and Twain for "turning away" from Gorky (9; p. 184).
After returning to Russia, Gorky continued to correspond with his American colleagues. He met John Reed, A.R. Williams, and in the late 1920s, Theodore Dreiser. The latter noted that much in the work of the Russian writer was in tune with his own worldview. He attributed the works of Gorky, permeated with humanistic pathos, to literature that awakens and directs human thought.
In America, where in the 10s of the 20th century, according to Floyd Dell, a certain cultural famine was felt, the influence of Russian literature was in the highest degree beneficial. In addition to Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky and Gorky, Americans discovered Chekhov, whose stories, and later plays (already in the 90s of the 19th century) began to appear here in translation.
Chekhov was perceived in America and England as a writer who achieved an amazing harmony of life and art, form and content. His unique handwriting and subtle psychologism were highly appreciated not only by realist writers of the beginning of the century. They found a response in the hearts of modernist writers who were looking for new opportunities for artistic writing and new aesthetic approaches to reality. In Chekhov they found their idol. The charm of Chekhov's prose was able to be assessed as something completely new by American writers, who had already managed to feel the brilliant power of Tolstoy, the lyricism and sad poetry of Turgenev's prose, and feel the freshness of Gorky's writing style. Before them appeared an unfamiliar artistic world, which at that time, perhaps, had no equal in American literature.
Enthusiastic reviews of Chekhov's work are contained in Dreiser's diaries; he attributed his plays to the highest achievements of literature (14; v. 1, p. 118). Sherwood Anderson spoke about spiritual kinship with the writer. Creating a new type of plotless psychological novel for American literature, he relied on the experience of Russian masters, in particular the experience of Chekhov the novelist.
There is an opinion that the American short story in the 10s of the XX century. began to lose some characteristic features and began to "look like a Russian", and this happened thanks to the influence of Chekhov (6; p. 191). The fact that American writers felt the need to update the artistic language of short stories and turned to Russian literature in search of examples is confirmed by the words of Sherwood Anderson. In a letter to the translator of his works, Pyotr Okhrimenko, in 1923, he noted: “We have a bad tradition in America that we borrowed from the British and French: we are used to looking for an entertaining plot in the stories published in our magazines, all sorts of cunning tricks (trickery and juggling). human life recedes into the background, becomes unimportant; the plot does not grow out of the natural drama of life generated by the complex web of human relationships. With you, in Russian literature, you feel the beating of life in every page" (8; p. 93).
Although the real acquaintance with Chekhov took place after the First World War, when the collected works of the writer in 13 volumes (1916-1922) in translations by Constance Garnet began to appear, the prerequisites for Chekhov's wide influence on American writers in the 30-40s were laid precisely at the beginning of the century .
US literature borrowed from Russian those features that had not yet been sufficiently developed on American soil. In the first two decades of the 20th century there were no artists here who could show with such frankness the painful movements of the soul and the destructive nature of passions as Dostoevsky; there was no talent on such a cosmic scale as Tolstoy, who can access a psychologically subtle and accurate analysis of the dialectics of the human soul and at the same time a passionate social protest in conjunction with a program of moral improvement; there was no writer who would create exquisite prose, reflecting at the same time a deep knowledge of the life of the people, as Turgenev did. In America, the legacy of Puritanism, with its many taboos, was still affecting; the legacy of the enlighteners and transcendentalists, who idealized human nature, was also alive; the “tradition of decency”, which sharply narrowed the horizons of artistic knowledge, did not completely disappear.
Russian literature - from Turgenev, Tolstoy and Dostoevsky to Chekhov and Gorky - was the force that in difficult period The development of American literature at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries gave it new impulses and had a powerful influence on the creative attitudes of its writers. Turning to Russian literature helped them open up new paths in art, affirm humanistic ideals, and expand the boundaries of artistic knowledge.
NOTES
1 Cited. by: Aaron D. Writers on the Left. Oxford & N. Y., Oxford University Press, 1977, p. 9.
2 Quot. by: May, Henry. The End of American Innocence. N.Y., Knopf, 1959, p. 243.
3 For more details on the translations of Russian writers into English, see: Niko-lyukin A. N. Interrelationships between the literatures of Russia and the USA. M., Nauka, 1987, p. 77-82, 159-168,238-240.
4 Phelps W. Essays on Russian Novels. N. Y., 1917, p. VII.
5 Literary heritage, v. 75. In 2 books. Tolstoy and foreign world, book. 1. M., Nauka, 1965, p. 396.
6 Brewster D. East-West Passage. A Study in Literary Relationships. London, Allen and Unwin, 1954, p. 135.
7 Kropotkin P. Russian Literature. London, N. Y., McClure, 1905, p. v.
8 Anderson Sh. letters. Selected and ed. by H. M. Jones. Boston. Little and Brown, 1953, p. 118.
9 US Writers on Literature. M., Progress, 1974, p. 145.
10 Literary heritage, v. 76. M., Nauka, 1967, p. 506.
11 James W. The Varieties of Religious Experience. N.Y., Vintage Books, 1990, pp. 159, 155.
12 Tolstoy L.N. Sobr. op. in 12 vols., v. 11. M., 1959, p. 60.
13 Dreiser, Theodore. A Selection of Uncollected Prose. Ed. by Donald Pizer. Detroit, Wayne State Univ. Press, 1977, p. 185.
14 Dreiser, Theodore. letters. Philadelphia, 1959, v. 1, p. 97.
15 Dreiser, Th. Dawn. N.Y., 1965, p. 362.
16 Gerigk, Horst-Jurgen. Die Russen in America. Dostojewskij, Tolstoj, Turgenjew und Tschechov in ihrer Bedeutung fur die Literatur der USA. Hurtgenwald, Guido Pressler Verlag, 1995, s. 453.
17 E. White. Walks and conversations with Tolstoy // Foreign literature, 1978, No. 8, p. 227.
18 H.-Yu. write about it. Gerick (16; s. 451-452) and Stephen Brennan (Brennan S. "Sister Carrie" and the Tolstoyan Artist // Research Studies, 47, 1979, pp. 1-16).
19 Tolstoy L. N. Complete collection. soch., vol. 30. M.-L., Goslitizdat, 1951, p. 148.
20 Dreiser T. Collected. op. in 12 vols. M., Goslitizdat, 1955, v. 1, p. 216.
21 Roosevelt Th. Tolstoy // Outlook. XCII (1909, May 15), p. 105. Op. by: Dreiser Th. Letters, v. I, rL53,
22 Russian word. New York, 1909, May 19, p. 3. I. Gorbunov-Posadov wrote about the influence of Tolstoy's moral preaching on religious and social reformers in the USA. In an introductory article to the translation of Ernest Crosby's book "Tolstoy and His Worldview" (Count Tolstoy's Philosophy of Life. Boston, 1896), he noted that numerous pacifist and religious organizations of various kinds, including ecumenical and Buddhist, send Tolstoy their publications. " All of them send news about themselves to Yasnaya Polyana" (Gorbunov-Posadov I. Ernest Crosby, poet of the new world / / Crosby E. Tolstoy and his worldview. M., Posrednik, 1911, p. XI).
23 Walling W. Russia's Message. The True Import of the Revolution. London, 1909, p. 237.
24 Walling W. Message to Russia. Berlin, 1910, p. 367.
25 Walling W. Russia's Message. The People and the Czar. N. Y., 1917, p. 14.
26 Let us note in passing that in America the dispute with representatives of social Darwinism was led by a follower of Tolstoy, Ernest Crosby. On this see: Hofstadter R. Social Darwinism in American Thought. Philadelphia Univ. of Pennsylvania Press; Lnd., Humphrey Milford, Oxford Univ Press, 1945, p. 167.
27 See: Perry J. Jack London. An American Myth. Chicago, 1981, p. 109.
28 For more on this, see: Osipova E. F. The First Russian Revolution in the Works of Jack London // Russian Revolutionary Movement and Problems of the Development of Literature. L., publishing house of Leningrad State University, 1989, p. 130-146.
29 Shchelokova E. N. The first dramatization of the novel "Resurrection" on the American stage // L. N. Tolstoy's novel "Resurrection". Historical and functional research. M., 1991, p. 188-194.
30 Sayler, Oliver. The Russian Theatre. N. Y., Brentano, 1922, pp. 297-299.
31 On Michael Gold's perception of Tolstoy, Dorothy Day, a journalist and editor of The Catholic Worker, writes in her memoir The Long Solitude (1952): Left, p. 85).
32 For details on this, see: Nikolyukin AM. Interrelations between Russian and American Literature, p. 238-284.
33 James H. The Letters. Ed. by P. Lubbock. N.Y., Scribner, 1920, v. 2, p. 237.
34 US Writers on Literature. M., Progress, 1982, v. 1, p. 265, 266.
35 W. D. Howells as Critic. Ed. by E. Cady. London and Boston, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1973, p. 424.
36 Spector, Ivar. The Golden Age of Russian Literature. Caldwell, Idaho, 1948, p. 246.
37 Huneker, James. Maxim Gorky's Nachtasyl // Huneker J. Iconoclasts. A Book of Dramatists. N. Y., Scribner, 1921, p. 277.
38 Twain M. Russian Republic// Twain M. Sobr. op. in 12 vols., v. 11. M., Goslitizdat, 1961, p. 582.
39 Gorky M. Sobr. op. in 30 vols. M., Goslitizdat, 1954, v. 28, p. 416.
40 For more on this episode, see: Kireeva I. V., Lunina I. E. A. M. Gorky and Mark Twain // Russian American Studies in Search of New Approaches. M., 1998, p. 46-58.
Full text of the dissertation abstract on the topic "Literary reputation of F. M. Dostoevsky in the USA"
Karelian State Pedagogical University
As a manuscript
Irina Vilievna
LITERARY REPUTATION F.M. DOSTOYEVSKY IN THE USA (1940-1960s)
Specialty 10.01.01 - Russian literature
dissertations for a degree
candidate of philological sciences
Petrozavodsk KSPU, 2000
The dissertation work was done at the Department of Literature of the Karelian State Pedagogical University.
Scientific adviser: Doctor of Philology, Professor
Dudkin V.V.
Official opponents: Doctor of Philology, Professor
Smirnov C.V.
Candidate of Philology, Associate Professor Oshukov M.Yu.
Lead organization: Tver State University
The defense of the dissertation will take place « ¿>0 » .¿¿¿O 2000 at the meeting of the Dissertation Council D 064. 32.01. for the defense of candidate dissertations for the degree of candidate of philological sciences at the address: 173014, Veliky Novgorod, Antonov, Novgorod State University, Humanitarian Institute.
The dissertation can be found at scientific library Novgorod State University.
Scientific Secretary of the Dissertation Council, Candidate of Philology,
Associate Professor Berdyaeva O.S.
iMg (H US-)£
general description of work
;. With the intensification of the processes of rapprochement and mutual influence of cultures in the modern world, in particular, with the growing interest in Russian literature in the West and in the USA, the problem of the functioning of Russian literature abroad becomes one of the topical aspects of its study.
Creativity F.M. Dostoevsky belongs to world culture to the same extent as Russian culture, having long stepped over national and temporary boundaries. Throughout the twentieth century, Dostoevsky was perceived as a contemporary, his spiritual presence in the world culture and literature of our century has become an indisputable fact. "In the "USA" Dostoevsky is the most read and studied Russian writer, representing not only Russian literature, but also Russian culture as a whole. He, like no other Russian artist, influenced American literature, but Dostoevsky's work itself, living in a different culture and in a different time, acquired new facets that were previously invisible to us.
The problem of Dostoevsky's literary reputation in the United States involves considering the prevailing ideas about him as an artist and the evolution of these ideas; a description of the era and cultural environment in which this reputation developed; a description of the factors that contributed to the creation of the literary reputation of Dostoevsky the artist; as well as the characteristics of the recipients who formed it. G
The time frame for this study is the 1940-1960s. Firstly, at this time there is a new wave of interest in Dostoevsky in the United States. Secondly, the reputation of Dostoevsky as an artist is being formed: the need to revise the contradictory ideas, coming from Vopoe and established during the years of the cult of the writer, that Dostoevsky is a great psychologist, a thinker, but a mediocre artist who does not own style and composition, is realized. Thirdly, this period can be called properly American, because during these years American Dostoevsky studies were born, the main feature of which is attention to the artistic side of creativity.
Fourthly, if three special works in the United States are devoted to the previous period of the formation of Dostoevsky’s literary reputation, then there is not a single study of this problem for the period under study.
The relevance of the problem of Dostoevsky's literary reputation in the United States is determined by many factors, Firstly, the importance of Dostoevsky for world culture in general and American culture in particular. Secondly, it is connected with the strengthening of transcultural dialogue at the turn of the century. Thirdly, it is due to the coming to the fore of the problems of perception of literature. B-fourth, the need to revise the ideological approach to American Dostoevsky studies and American literature, which was established in the Soviet period. Fifth, important and relevant is the introduction into scientific circulation of unexplored materials, both literary and literary. Sixth, poor knowledge of the problem. \
The degree of scientific development of the problem; in domestic literary criticism, the problem of Dostoevsky's literary reputation in the United States was not specially considered. The literary works of A.N. Grigorieva, L.J. Zemlyanova, N.B. Ivanova, T.JI Motyleva. However, assessments of domestic scientists need to be freed from the ideologized approach in the interpretation of American criticism. The history of the acquaintance of American writers with the work of Dostoevsky and his influence on American literature in the first half of the twentieth century is covered in the works of the Academy of Sciences Nikolyukin and Yu.I. Sokhryakov. In the USA, three works are devoted to the problem of the literary reputation of F. M. Dostoevsky: M. E. Davenporg "Fashion for Dostoevsky, in England and the USA" (1923), H. Machnik "The English Reputation of Dostoevsky" (1939), D. Brewster "East-West Relations" (1054)2. All these works cover the period from 1880 to the 1930s and give a picture of the history of familiarity.
1 Wellek R. Introduction // Dostoevsky: Collection of Critical "Essays / Ed. by, Rene Wellek.-New York: Englewood Cliffs, 1962, -P. 14. ■ """" ""
2 Davenport M. A. The; Vogue of F. Dostoevsky in England and the United States. -The University of Oregon, 1923; Muchnic H. Dostoevsky's English reputation (18811936). - Northampton, 1939; Brewster D. East-West Passage: A Study of Literary Relationships. - London, 1954.
relations between the West and America with the work of Dostoevsky. There is an urgent need to continue the study of the literary reputation of the writer in the period most significant for its formation in the United States: from the 1940s to the 1960s. _ . . . . ; .
Goals and objectives of the study. The purpose of the dissertation is to explore the evolution of views on the "creativity of Dostoevsky as an artist, based on the materials of American criticism and American literature, based on the specifics of the literary process in the United States in the 1940s-1960s.
This goal predetermined a number of specific research objectives:
2. to analyze the main trends in American literary criticism and research individualities that determined the formation of Dostoevsky's literary reputation in the 1940s-1960s; .......
3. to consider the nature of the perception of Dostoevsky by some American writers and the influence of his work on American literature of this period., .... ..........
The scientific novelty of the results of the study is due, firstly, to the novelty of the very problem of Dostoevsky's literary reputation in the United States for domestic Dostoevsky studies. Secondly, extensive new or little-known material is introduced into scientific circulation. The study is based on the study and analysis of two hundred works of foreign authors: monographs, articles, other materials that are translated, analyzed and systematized. Among them, for the first time translated and presented the works of M. Davenport "Fashion for Dostoevsky in England and the USA", V. Terrace "Reading Dostoevsky", articles by T. Bailey, E. Vaivas E. Vasiolek, E. Wilson, G. Lamier, T. Pachmas, R. Podzhioli, F. Riva, N. Rosen, D. Frank, M. Friedman, R. Fülep-Miller, L. Furst. For the first time, the works of American writers about Dostoevsky were translated and analyzed, namely: articles by K. McCullers (translation of the article "Russian Realism and Literature of the South" is given in the appendix), S. Plath's work "Magic Mirror: Study of Doubles in Two Novels of Dostoevsky", K. Rexroth Dostoevsky. The Brothers Karamazov.
Thirdly, in terms of content, the author of the dissertation identified and studied those trends in American literary criticism that turned out to be the most significant for understanding the nature of the literary reputation of Dostoevsky as an artist in the United States in the 1940s-1960s, and also shows the peculiarities of Dostoevsky's perception by American writers. The dissertation presents little-known names in Russia
classics of American literature K. McCullers and S. Plath, analyzed their perception of Dostoevsky's work, Dostoevsky's influence on their own work. For the first time, this influence is considered in connection with the development in this period in American literature of a special type of novel - a novel about a teenager. A number of new research problems have been posed, including the problem of the relationship between scientific and artistic creativity of writers, the problem of Dostoevsky's influence on the American novel about a teenager of the 1940s-1960s, on beatnik literature, and on American literature of the South.
Research methodology. The methodological basis of the dissertation is the principles of comparative literary criticism, i.e., understanding the material in a comparative historical aspect.
The scientific approbation of the work took place at the Department of Literature of the Karelian State Pedagogical University during the discussion of the dissertation. The dissertation manuscript was recommended for defense. Some ideas of the dissertation are presented by the author in a speech at a scientific conference and scientific publications. According to the draft dissertation, the author was awarded a scholarship from the President of the Russian Federation, which allowed him to continue his scientific research at the University of Oregon in the USA. The problem of Dostoevsky's literary reputation in the USA was discussed with the professors of the University of Oregon, the well-known Dostoevsky scholars D. Rice and N. Rosen.
Dissertation structure. The work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, a bibliography, and an appendix. The list of references includes 346 titles.
The introduction substantiates the relevance of the chosen topic, the subject and methodology of the study, characterizes the goals and objectives of the study, determines the degree of scientific development of the problem, and reveals the scientific novelty of the dissertation.
The first chapter analyzes the process of formation of the literary reputation of Dostoevsky as an artist by American literary criticism in its originality.
The first section is devoted to the history of the formation of Dostoevskosh's reputation in the USA. Here, the factors that influenced the creation of the literary reputation of Dostoevsky as an artist, the reasons for the "indigestibility" of some aspects of his work are considered, the ideas about Dostoevsky characteristic of this period are considered, the reasons that caused the reassessment of literary reputation in the 1940-4960s are analyzed, which, in turn determined the direction of the league.
raturological research.
The literary reputation of Dostoevsky as an artist in the 1940s-1960s was formed under the influence of changed political and social factors, as well as changes that took place in the literary process itself, which caused a new wave of interest in Dostoevsky's work. The main role in rethinking Dostoevsky's reputation and deepening ideas about him as an artist belongs to literary scholars and writers.The emergence of American Dostoevsky studies in this period was a defining event for the formation of the reputation of Dostoevsky as an artist.In the 1950s and 1960s, many centers for the study of Russian literature and, in particular, Dostoevsky's work, appeared. The most famous schools that study the writer's work are the universities in Chicago (E. Vasiolek), New York (E. Simmons, R. Belknap), Yales (R. Jackson, R. Welleck), Illinois (M. Krieger, T. Pachmas, V. Terras), California (D. Gibian) Publication of new translations of Dostoevsky's works, materials for his works, biographies, as well as the expanding cooperation between Dostoevsky scholars of the Soviet Union and the USA in the 1940-1960s - all this contributed to a new, deeper reading of Dostoevsky in the United States.
The second section discusses new approaches to the study of the writer's work, which determined the actual American reading of F. M. Dostoevsky. American Dostoevsky studies at that time recognized the urgent need to rethink and reassess Dostoevsky's existing literary reputation, primarily its negative, or rather, "indigestible", misunderstood aspects of it; overcoming the prevailing myths about the writer, freeing himself from the influence of religious, positivist ideas about his work, studying the artistic features of Dostoevsky's works. The reputation of Dostoevsky as an artist, created by the beginning of the forties, in many ways contributed to a distorted perception of the writer's work. He was seen outside the Western tradition as a chaotic, chaotic, dark, "Asian" writer. The myth1 about the Russian Soul, which Dostoevsky allegedly expressed and presented to the West, caused the greatest damage to the artist's reputation. The dissertation shows the role of E. Wilson, R. Fülep-Miller, E. Simmons, E. Vasiolek in the revision and reassessment of the literary reputation of Dostoevsky the artist. .............-
One of the trends in American literary criticism during these years was the desire to create an objective picture of Dostoevsky's work, primarily through the introduction of new materials into scientific circulation, the choice of objective research methods, and the promotion of
the first plan of research problems that are associated with the poetics of the writer's works. The section provides an overview of the main trends in American Dostoevsky studies, and shows their reflection in scientific collections published during this period.
The dialogue between "new" and "old criticism" was another feature of the study of Dostoevsky in the United States in the 1940s-1960s. He determined the methods of researching Dostoevsky's work and the originality of the writer's literary representation.
The development of American literary criticism in the postwar years was largely determined by the “new criticism” that arose in the forties. It would not be an exaggeration to say that the discovery of Dostoevsky as an artist and the beginning of the study of his work in the United States was made by "new critics", primarily by Princeton University professor R.P. Blackmoore (1904 - 1965). The dissertation analyzes his six articles by Dostoyevsky, which were included in the book Eleven Essays on the European Novel3. The defining principles of Yalekmur's research, who interpreted the novels of F,.M. Dostoevsky's "Crime and Punishment", "Idiogs", "Demons", "The Brothers Karamazov" in the light of ■ symbolic oppositions.
Blackmoore's essays were the first serious work on Dostoevsky's poetics in the United States of America, and had a significant impact on subsequent American studies of Dostoevsky's work. The interpretation of the text made by Blackmoore marked the beginning of "objective" criticism, seeking to consider the works of Dostoevsky, regardless of his philosophical, religious, political views. The authority of the "new criticism" and Blackmoore himself contributed to a new reading of Dostoevsky, understanding his discoveries as an artist Thanks to Blackmoore, the American tradition of such a reading was established.The scientist touched on many problems of Dostoevsky's work, which in the following decades were developed in American literary criticism, problems of method, form, humor, etc.
Ra's peculiar reaction to the "new criticism" is reflected in the works of the "old criticism" that have appeared. Both directions had a common task - to critically rethink the established reputation of Dostoevsky as an artist, to understand the meaning of Dostoevsky's artistic discoveries. But if the "new criticism" sought to take Dostoevsky's work beyond the limits of subjectivity, to put him above the era and culture that formed him, then the "old criticism" destroyed the myth of Dostoevsky as an exotic
"Blackmur R. Eleven Essays in the European Novel. - New York, 1964.
com, an "Asian" writer, including his work in the context of European literature.
The dissertation analyzes the book by J. Steiner “Tolstoy or Dostoevsky. An essay in the manner of old criticism. Steiner's research is devoted to the peculiarities of the Russian novel and can be reduced to the main thesis: Tolstoy's art revives the epic tradition, while Dostoevsky's art revives the tradition of ancient drama. The drama helped Dostoyevsky find the structure as well as the spiritual focus for his novel. Among the features of the Russian novel, Steiner names the return of the religious feeling lost by the European realistic novel. that drives the artist. Connected with religious feeling is that "high seriousness" that distinguishes the Russian and American novels from the European realistic novel. A feature of the Russian novel is also an unusually "loose" form, in which, according to the researcher, the national specificity of Russian literature is reflected, because for Tolstoy and Dostoevsky "abundance was an integral part of freedom."
The value of Steiner's work lies in the fact that during the period of relativism in criticism he turns to tradition and studies its development; he discovers and asserts the connection between literary trends, literary styles, literatures of different eras and countries, considers a literary work not in isolation, but in close interconnection. with history, politics and philosophy. Steiner overcomes the prevailing stereotypes of Dostoevsky's perception, showing him in the context of the European tradition, offering an explanation for the notorious formlessness of Dostoevsky's novel, defending Dostoevsky from reproaches for the inconsistency of the plot and composition. The scientist advises us to read Dostoevsky in the context of his era, and not ours. Steiner had a “civilizing” impact on the creation of the image of two “uncontrollable” Russian writers, in his book Dostoevsky no longer appears as an obsessed, morbid writer, a man of extremes. .... ......- -
The third section is devoted to the reputation of Dostoevsky as a realist in American literary criticism in the 1940s-1960s. In the study of the writer's work by American literary criticism, the problem of Dostoevsky's realism was central. As the author of the bibliography of Dostoevsky’s works, W. Leatherbarrow, published in 1990, notes, “the question of Dostoevsky’s realism and his problematic relationship with the artistic world and reality was the only constant leitmotif
4 Steiner G. Tolstoy or Dostoevsky: An Essay in the Old Criticism. - New York, 1959.
in criticism of Dostoevsky from the 1840s to the present.
Most of the leading American scientists spoke during this period on this issue, among them: D. Frank, R. Poggioli, E. Vaivas, R. Jackson, D. Fanger, T. Pachmas, E. Simmons. The dissertation attempts to show the evolution of Dostoevsky's reputation as a realist, based on an analysis of the studies of these scientists.
Dostoevsky was presented in Europe and America as a realist at a time when realism was still a relatively new term. Over the course of a century, its content changed, so that in the end, according to L. Ya Ginzburg, “realism” became an extremely loose concept.6 In many respects, its content depended on the author’s point of view on reality. ideas about realism and largely depended on these ideas.Thus, during the acquaintance with the work of Dostoevsky, his realism is interpreted by American critics either as naturalism, or as "mystical" realism, or as "romantic" realism.
For American Dostoevsky studies, which originated in the 1940s, the problem of Dostoevsky's realism, its special and complex nature, becomes one of the main subjects of study. Solving it was the key to comprehending the originality of the poetics of the writer's works, resolving the issue of his influence on modern literature, as well as to overcoming one of the obstacles to the perception of his works, their "incomprehensibility". Already in the first articles by R. Fülep-Miller and E. Simmons, devoted to the literary reputation of Dostoevsky, a special role is assigned to the writer's reputation as a realist.
The task of American Dostoevsky studies during this period was, firstly, to reveal the specifics of Dostoevsky's realism; secondly, to characterize the reality that is presented in Dostoevsky's novels and show its correlation with material reality; thirdly, to establish the origins of Dostoevsky's realistic method and connect them with the traditions of Western and world literature, which, in turn, would make it possible to draw conclusions about the influence of Dostoevsky's realism on the modern novel.
Significant for understanding the nature of Dostoevsky's reputation as a realist
5 Leatherbarrow W. J. Fedor Dostoevsky: A Reference Guide. - Boston, 1990. - P.V.
6 Ginzburg L.Ya. Literature in search of reality: Articles, essays, notes. - L .: Soviet writer, 1987. - S. 7.
This is a book by Stanford University professor Donald Fanger Dostoevsky and Romantic Realism. Dostoevsky's study in relation to Balzac, Dickens and Goschl. The features of Dostoevsky's realism are sought by the author in the laws of the genre, when the social context is presented by means of melodrama and the Gothic novel. The main emphasis is placed by the researcher on the romantic origins of Dostoevsky's work. Traditionally for American literary criticism, Fanger understands realism as a method associated with the comprehension of some higher “spiritual reality”. Fanger's task is to trace the evolution of Dostoevsky's realism, his transition from the social to the metaphysical level, that is, to the stage he calls symbolic realism. Transitivity as a specific feature of Dostoevsky's verse is reflected in the term "romantic realism", which the author uses. The concept of romantic realism, put forward and substantiated by Fanger, helped to reveal the specificity of Dostoevsky's realism, historically and artistically conditioned and justified, thus deepening the ideas of realism traditionally established in American literary criticism.
The dissertation shows that the reputation of Dostoevsky as a realist has undergone changes along with a change in the understanding of the term "realism". If in the 19th century the term implied a truthful depiction of everyday reality, then the concept of reality is gradually expanding. It includes not only the typical, but also the exceptional, not only the immanent, but also the transcendent, not only the material, but also the psychic and spiritual. The idea of Dostoevsky's realism is gradually becoming more complex. American literary criticism in the 1940s and 1960s was moving toward a more adequate understanding of the nature of the writer's realism. In the study of the reputation of Dostoevsky as a realist, there have been such trends as: the use of various approaches and methods in the study of the reputation of Dostoevsky as a realist; deepening ideas about Dostoevsky's realism, establishing a connection between his realism and the previous tradition, the laws of the genre, as well as with the aesthetic ideas of the writer", consideration of Dostoevsky's novels from the point of view of the phenomenology of fantastic realism; recognition that the implementation of positivist ideas on realism is naive, and also that Dostoevsky's artistic method is associated with the creation of a special spiritual reality; bringing to the fore in research on issues of
7 Fanger D. Dostoevsky and Romantic Realism: A study of Dostoevsky in Relation to Balzac, Dickens, and Gogol. - Cambridge Massachusetts, 1965. "M
the relationship of this reality with material reality and an attempt to determine the nature of the first. Dostoevsky's reputation is being formed as a special realist, who approved new ways of depicting reality, expanded the boundaries of the realistic, changed ideas about credibility, used new techniques, and thereby had an impact on the American novel.
The analysis showed that if at the time of the Dostoevsky cult the attitude towards the writer was rather emotional and his literary reputation depended on the emerging myths about him as an exponent of the Russian mystical Soul, then in the 1940s-1960s emotions and myth-making were replaced by a balanced scientific study of his works. The thesis emphasizes the enormous role of R. Blackmoore, D. Sginer, D. Fanger, E. Vasiolek, R. Poggioli in rethinking the reputation of Dostoevsky. During this period, a new generation of researchers appeared, whose work determined the face of American Dostoevsky-knowledge over the next decades: V. Terrace, R. Jackson, D. Frank. In the 1940s-1960s, thanks to the research of American Dostoevsky scholars, not only was the myth of Dostoevsky’s “mediocrity”, exoticism, alienness to American culture, but the task of mastering his artistic discoveries being solved. First of all, those discoveries of Dostoevsky (Dostoevsky's fantastic realism, the use of grotesque techniques, the mixture of the tragic and the comic, the theme of duality, the theme of the "underground" and others) that are close and consonant with the development of aesthetic and critical thought of this period in the USA are mastered.
In the second chapter, an attempt is made to show the nature of Dostoevsky's literary reputation in the 1940s-1960s on the example of the critical and literary activities of K. McCullers, D. Salinger, S. Platt, to identify the nature of Dostoevsky's influence on the work of these writers, as well as on the formation of a new type novel in American literature - a novel about a teenager. To combine these writers in one study allowed the existing common features in their work, as well as their place in US literature. Firstly, all three are classics of American literature. Secondly, the main theme of their work is the theme of a teenager (K. McCullers - 40s years, D. Salinger - 50s, S. Plath - 60s). Thirdly, the influence of Dostoevsky on their work is obvious, although little has been studied. Reading their works in comparison with the works of Dostoevsky is relevant not only for understanding the nature of Dostoevsky's literary reputation in the period under study, but also for understanding the work of the writers themselves and tendencies
tions of the development of American literature.
This chapter presents new material, unknown in domestic literary criticism, in particular, essays and literary works of writers. Their appearance gave a new feature to the formation of Dostoevsky's reputation in the United States. These are either student works (for example, S. Platt, D. Updike)8, indicating that Dostoevsky is becoming an obligatory author studied in universities, or essays (K. McCullers, K. Rexroth)4, or scientific research (D. Oates)10.-
The dissertation shows that one of the main features of American literature of the 1940s-1960s is the promotion of problems related to youth, the features of a new type of novel about a teenager are analyzed.
The image of a teenager in this novel is seen as a symbol of the position of modern man in the world. The novel about a teenager is characterized by: symbolism, philosophical problems and related philosophical symbolism. The action develops from the hero's rebellion, metafuic, "social", through a breakdown to the acquisition of new spiritual knowledge. The hero of the novel is a controversial figure, he often takes on the features of an anti-hero. Its main goal is the search for one's own identity, the struggle for authenticity. This character is an outsider, so the novel is characterized by motives of flight, loneliness, alienation. This is a nonconformist, an artist who does not accept modern society. He is both a heroic figure in his rebelliousness and a comic one at the same time. The use of the grotesque, the mixing of the comic and the tragic is one of the important techniques
8 Plath S. The Magic Mirror: a Study of the,Double in Two Dostoevsky's Novels. -
Smith College, 1955; about the student work of D. Updike, see: Interview with John Updike // Literary newspaper. - 1997. - January 15. s Rexroth Kenneth/Classics Revisited. - New York, 1965; McCullers C. The Russian Realists and Southern Literature. // McCullers C. The Mortgaged Heart. - Houghton Mifflin Company, 1971.
Oates Joy. Tragic and Comic Visions in The Brothers Karamazov // Oates J.C. The Edge ol "Impossibility: Tragic Form in Literature. - Greenwich, 1973; Oates J.C. The Double Vision of the Brothers Karamazov// Journal of Aesthetics-and Art Criticism.-"- Vol. 27, 1968; Oates J.C. Tragic Rites in Dostoevsky "s The Possessed / / Oates J.C Contraries: Essays" - New York, 1981.
used in a novel about a teenager. As for the content, the presence of a moral center in the work seems to be a distinctive feature of the novel about a teenager of this period.
The first section examines Carson McCullers (1917-1967)'s perception of Dostoevsky's work as reflected in her critical writings, as well as Dostoevsky's influence on her novel about a teenager, The Wedding Party.
C. McCullers is an outstanding American prose writer of the 20th century. Her work is usually associated with the southern school and the "southern renaissance" in American literature, but, like the work of W. Faulkner, it goes beyond this phenomenon and its meaning has yet to be clarified. Among the new promising directions for studying the writer's work, it is important to read her works in comparison with the great Russian texts, which had a significant impact on the work of K. McCullers. K. McCullers repeatedly spoke about the influence of F. Dostoevsky and Russian realists on her own work and the work of other writers of the South. "In 1941, an article by C. McCullers "Russian Realists and the Literature of the South"12 was published, which is the key not only to understanding the creative method of the writer , but also the nature of Dostoevsky's influence on her work. For K. McCullers, the discoveries of Dostoevsky the artist and, above all, his reputation as a realist are of paramount importance. McCullers writes that the literature of the South is a follower of the Russian realistic school and notes the common features of Russian creativity realists and writers of the South, such as the "cruelty" and impartiality of the image, the bold combination of the tragic and the comic, the majestic and the trivial, the sublime and the obscene, the human soul and the material detail, as well as passion; the moral approach, which is the spiritual basis of the works of Russian writers and American the desire to resolve the universal problems of being. In the view of K. McCullers, the significance of Dostoevsky for modern American literature lies, first of all, in the following. that he created new paths for the development of the realistic novel.
The McCullers article suggests three important aspects of studying the influence
11 She writes about this in the article Blooming Dream. Writing Notes. McCullers C. The Flowering Dream: Notes of Writing // MeCullers C. The Mortgaged Heart.-Boston, 1971.-P. 278. . .
"McCullers C. The Russian Realists and Southern Literature. // McCullers C. The
Mortgaged Heart.
Dostoevsky’s analysis of her novel: the method of depiction, the problematics of the work and, finally, the originality of the hero, All these aspects are considered in the dissertation. The main attention is paid to Dostoevsky's influence on the creative method of K. McCullers. It is noted that one of the features of Dostoevsky's realism, according to the writer, is that his artistic method is able to express universal metaphysical problems. This is the quality of prose, inherent in the writer herself, and. it allows researchers of her work to say that her method is close to symbolism, and her prose has a mystical dimension. Feature of the artistic method of McCullers,. arising from her understanding of realism - that fantasy, mixing reality with unreality, which she discovered in Dostoevsky. -
Dostoevsky's method opened up new opportunities for the writer to depict modern man. The dissertation analyzes the influence of Dostoevsky on the creation of the novel "Participant in the Wedding". The problematics of the work, the chosen type of hero, the techniques used, including the grotesque, the mixing of the comic and the tragic, the lofty and the trivial, the symbolism used testify to this influence. In addition, the moral attitude in literature becomes decisive not only for K. McCullers, but for all the literature of the South. The influence of Dostoevsky allowed the writer to give a philosophical sound to the novel about a teenager, and universal significance to the problems facing the hero.
The second section is devoted to a comparative analysis of the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky's "The Teenager" and D. Salinger's novel (1919 -) "The Catcher in the Rye".
D Salinger's Over the Past in the Future (195) is the best-known novel about a teenager written during the period under study.
The problem of Dostoevsky's influence on the creation of the novel was almost immediately posed by researchers as one of the aspects of studying the writer's work. The dissertation analyzes the controversy of researchers L. Fürst, H.-Yu. Gerika, D. Fiena about which work of the Russian writer can serve as a subject for comparison with the novel "The Catcher in the Rye". The conclusion is substantiated that the novel by F. M. Dostoevsky "The Teenager" is the most adequate work in which one can find sources of influence and comparison. "The Teenager" is a "highly modern novel of upbringing" from the life of a young man, """ being formed in the conditions of a big city15, therefore its problems
13 Friedlander G. Dostoevsky and World Literature. - L., 1985. - S.291.
: atika and plot conflicts could not but be reflected in the "novel of education" of the middle of the 20th century. The following topics can be called common: the theme of the school as a symbol of modern civilization, requiring conformity from a person and imposing false knowledge and values; the topic of education; family theme; a religious theme, or rather, the theme of Christ; the theme of a big city in which heroes wander; theme "beauty; theme of love. Common are the motives of flight and the search for a teacher, the motives of loneliness and confrontation, the motive of the lost paradise. Common are the techniques: the image of the hero, combining the features of an anti-hero, the narration is in the first person, the presentation of events is given in chronological sequence with small time gaps, the past is often described associatively, the style of narration is realistic, the mixture of farce and tragedy, the use of symbols.General problems: the problem of their own identity, the problem of the heroes' search for the meaning of existence, a connecting idea.It can be argued that it is Arkady Dolgoruky who is Holden's "literary brother" .
The dissertation traces the mentioned general themes, motifs, artistic devices, problems in Salinger's novel "The Catcher in the Rye" and Dostoevsky's novel "The Teenager".
Both Dostoevsky and Salinger are psychological artists. Salinger, following Dostoevsky, builds the image of heroes, based on the idea of the human soul as an arena for the struggle between good and evil, he is interested in the irrational in the human psyche. Therefore, the principles of artistic representation are largely similar in both writers. Salinger points to "broadness" as the main quality of the protagonist, combines the comic and tragic in the depiction of the hero and the narrator, in the central character he combines the features of a hero, an antihero, a jester. The religious and moral aspects of the writers' work are close. Salinger accepted the idea of salvation from the lies and lack of spirituality of modern civilization with love and beauty. In his subsequent work, he affirms the need to unite people, to build life on fundamentally different foundations:
The third section is devoted to the perception of Dostoevsky S. Plath (1932-1963) and the reflection "of this perception in the critical and artistic work of the writer. Little is known to the Russian reader of the work of Sylvia Plath. More than thirty years after her death, we have published translations of only some of her poems in periodicals , later included in an anthology of American poetry, and her novel
“Under a glass cap” was translated only¡ in 19941 "1. In Russia, not a single special study has been devoted to the writer’s work / although it is obvious that Plath is the largest American poet, and her only novel “Under a glass cap is recognized as a classic of American literature of the 20th century . .OYSHSOG "U
Sylvia Plath for a long time perceived *: "Exclusively as a poet, and the novel" Under a glass jar ". was traditionally regarded as an autobiographical document, shedding syaig not only on her work, but also on the history of her life, the mystery of illness and death. Plath's growing popularity in modern times is linked to the popularity of feminism, as well as feminist studies of the writer's work. However, these two most common approaches to reading and interpreting Plath's novel exclude or bring to the background the main problem - the problem of the peculiarities of the work's poetics. Therefore, it was very productive for the study to read her novel in the context of Dostoevsky's work, which had a decisive influence on the creation of the work, as well as in connection with the development of the American novel about a teenager.
This section presents some biographical material, in particular the history of S. Plath's acquaintance with Dostoevsky's work. In 1949, she attended a literature class, where Dostoevsky was among the writers studied. At Smith College, S. Plath attended lectures by V. Nabokov, E. Simmons' course "Dostoevsky and Western Realism." She was so fascinated by Dostoevsky during these years that in 1954, under the guidance of Professor D. Gibian, she began work on a study on the problem of Dostoevsky's duality. In 1955 S. Plath wrote The Magic Mirror: A Study of Doubles in Two Novels of Dostoevsky|5, which was highly appreciated during the discussion.
S. Plath's critical work is of great interest as a source for understanding the nature of the perception of Dostoevsky by the writer and his influence on her own work. The focus of the work is on duality as an artistic device used by Dostoevsky. A significant part of her research is devoted to
14 See, for example: New World. - 1973. 10; Foreign literature. - 1974. - No. 1; Star of the East. 19.91. "vol. No. 7; American poetry in Russian translations. - M.G. Raduga, 1983; Platt S. Under a glass cap. - St. Petersburg: North-West, 1994.
15 Plath Sylvia. The Magic Mirror. A study of the Double in Two Dostoevsky's Novels.-Smith College. - 1955. ,
looking at the nature of the changes in Dostoevsky's use of this technique in The Double and The Brothers Karamazov. It is concluded that Dostoevsky helped ^. It is important not only to understand the nature of duality and the nature of one's own duality, but also to find a literary form for mental splitting.
The psychoanalytic analysis of the writer's works, to which Plath resorts, although it limits her view of Dostoevsky, does not obscure the writer's artistic discoveries for her. The reputation of Dostoevsky as an artist who made a huge step forward in the development of the theme of duality is no less important for Plath. Dostoevsky's works prompted S. Plat to depict this duality in the novel "Under a glass jar". The dissertation examines two features that testify to the influence of Dostoevsky on the work of S. Plath: the first is associated with the image of the heroine, the other with the structure of the conflict in the novel. The system of twins is designed, on the one hand, to convey the repressed desires of the main character, her internal instability; on the other hand, to show the different sides of her personality, to convey her search for her own Self, to solve the problem of identity. An important role is played by the system of doubles for the depiction of the beginning mental illness of the heroine:
To resolve the conflict, Plat also resorts to the system of doubles, which was created under the influence of Dostoevsky. The Brothers Karamazov opened the way for her to overcome the heroine's incipient mental illness. The sort of reconciliation Ivan achieved with himself through his own acceptance of guilt and acceptance of responsibility gave Plath a new perspective on his own conflicts. -
Philosophical and social problems, psychologism inherent in Dostoevsky's work, the complex image of the heroine, the structure of the conflict and the principles of its resolution - all this testifies to Dostoevsky's influence on the creation of the novel "Under a Glass Jar".
The analysis provided an opportunity to draw a conclusion about the character and literary reputation of Dostoevsky among American writers in the period under study.
In conclusion, the results of the study are summed up, prospects for work on the topic of the dissertation are outlined.
The appendix contains a translation of the article "Russian Realists and the Literature of the South" by K. McCullers.
The main provisions of the work are reflected in the following publications^: : 1. Healing art? (On the literary reputation of Dostoevsky in the USA)//Sever. - 1998, - No. 11, - S. 136-142.
2. F.M. Dostoevsky in the Time magazine //Philological studies: Collection of works of students and graduate students of the philological faculty of KSPU-Petrozavodsk, 2000,-S. 32-37.
3. Roman F.M. Dostoevsky's "The Teenager" and D. Salinger's novel "The Catcher in the Rye" //Dostoevsky and the Present. - Novgorod, 2000. (accepted for publication).
The literary reputation of F.M. Dostoevsky, emerging in American literary criticism
1. The history of the formation of Dostoevsky's literary reputation
2. New approaches to the study of Dostoevsky's work. "New" and "old" criticism.
3. The problem of Dostoevsky's realism. The Reputation of Dostoevsky as a Realist in American Literary Studies in the 1940s-1960s.
F.M. Dostoevsky as Perceived by American Writers (K. McCullers, D. Salinger, S. Plath). Dostoevsky and the American novel about a teenager in the 1940s-1960s
1. F.M. Dostoevsky and K. McCullers
2. Roman F.M. Dostoevsky's "The Teenager" and D. Salinger's novel "The Catcher in the Rye"
3. F.M. Dostoevsky and S. Plath Conclusion Bibliography Appendix
Translation of the article by K. McCullers "Russian Realists and the Literature of the South"
160-179 180-183 184
Dissertation Introduction 2000, abstract on philology, Lvova, Irina Vilievna
With the intensification of the processes of rapprochement and mutual influence of cultures in the modern world, in particular, with the growing interest in Russian literature in the West and in the USA (which originated already in the 19th century), the problem of the functioning of Russian literature abroad becomes one of the topical aspects of its study.
Creativity F.M. Dostoevsky belongs to world culture to the same extent as Russian, having long stepped over national and temporary boundaries. Throughout the twentieth century, Dostoevsky was perceived as a contemporary, his spiritual presence in the world culture and literature of our century has become an indisputable fact. In the United States, Dostoevsky is the most widely read and studied Russian writer, representing not only Russian literature, but Russian culture as a whole. He, like no other Russian artist, influenced American literature. But the very work of Dostoevsky, living in a different culture and in a different time, acquired new facets that were previously invisible to us.
What is the reason for the Dostoevsky phenomenon in the USA? How did interest in his work arise and form? How was Dostoevsky read and perceived in different periods of acquaintance with him? What was learned in his work and what caused rejection and why? What artistic discoveries of Dostoevsky attracted the most attention, what impact did they have on the development of American literature and literary studies? All these questions are related to the problem of Dostoevsky's literary reputation in the United States, namely his reputation as an artist.
The problem of Dostoevsky's literary reputation in the United States involves considering the prevailing ideas about him as an artist and the evolution of these ideas; a description of the era and cultural environment in which this reputation was formed, because it (reputation) represents a foreign language environment and era to the same extent as it is formed by it; / characterization of the factors that contributed to the creation of the literary I reputation of the artist; as well as the characteristics of the recipients who formed it.
The literary reputation of F.M. Dostoevsky in the USA is connected with the study of the perception of his work by three main groups of readers: first, researchers of the writer's work; secondly, by writers who shape and transform this perception in their own work; thirdly, the mass audience, assimilating judgments, simplifying them to a number of cultural signs, which enter the mass consciousness. We can mention another group that contributes to the formation of Dostoevsky's reputation - these are historians, philosophers, culturologists - people for whom interest in Dostoevsky's work is an accompanying main subject of their research.
It seems important to understand the essence of the literary reputation created by literary critics and writers, because it determined the direction of literary studies and the nature of the influence of the writer's work on American literature.
It is possible to single out three periods in the formation of Dostoevsky's literary reputation in the United States. The criteria for them can be, firstly, the intensity of interest in the writer, that is, the number and nature of publications, the strength of the influence of his work on the literary process, the so-called quantitative criterion. Secondly, a qualitative criterion associated with the breaking of old and the creation of new paradigms of its perception and research. Thirdly, the relative homogeneity of both socio-political and ideological tendencies in a given historical period of time also serves as a criterion for distinguishing a period.
The first, the longest, can be divided into the period of acquaintance - from 1881 (the first publication of the translation of "Notes from the House of the Dead" in the USA) to 1912 (the beginning of the publication of translations by K. Garnet) and the period of the so-called Dostoevsky cult and then a gradual decline in interest to the writer (1912-1920). Significant for the reputation of Dostoevsky are the years of his cult. Numerous publications of translations of Dostoevsky's works, books about him, and press responses about these publications appear. At this time, his reputation as a psychologist (due to the discoveries and the growing popularity of psychoanalysis), a prophet (under the influence of the events of the Russian revolution), a myth about Dostoevsky as an exponent of the Russian Soul is formed, and the myth about him as a weak artist is preserved. The features of the formation of Dostoevsky's literary reputation during this period are: firstly, the European character of the created cult and, secondly, its formation by two groups of readers - (1) writers and (2) scientists, journalists, public figures.
The second period of a new explosion of interest in Dostoevsky falls on the end of the Second World War - the beginning of the sixties. For America, these are the years of McCarthyism, the movement of the left and youth riots, the years of the influence of existentialist philosophy. It was at this time that interest in the artistic side of Dostoevsky's work increased in the United States, studies of the poetics of his works began, and his reputation as an artist was rethought. There are new translations of his works, previously unknown to the English-speaking reader of his materials (notebooks, sketches), new biographies of Dostoevsky. The assessment of Dostoevsky's legacy becomes the subject of heated ideological discussions. The cult of the Russian Soul, which was associated with the name of Dostoevsky, is weakening. Literary criticism has a significant influence on the formation of Dostoevsky's literary reputation. There are new methods of research and direction: "closed reading" (close reading)1, "new criticism", existentialist criticism. American literature of the 1940s-1960s is strongly influenced by F. M. Dostoevsky. His reputation as the creator of the modern novel is affirmed.
The final period began with the collapse of the socialist camp and the Soviet Union. This is a period of liberation from ideological dogmas, rapprochement of nations, strengthening the dialogue of cultures. Literary criticism in the United States is characterized by a variety of applied methods and approaches, the widespread use of the methodology of M. Bakhtin2.
It should be noted that Dostoevsky was approached in an era of crisis for Europe and the United States, and the crises were one of the reasons for the change in the writer's reputation.
The time frame for this study is the 1940-1960s. Firstly, at this time there is a new wave of interest in Dostoevsky in the United States. Secondly, the reputation of Dostoevsky as an artist is being formed: the need to revise the contradictory ideas coming from Vogüé and established during the years of the cult, that Dostoevsky is a great psychologist, thinker, but a mediocre artist who does not own style and composition, is realized. In the USA, this tradition of perception of Dostoevsky is also connected with the influence of the assessments given by G. James. Thirdly, this period can be called properly American, because in these years American Dostoevsky studies were born, the main feature of which is attention to
1 Weiman R. defines its essence in this way: it is “the requirement for an accurate textual interpretation of a work of art”. See: Weiman R. "New Criticism" and the Development of Bourgeois Literary Studies. - M., 1965. - S. 126.
2 See about this period: Medinskaya N.B. F.M. Dostoevsky in American Criticism in the 1980s-1990s. - Abstract. dis. cand. philol. Sciences. - Tomsk, 1997. artistic side of Dostoevsky's work and, as the famous American literary critic R. Welleck noted, the desire for objectivity Fourthly, if three special works in the USA are devoted to the first period of the formation of Dostoevsky's literary reputation, then there is not a single study of this problem in the second period.
In domestic literary criticism, the problem of Dostoevsky's reputation in the United States was not specifically considered. Traditionally, there are two aspects of studies of the perception of Dostoevsky in the United States: the perception of his creative heritage by American criticism and his influence on American literature. Literary works, which provide an overview and analysis of American critical studies on F. Dostoevsky, were published in the 1960s and 1970s and are not free from a one-sided approach, caused in part by the ideological struggle around Dostoevsky's legacy during this period. The most significant of them are the works of A.L. Grigoriev, T.L. Motyleva, L. M. Zemlyanova, N. B. Ivanova, X. Sh. Nalchieva4. These studies
3 Wellek R. Introduction // Dostoevsky. A collection of Critical Essays / Ed. by Rene Wellek. - N. Y., 1962. - P. 14.
4 See: Grigoriev A.L. Russian literature in foreign literary criticism. - L., 1977; Zemlyanova L.M. Modern Literary Studies in the USA. Theoretical directions 1920-1980. - M.: MGU, 1990; she is. F.M. Dostoevsky and the Struggle of Trends in Post-War US Literary Studies // Russian Literature and its Foreign Critics. - Sat. articles. - M., 1974. - S. 87-131; Ivanova N.B. Dostoevsky in the assessment of modern American criticism // Russian literature in the assessment of modern foreign criticism. - M., 1973. - S. 212-266; Motyleva T.L. Heritage of modern realism. Research and observation. - M., 1973; she is. Novel - free form: Articles of recent years. - M., 1982; Dostoevsky in modern literary criticism of the USA. - M.: INION AN USSR, 1980; despite the visibility that was understandable for that time, the paucity of quotations presented in them, nevertheless, gave an idea of the state of American Dostoevsky studies and the nature of research in the United States in this period. However, on the whole, the assessments of Soviet researchers of Dostoevsky's work made in the 1960s and 1970s need to be revised and, above all, freed from the ideologized approach in interpreting the works of American scientists.
Among the studies devoted to the perception of Dostoevsky's work by American writers, the most detailed is the book by A.N. Nikolyukin "Interrelations between the literatures of Russia and the USA"5. The chapter "Dostoevsky's Legacy and American Literature" analyzes how American writers have perceived Dostoevsky's work since the publication of the first translation of Notes from the House of the Dead. The main attention in the book is paid to the influence of Dostoevsky on the work of R. Born, T. Dreiser, S. Anderson, E. Hemingway, T. Wolfe, Yu. O "Neal. The doctoral dissertation of Yu. third of the 20th century, in particular, on the work of T. Dreiser, S. Andersen, F. Scott Fitzgerald, T. Wolfe, D. Steinbeck.6 Other prominent domestic literary scholars also dealt with the problem of Dostoevsky's influence on American literature: T. L. Motyleva, I. .T. Mishin, Ya.N. Zasursky, V.A.
New foreign studies on Dostoevsky. -M.: INION AN SSSR, 1982.
5 Nikolyukin A.N. Relationships between Russian and American Literature. Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky and America. - M.: Nauka, 1987.
6 Sokhryakov Yu.I. Russian classics in the US literary process in the first third of the 20th century// Dissertation. Doctor of Philology Sciences. - M., 1982.
Kostyakov, M. Mendelson, B.I. Bursov7. The approach to American literature that developed in the Soviet era “as a certain kind of system with a very clear logic that discards as inconsequential or simply does not notice everything that does not correspond to such logic and consistency”, led, as A. Zverev notes, to sad consequences. : "We don't know American literature."8 The "forbidden novels" that existed in those years, such as W. Styron's "Sophie's Choice" or R. Warren's "The Refuge", prohibited names or names not included in the permitted list - all this led to a distortion of ideas about modern American literature. This study presents some of the "unknown" names of American writers, long recognized in their homeland as classics of the twentieth century, and thus contributes to a more objective picture of American literature of the mid-twentieth century, as well as Dostoevsky's influence on it.
In the USA, three works are devoted to the problem of the literary reputation of F. M. Dostoevsky: M. E. Davenport - “Fashion for Dostoevsky in
7 Bursov B.I. Dostoevsky and modernism // Modern problems of realism and modernism. - M., 1965. - S. 469-506; Zasursky Ya.N. American Literature of the 20th Century: Some Aspects of the Literary Process. - M.: MGU, 1966; Kostyakov V. A. American novel of the middle of the 20th century: Conceptuality of the genre. - Saratov, 1988; Mendelsohn M. Modern American novel. - M., 1964; Mishin I. T. Dostoevsky and foreign writers (Main problems of creativity, traditions and innovation. - Rostov-on-Don, 1974.
8 Zverev A. Broken Ensemble. Do we know American literature // Foreign Literature. - 1992. - No. 10. - P.245.
England and the USA "(1923), X. Machnik - "The English reputation of Dostoevsky" (1939), D. Brewster - "East-West Relations" (1954)9.
The work of M. Davenport is practically unknown to researchers. It has not been published; the manuscript is kept at the University of Oregon. It is significant that it appeared in 1923, 13 years earlier than the well-known work by H. Machnik. This indicates that the reputation of Dostoevsky early became the subject of special attention of literary critics. Its author is M. Davenport, graduate student at the University of Oregon. The researcher analyzed 26 books (from 1889 to 1922) and 65 articles (from 1885 to 1922), which contained reviews, critical articles, responses to Dostoevsky's works that appeared in print or to materials about the writer. Davenport's work is an excellent source for analyzing the nature of Dostoevsky's perception and the formation of Dostoevsky's reputation in the UK and the US. The material collected by the researcher is very colorful and eclectic, not only Anglo-American sources are presented, but references are also made to French, German, Russian writers, critics, journalists, and travelers. The conclusions made by Davenport present Dostoevsky as an epileptic, a neurotic, as well as a psychologist, a prophet of the Russian revolution, and a Christian thinker. The researcher notes the achievements of Dostoevsky as a realist, but the material at her disposal did not allow her to make more detailed observations about the originality of Dostoevsky as an artist.
Book X. Macnik covers the period from 1881 to 1936. The researcher identifies four periods in the perception of Dostoevsky in
9 Davenport M. A. The Vogue of F. Dostoevsky in England and the United States. - The University of Oregon, 1923; Muchnic H. Dostoevsky's English reputation (1881-1936). - Northampton, 1939; Brewster D. East-West Passage: A Study of Literary Relationships.-Lnd., 1954.
USA: acquaintance (1881-1888), intermediate period (1889-1911), years of Dostoevsky's "cult" (1912-1921) and the last phase - the cooling phase (1922-1936). Machnik gives a variety of excerpts from the responses and reviews of Dostoevsky's emerging books and shows what Dostoevsky's reputation was in a given time period and under the influence of what factors it developed.
In Macnik's book, Dostoevsky appears before us as a prophet of the revolution, a psychoanalyst who explores the depths of the human subconscious, a mystic who feels a mysterious connection with Russia and is able to foresee its fate, a philosopher who anticipated the ideological searches of the era. Subjectivity, one of the reasons for which is the author's belonging to his era, does not allow the researcher to separate Dostoevsky himself from the emerging myths about him. The literary reputation of Dostoevsky as an artist fades into the background, although already in these years the writer's work begins to influence the English and American novel.
Brewster's book is a study of the history of Russian-American cultural ties, and, like Machnik's book, Dostoyevsky's vogue is seen primarily as a cultural phenomenon. This is not so much a literary study as a culturological study, which widely includes historical material, documents that recreate the era. The book is polemically pointed, the journalistic liveliness of the presentation often gives it a journalistic character. Brewster's work is one of the best books written about the Russian influence on English and American literature. It also presents extensive material that makes it possible to judge the nature of interest in Dostoevsky during the period under study.
All these works cover the period from 1880 to the 1930s and give a picture of the history of the acquaintance of the West and America with the work of Dostoevsky.
There is an urgent need to continue the study of the literary reputation of the writer in the period most significant for its formation in the United States: from the 1940s to the 1960s.
The relevance of the problem of Dostoevsky's literary reputation in the United States is determined by many factors. First, the significance of Dostoevsky for world culture in general and American culture in particular. Secondly, it is connected with the strengthening of transcultural dialogue at the turn of the century. Thirdly, it is also due to the coming to the fore of the problems of perception of literature. Back in 1970, B. Meilakh wrote that the problem of artistic perception is the most complex, the most relevant and the most unexplored10. The problem of perception of a work of art abroad is also one of the most important in comparative literary criticism. M. P. Alekseev wrote about it, pointing out a number of difficulties that foreign readers face. They lie in the features of the work itself, its aesthetic nature and in the features of the reader himself. An obstacle to its perception is also a different cultural and linguistic environment. “Difficulties of this kind lead to erroneous assessments, misunderstandings, contradictions in judgments,” noted M.P. Alekseev11. Fourth, the need to reassess the ideologized approach to American Dostoevsky studies and American literature that took hold during the Soviet period. Fifth, important and relevant is the introduction into scientific circulation of unexplored materials, both literary and literary.
Sixth, poor knowledge of the problem.
10 Meilakh B. Artistic perception (Aspects and methods of study) // Questions of Literature. - 1970. - No. 10. - P.38.
11 Alekseev M.P. Russian classical literature and its world significance// Russian literature. - 1976. - No. 1. - S. 7.
The purpose of the dissertation is to explore the evolution of views on the work of Dostoevsky as an artist, based on the materials of American criticism and literature, based on the specifics of the literary process in the United States in the 1940-1960s.
This goal predetermined a number of specific research objectives:
1. to reveal the essence of the literary reputation of Dostoevsky as an artist and to reveal the factors influencing its formation;
2. to analyze the main trends in American literary criticism and research individualities that determined the formation of Dostoevsky's literary reputation in the 1940s-1960s;
3. to consider the nature of the perception of Dostoevsky by some American writers in the period under study and the influence of his work on American literature of this period.
The solution of these problems would help clarify what prerequisites in Dostoevsky's work itself and what features of his perception in the United States determined the unique place in American culture and literature that he occupies. All this, by the way, would help in turn to clarify "what Russian literature is in its originality." The answer to this question, as N. Ya. Berkovsky wrote, can be found “only when a full-length comparative study of world literature and Russian literature is carried out, when style is compared with style, aesthetics with aesthetics”12.
The purpose of the first chapter is to show the process of formation of Dostoevsky's literary reputation as an artist by American literary criticism in its originality. Dostoevsky studies in America originated in the postwar period. It determined the proper American reading of Dostoevsky.
Berkovsky N. Ya. On the world significance of Russian literature. - L .: Nauka, 1975. - S. 18.
This chapter examines the factors in the formation of Dostoevsky's literary reputation and the reasons that necessitated its reassessment in the 1940s-1960s, which, in turn, determined the direction of literary studies. The goal is determined by the selection of the material under study. Among the variety of directions, those were chosen that, firstly, expressed its specifically American character and, secondly, turned out to be significant for the formation of the reputation of Dostoevsky as an artist.
The development of American literary criticism in the postwar years was largely determined by the “new criticism” that arose in the forties. In Dostoevsky studies, this direction is represented by the works of R. Blackmoore and R. 1
Welleck, which are analyzed in the dissertation. A peculiar reaction to the “new criticism” is reflected in the works of the “old criticism” that have appeared, of which D. Steiner’s book “Tolstoy or Dostoevsky. An essay in the manner of old criticism. Both directions had a common task - to critically rethink the established reputation of Dostoevsky as an artist, to understand the meaning of Dostoevsky's artistic discoveries. If the "new criticism" sought to take Dostoevsky's work beyond subjectivity, placing him above the era and culture that formed him, then the "old criticism" destroyed the myth of Dostoevsky as an exotic, Asian writer, including his work in the context of European literature. The existence and interaction of "new" and "old" criticism in Dostoevsky studies in the 1940s and 1960s is one of the features that influenced the formation of Dostoevsky's American literary reputation.
13 Blackmur R. Eleven Essays in the European Novel. - N.Y., 1964; Wellek R. A. History of Modern Criticism. 1750-1950. - New Haben, 1965.
14 Steiner G. Tolstoy or Dostoevsky: An Essay in the Old Criticism. - N.Y., 1959.
One of the central problems of Dostoevsky's reputation as an artist was his reputation as a realist. Most of the leading American scientists spoke during this period on this issue, among them: D. Frank, R. Poggioli, E. Vaivas, R. Jackson, D. Fanger, T. Pachmas, E. Simmons. The paper attempts to show the evolution of Dostoevsky's reputation as a realist on the basis of an analysis of the studies of these scientists.
Outside the field of study were those areas in literary criticism that considered the political, philosophical, religious views of Dostoevsky and were less concerned with the artistic side of his works. For the same reason, works of a psychoanalytic and biographical nature are excluded, in which the authors do not touch upon issues of poetics. It must be said that all these trends, except for existentialist criticism, already had their own history before the beginning of the period under study. Russian émigré criticism of Dostoevsky in the USA in 1940-1960 obviously requires special study, and due to its isolation and the small impact that it had on the nature of Dostoevsky's literary reputation in the USA during these years, it is not considered.
The purpose of the second chapter is to show the nature of Dostoevsky's literary reputation in the 1940s-1960s using the example of the critical and literary activities of K. McCullers, D. Salinger, S. Plath, to identify the nature of Dostoevsky's influence on the work of these writers, as well as on the formation of a new type of novel in American literature - a novel about a teenager. This chapter presents new material, unknown in domestic literary criticism, in particular, essays and literary works of writers. The beginning of literary studies of Dostoevsky's work in the USA gave a new feature of the formation © of Dostoevsky's reputation: there are research works of writers dedicated to his work. These are either student works (for example, S.
Plath, D. Updike)15, indicating that Dostoevsky is becoming an obligatory author studied in universities, or essays (K. McCullers, K.
Rexroth), or scientific research (D. Oates)
The study of Dostoevsky's literary reputation during this period includes both an analysis of the perception of Dostoevsky's work and the impact on an individual writer, and the identification of more general tendencies of influence on the modern American novel about a teenager.
The methodological basis of the dissertation is the principles of comparative literature, that is, the understanding of the material in a comparative historical aspect.
The study is based on the study and analysis of two hundred works of foreign authors: monographs, articles, and other materials. The main work with foreign sources was carried out while studying at the University of Oregon. Some aspects of the study were clarified by conversations with professors of this university D. Rice and N. Rosen, leading American Dostoevsky scholars.
15 Plath. The Magic Mirror: a Study of the Double in Two Dostoevsky's Novels. -Smith College, 1955; for student work by D. Updike, see: Interview with John Updike // Literary newspaper. - 1997. - January 15. - C . 12.
16 Rexroth Kenneth. Classics Revisited. - N. Y., 1965. - P. 184-187; McCullers C. The Russian Realists and Southern Literature. // McCullers C. The Mortgaged Heart. - Houghton Mifflin Company., 1971, - P. 252-258.
Oates Joy. Tragic and Comic Visions in The Brothers Karamazov // Oates J.C. The Edge of Impossibility: Tragic Form in Literature. - Greenwich. 1973. - P. 77-102; Oates J.C. The Double Vision of the Brothers Karamazov// Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism. - Vol. 27, 1968. - P. 203-213; Oates J.C. Tragic Rites in Dostoevsky's The Possessed// Oates J.C Contraries: Essays.- N. Y., 1981,-P. 17-50.
First chapter
The literary reputation of F.M. Dostoevsky in 1940-1960, emerging in American literary criticism
Conclusion of scientific work thesis on "Literary reputation of F. M. Dostoevsky in the USA"
Conclusion
1940-1960 - a new important stage in the formation of Dostoevsky's literary reputation in the United States. There is a second wave of interest in his work, due to the changed political and social conditions of American society.
The intensity of the post-war interest in Dostoevsky's work makes it possible to speak of a new fashion for Dostoevsky. It began to be widely studied in universities, during these years American Dostoevsky studies were formed. There are new trends and directions in the study of the writer's work, new research individuals appear that determined the formation of Dostoevsky's literary reputation of this period. In the ] 940s-1960s, writers came to universities, their artistic work was approaching scientific, which was reflected in the perception of Dostoevsky by American writers.
The originality of the formation of Dostoevsky's literary reputation in the United States in the 1940s-1960s lies in the increased interest in the artistic side of the writer's works, an attempt to master Dostoevsky's artistic achievements, to include them in one's artistic experience. The development of the writer's artistic heritage went through national traditions and individual characteristics.
What features in the work of Dostoevsky himself influenced the formation of his reputation as an artist? Dostoevsky proposed to American literature a range of questions that occupied a leading place in it. The most important thing is to put spiritual issues at the forefront. The post-war world, the world after the Holocaust, is a world that has lost God. Questions of God-seeking, faith, the meaning of life become central to the intellectual and spiritual life of the United States of this period. The spirituality of Dostoevsky's works was opposed to the spirit of conformism and consumption that was taking hold in American society at that time. Of great importance was the familiarization with the moral pathos of Russian literature, Dostoevsky's work.
The spirit of rebellion, which was felt in the works of Dostoevsky, was close to the spirit of the new generation of Americans. As in nineteenth-century Russia, where everything was in its infancy, was in turmoil, formation, so the sense of catastrophic existence is returning to American society in the 1940s-1960s. The heroes of Dostoevsky, their searches were close to the self-perception of Americans in the middle of the century. The society into which Dostoevsky's hero entered was unstable, conflicted, it is a society of extremes, and his hero reflected these extremes. The same hero comes to mid-century American literature. Often this is a hero - a teenager who faced the global problems of human existence and tried to answer them at once.
Dostoevsky's works turn out to be modern for the 1940s-1960s. The feeling of Dostoevsky’s modernity was noted by Y. Lavrin: “The great writer and seeker of truth, Dostoevsky deepened our understanding of man and life to such an extent that his works are a milestone not only for the European novel, but also for European consciousness. .Why do Dostoevsky's types have such an attractive force for us? Not only because of the state of volatility, fluidity, which contrasts with the severity of many European forms, but also because in Russia man anticipated the extreme tension inherent in such a type, which alone is able to solve the problems of ecumenical civilization. The European type is too narrow, too provincial to handle it. And therefore, every thinking European unconsciously feels that Russia will have an attractive force.
224 Laupp Lapko. - Or. sk. - R. 155.
Dostoevsky's artistic technique also proved to be important for the development of American literature in the mid-twentieth century. For American literature and literary criticism, his discoveries as a realist were significant, expanding the boundaries of the realistic, changing ideas about plausibility, and realism was understood as a reflection of a new spiritual reality, thereby often Dostoevsky's aesthetics drew closer to the aesthetics of modernism. His technique turned out to be the most adequate for depicting modern man.
In the 1940s and 1960s, Dostoevsky approached the American reader. He finally ceases to be an exotic artist, and his work becomes part of American culture. The post-war years are the years of assimilation of the writer's discoveries.
Every culture seeks first of all itself in a foreign culture and tries on someone else's experience. The study of Dostoevsky's literary reputation gives an idea of the important side of the historical and modern existence of Russian literature, it is a way not only of knowing a foreign culture, but also one's own, it is also a way of self-knowledge. As M. Bakhtin noted: “We pose new questions to a foreign culture, which it did not pose to itself, we look for answers to these questions of ours in it, and a foreign culture answers us, opening up new aspects of itself, new semantic depths”225.
The study of the work of American writers and research works of American literary critics allows us to outline a number of problems related to the history of perception and study of Dostoevsky in the United States, which require further consideration. Among them, as noted, is the question of Dostoevsky's influence on the creation of a novel about a teenager. It may be fruitful to consider the impact of Dostoevsky on the literature of the beatniks, on the American literature of the South, on the work of American Jewish writers, starting with N. West, and also on women's literature of the second half of the twentieth century. It is useful to study the scientific and artistic creativity of writers. The problem of Dostoevsky's perception by the mass reader has not been practically studied. Further analysis of the study of the poetics of Dostoevsky's novels by American literary criticism of the 1940s-1960s, emigrant criticism could give an idea of the nature of perception of Dostoevsky in the United States, of how Russian literature lives abroad.
Bakhtin M. M. Questions of literature and aesthetics. - M., 1975. - S. 434.
List of scientific literature Lvova, Irina Vilievna, dissertation on the topic "Russian literature"
1. Amend Victor. Theme and Form in The Brothers Karamazov // Modern Fiction Studies. - 1958. - Vol. 1.. - P. 240-252.
2. Ames Lois. Sylvia Plath: A Biographical Note // Plath Sylvia. The Bell Jar. -New York: Bantam Books, 1971. P.201-216.
3 Anderson Roger. Dostoevsky: Myths of Duality. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1986. - 186 p.
4. Bailey Thomas America Faces Russian: Russian-American Relations from Early Times to Our Day. New York: Cornell University Press, 1950.
5. Bassnett Susan. Comparative Literature: A Critical Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell, 1993.
6. Beebe Maurice. The Three Motives of Raskolnikov: A Reinterpretation of Crime and Punishment //College English. 1955. - Vol. XVII. - P. 151-158.
7. Belknap Robert. The Structure of The Brothers Karamazov. The Hague, Mouton, 1967. - XXIV. - $293
8. Belknap Robert. Recent Soviet Scholarship and Criticism on Dostoevskij // SEEJ226. Vol. XI. - 1967. - #1.
9. Belknap Robert. The Origins of Alesa Karamazov // International Congress of Slavists 6th. Hague, 1968. - P. 7-27.
10. Bellow Saul. Conversations with Saul Bellow /Ed. by Gloria L. Cronin and Ben Siegel.- University Press of Mississippi, 1994. 303 p.
11. Berlin Isaiah. Russian Thinkers. New York, 1953.
12. Blackmur Richard. Eleven Essays in the European Novel. New York: l iar-court, Brace, 1964, - 243 p.
13. Blackmur Richard. Language as Gesture. New York, 1952.
14. Brady Leslie S. The Role of Cultural and Educational Exchanges in Soviet-American Relations // SEEJ. 1962 Vol. VI. - # 3. - P. 197-201.
15. The Slavic and East European Journal.
16. Brewster Dorothy. East-West Passage: A Study in Literary Relations. London, 1954.-319 p.16. "The Brothers Karamazov" and the Critics. /Ed. by Edward Wasiolek. Belmont, California: University of Chicago, 1967.
17. Buchen I. Divine Collusion: The Art of Carson McCullers // Dalhousie Review. Autumn 1974.
19. Butscher E. Sylvia Plath: Method and Madness. New York: Kangaroo Book, 1977.-444 p.
20. Camus A. Essais Bibliotheque de la Pleide. Paris, 1965.
22. Carr Edward. Dostoevsky (1821-1881). A New Biography. Norwood, 1978. -327 p. (First published in 1931).
23. Carter Stephen. The Political and Social Thought of Dostoevsky. New York: Garland Publishing, 1991. - 300 p.
24 Carver Wayne The Grand Inquisitor "s Long March // University of Denver Quarterly. 1966. - Vol. 1. - # 2. - C. 37-64.
25. Catteau Jacques. Dostoevsky and the Process of Literary Creation. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989. - XIV. - 553p.
26. Childers H. American Novel about Adolescents. 1917-1953. George Peaboy College for Teachers, 1958.
27. Coulson Jessie. Dostoevsky: a Self Portrait. - New York: Oxford University-Press, 1962. - XV. - $279
28. Davenport Mabel. The Vogue of F. Dostoevsky in England and the United States. The University of Oregon, August 1923. - 61 p.
29 Davies Ruth. The Great Books of Russia. Norman: University of Okhlahoma Press, 1968.-233 p.
30. De Jonge Alex. Dostoevsky and the Age of Intensity. London: Secher and Wakburg, 1975.
31. Dostoevsky // The New Encyclopaedia Britannica. Vol. 17. Macropaedia. -New York, 1994. - P. 451-454.
32. Dostoevsky and the Twentieth Century. //The Ljubljana Papers /Ed. by Malcolm V. Jones. Nottingham: Astra Press, 1993.
33. Dostoevsky and Britain. /Ed. by Leatherbarrow. London, 1995.- 312 p.
34. Dostoevsky: A Collection of Critical Essays. /Ed. by Rene Wellek. New Jersey: Englewood Cliffs, 1962. - 180 p.
35. Dreizin Felix. The Russian Soil and the Jew Essays in Literary Ethnocriticism. -University Press of America, 1990.
36. Eastman Richard. Idea and Method in a Scene by Dostoevsky //College English. 1955. - Vol. XVII. - P. 143-150.
37. Emerson Caryl. Tolstoy and Dostoevsky: Seductions of the Old Criticism // Reading G. Steiner. Baltimore and London, 1994. - P. 74-98.
38. Fanger Donald. Dostoevsky's Early Feuilletons: Approaches to a Myth of the City. I / Slavic Review. September 1963. -Vol. XXI1. - #3.
39. Fanger Donald. Dostoevsky and Romantic Realism: A study of Dostoevsky in Relation to Balzac, Dickens, and Gogol. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1965.-XD.-307 p.
41. Fiene Donald. J. D. Salinger and The Brothers Karamazov: A Response to Horst-Jurgen Gerigk "s "Dostojewskis Junging und Salingers Catcher in the Rye". //Dostoevsky Studies227 1987. - Vol. 8. - P. 171-186.
42. Fienke Michael. Metapoesis. The Russian Tradition from Pushkin to Chekhov. Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1995.
43. Frank Joseph. Nihilism and Notes from Underground //Slavic Review. 1961.-Vol. 2.
44. Frank Joseph. The World of Raskolnikov //Encounter. 1966. Vol. XXVI. -#6.
45. Frank Joseph. Dostoevsky's Discovery of "Fantastic Realism" // Slavic Review: American Quarterly of Soviet and East European Studies. 1969. - Vol. 27. -C. 625-635.
46 Frank Joseph. Dostoevsky: The House of the Dead. //The Sewanee Review. -Autumn 1966. Vol. 74.-P. 779-803.
47. Frank Joseph. The Masks of Stavrogin // Sewanee Review. 1969.-Vol. 77.-#1. -P.660-691.
48. Frank Joseph. Dostoevsky: The Seeds of Revolt, 1821-1849. Princeton, New Jersey, 1976.-XYI.-401p.
49. Frank Joseph. Dostoevsky: the Years of Ordeal, 1850-1859. Princeton, New Jersey, 1983. - XY. - 320p.
50 Frank Joseph. Dostoevsky: the Stir of Liberation, 1860-1865. Princeton, New Jersey, 1986.-XV. - $396
51. Frank Joseph. Dostoevsky: the Miraculous Years, 1865-1871. Princeton, New Jersey, 1995.
52. Frank Joseph. Through the Russian Prism. princeton, New Jersey, 1990.
53. Frank Joseph. Russianness: Studies on a National Identity. Michigan: Ann Arbor, 1990.
54. Dostoevsky Studies, a journal of the International Dostoevsky Society, published since 1980.
55 Friedman Maurice. The Modern Job: On Melville, Dostoevsky, and Kafka.// Judaism: A Quarterly Journal of Jewish Life and Thought. 1963 Vol. XII.- P. 436-455.
56. Fueloep-Miller Rene. Fyodor Dostoevsky: Insight, Faith, and Prophocy. -Scribners, 1950.
57. Fueloep-Miller Rene. Dostoevsky's Literary Reputation // The Russian Review. - January 1951, - Vol. 10.-#1.-P. 46-54.
58. Fueloep-Miller Rene. The Posthumous Life of Dostoevsky // The Russian Review. October 1956. - Vol. 15. - # 4. - P. 259-265.
59. Furst Lilian. Dostoevsky "s Notes from Underground and Salinger" s The Catcher in the Rye //Canadian Review of Comparative Literature. 1978. - Vol. V.-P. 72-85.
60. Fydor Dostoevsky. The Notebooks for Crime and Punishment /Ed. and trans, by Edward Wasiolek. University of Chicago Press, 1967. - 246 p.
61. Gerigk Horst-Jurgen. Versuchüber Dostoevski. Jungle. Ein Beitrag sur Theorie des Romans. Munich, 1965. - 203p.
62. Gerigk Horst-Jurgen. Die Russen in America. Hürtgenwald: G. Pressler, 1995.
63. Gibian George. C. G. Carus Psyche and Dostoevsky // The American Slavic and East European Review. October 1955. - Vol. XIV. - # 3. - P. 371-382.
64. Gibian George. Traditional Symbolism // "Crime and Punishment" and the Critics. /Ed. by Edward Wasiolek. Belmont, California: University of Chicago, 1961. - P. 77-90.
65. Guide Andre. Dostoevsky. /Trans, with an Introduction by Arnold Bennet. -New York: Knoph, 1926.
66. Guerard Albert. The Triumph of the Novel: Dickens, Dostoevsky, Faulkner. -Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1982.
67. Gwynn Frederick. Faulkner's Raskolnikov // Modem Fiction Studies. Summer 1958. - Vol. IV. - #2. - P. 169-172.
68. Hamilton I. In search of J. D. Salinger. London: Minerva, 1989. - 222 p.
69 Harper Ralph. The Seventh Solitude. Metaphysical Homelessnees in Kierkegaard, Dostoevsky and Nietzsche. Baltimore: Midd "x, 1965. - X. - 153 p.
70. Hassan I. The Idea of Adolescence in American Fiction // American Quarterly fall. 1958.
71. Hayman Ronald. The Death and Life of Sylvia Plath. New York: A Birch Lane Press Book, 1991.
72. Herriot James. The Lord God Made Them All. Bantam books, 1981.-374 p.
73. Hesse Hermann. Thoughts in the Idiot of Dostoevsky. /Trans, by Stephen Hudson. Dial. - August, 1922.
74. Hesse Hermann. The Brothers Karamazov. The Downfall of Europe. // Dial. -June, 1922.
75Hingley Ronald. The Undiscovered Dostoevsky. Westport, Connecticut, 1975.
76. Holquist Michael. Dostoevsky and the Novel. Princeton, New Jersey, 1977. -Xm. - 202p.
77. Hubben William. Four Prophets of Our Destiny: Kierkegaard, Dostoevsky, Nietzsche, and Kafka. New York: Macmillan, 1952. - X. - 170 p.
78. Jackson Robert. Dostoevsky's Underground Man in Russian Literature. The Hague, 1958. - XV. - 223 p.
79. Jackson Robert. Dostoevsky's Quest for Form: A Study of His Philosophy of Art. New Haben: Yale University Press, 1966. - XVI. - 274 p.
80. Jackson Robert. Dialogues with Dostoevsky. Stanford, California, 1993. -346 p.
81. Jackson Robert. The Art of Dostoevsky: Deliriums and Nocturnes. Princeton, New Jersey, 1981. - XII. - 380p.
82. James Judith. Wunderkind: The Reputation of Carson McCullers, 1940-1990. -New York, 1995.
83James Jones. Wayward Skeptic. The Theories of R. P. Blackmur. Urbana and Chicago, 1986.
84Jones Malcolm. Dostoevsky after Bakhtin: Readings in Dostoevsky's Fantastic Realism. New York: Cambridge, 1990.
85. Johnson L. The Experience of Time in Crime and Punishment. Columbus Slavica, 1985. - 146 p.
86. Kabat J. ideology and Imagination: The Image of Society in Dostoevsky. -New York, 1978. 201 p.
87. Kaufmann Walter. Existentialism from Dostoevsky to Sartre. Arnold, 1968.
88. Keller Sara Ann. An Existential Analysis of Dostoevsky. 1967.
89. Kerouac Jack. On the road. New York: Penguin Books, 1999.
90. Kirk Irina. Dramatization of Consciousness in Camus and Dostoevsky // Busknell Review. 1968. - Vol. 16. - # 1. - P. 96-104.
91. Knapp Liza. The Annihilation of Inertia: Dostoevsky and Metaphysica. -, Northwestern University Press 1996.
92. Kravchenko Maria. Dostoevsky and Psychologists. Amsterdam, 1969.
93. Krieger Murray. The Tragic Vision: Variation of a Theme in Literary Interpretation. New York, 1960.
94. Lameyer J. The Double in Sylvia Plath The Bell Jar // The Woman and the Work. New York, 1977.
95. Lary N. Dostoevsky and Soviet Film. Visions of Demonic Realism. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1986.
96. Lavrin Janko. Dostoevsky: a Study. New York: Russell, 1943.
97 Leatherbarrow William. Fyodor Dostoevsky: The Brothers Karamazov. - New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992. 115 p.
98 Leatherbarrow William. Fyodor Dostoevsky; a Reference Guide. Boston, 1990.
99. Lethcoe James. Self Deception in Dostoevski) "s Notes from the Underground // SEEJ. - 1966. - Vol. X. - # 1
100. Linner Sven. Dostoevsky on Realism. Stockholm: Almquist and Wiksell, 1967.-211 p.
101. Lloyd John Arthur. Fyodor Dostoevsky. New York, 1971. - 324 p.
102. Lord Robert. Dostoevsky: Essays and Perspectives. Berkeley, 1970.
103. McCullers Carson. The Member of the Wedding. New York, 1946.
104. McCullers Carson. The Mortgaged Heard. Boston, 1971.
105 Magarshack David. Dostoevsky. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1963. - 399 P
106. Malenko Zinaida and Gebhard James. The Artistic Use of Portraits in Dosto-evsky's Idiot. //SEEJ. -1961. Vol. V. - #3. - P. 243-255.
107 Matlaw Ralph. Thanatos and Eros: Approaches to Dostoevsky's Universe // SEEJ. Spring 1960. - Vol. IV (XVIII). - # 1.
108 Matlaw Ralph. Dostoevskij and Conrad "s Political Novels // American Contributions to the Fifth International Congress of Slavists. Sofia, September 1963. - Vol. II. The Hague, 1963. - P. 213-231.
109 Matlaw Ralph. The Brothers Karamazov: Novelistic Technique. S.-Graven-hage: Mouton, 1957. - 44p.
110. Meier-Graefe Julius. Dostoevsky, the Man and his Work / Trans. Herbert Marks. New York: Haskell House, 1972.
111. Merry H. Coble. A Study of the Adolescent Girl in the Fiction of Carson McCullers. //Valdosta State College. - August, 1972.
112. Miller Robin. Critical Essays on Dostoevsky. Boston, 1986. - VI. - 270p.
113 Modern Fiction Studies. Lafayette. - Autumn 1953. - Vol. IV. - #3.
114 Modern Literary Theory. A Comparative Introduction /Second Edition. Ed. by Ann Jefferson and David Robey. London, 1988.
115. Mohrenschildt Dimitri. Russian Area Studies and Research Since World War II // The Russian Review. April 1953. - Vol. 12.-#2.
116 Moravcevich Nicholas. Humor in Dostoevsky // Bucknell Review. 1966. Vol. 14.-#3.
117 Mossman Elliott. Dostoevski's Early Works: the More than Rational Distortion // SEEJ. 1966. - Vol. 10. - #3. - P. 268-278.
118. Muchnic Helen. Dostoevsky's English Reputation (1881-1936). Northampton, 1939.
119. Muchnic Helen. The Leap and the Vision Pattern of Dostoevski's Novels // SEEJ. 1964. - Vol. VIII. - # 4. - P. 379-390.
120. Murav Harriet. Holy foolishness: Dostoevsky's Novels and the Poetics of Cultural Critique. Stanford, 1992. - 213 p.
121. Murdoch David. Dostoevski's Satiric Comedy // Satire Newsletter. 1965. - Vol. III. - P. 3-12.
122.Murry Johnn. Fyodor Dostoevsky: A Critical Study. New York: Russell, 1966. - 263 p.
123. Vladimir Nabokov. Lectures on Russian Literature. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1981.-325 p.
124. Niemi Pearl. The Art of Crime and Punishment // Modern Fiction Studies. -1964. -Vol. IX.-P. 291-313.
125. The Notebooks for The Idiot /Ed. and introduced. Edward Wasiolek; tr. Katharine Strelsky. Chicago: university of Chicago Press, 1967.
126. Oates Joyce Carol. Tragic and Comic Visions in The Brothers Karamazov // Oates J.C. The Edge of Impossibility: Tragic Form in Literature. Greenwich, 1973.-p. 77 - 102.
127. Oates Joyce Carol. The Double Vision of the Brothers Karamazov // Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism. 1968. - Vol. 27. - P. 203-213.
128. Oates Joyce Carol. Tragic Rites in Dostoevsky's The Possessed // Oates J.C Contraries: Essays.- New York, 1981 P. 17-50.
129. Olgin Joseph. A Guide to Russian Literature, 1820-1917. London: Jonathan Cape, 1921.
130. Pachmuss Temira. Dostoevskij in the Soviet Criticism of the Early 1930 "s // SEEJ. -1962. Vol. VI. - #4. - P. 322-331.
131. Pachmuss Temira. F. M. Dostoevsky. Dualism and Synthesis of the Human Soul. Carbondale Southern, Illinois, 1963. - XVII. - 214p.
132. Pachmuss Temira. Dostoevsky, D.H. Lawrence, and Carson McCullers: Influences and Confluences // Germano-Slavica. 1974. - Vol. 4. - P. 59-68.
133. Pachmuss Temira. The Theme of Vanity in Dostoevski) "s Works // SEEJ. -1963. - Vol. VII. # 2. - P. 142-159.
134. Panichas George. The Burden of Vision. Dostoevsky's Spiritual Art. Grand Rapids Mich., 1977. -216 p.
135. Panichas George. Dostoevski and Satanism // Journal of Religion. 1965. Vol. 45. - P. 12-29.
136. Pannick Gerald. Blackmur Richard. Twayne Publishers, 1981.
137. Passage Charles. The Russian Hoflmannists. The Hague, 1963.
138. Passage Charles. Dostoevski the Adapter: a Study in Dostoevski's Use of the Tales of Hoffman. University of North Carolina Press, 1954.
139. Payne Robert. Dostoevsky: a human portrait. New York, 1961. - 405 p.
140. Peace R. Dostoevsky: An Examination of the Major Novels. Cambridge, 1971.-VII.-347 p.
141. Peck M. Scott. The Road less Traveled: a New Psychology of Love, Traditional Valves and Spiritual Growth. New York: A Touchstone Book, 1979. -319 p.
142. Phelps Gilbert. The Russian Novel in English Fiction. London, 1956.
143. Phillips William. Dostoevsky's Underground Man // Partisan Review. 1946. - Vol. XIII. - # 5. - P. 551-561.
144. Plath Sylvia. The Magic Mirror: a Study of the Double in Two Dostoevsky's Novels. Smith College, 1955.
145. Plath Sylvia. The Bell Jar. New York: Bantam Books, 1951. - 216 p.
146. Poggioli Renato. The Phoenix and the Spider: A Book of Essays about some Russian Writers and their View of the Self. New York: Harvard University Press, 1957.-X.-238p.
147. Poggioli Renato. Dostoevsky and Western Realism // The Kenyon Review. -1952. -Vol. XIV. #1. - P. 43-59.
148. Rahv Philip. Image and Idea: Fourteen Essays on Literary Themes. New York: 1949.
149. Rahv Philip. The Legend of the Grand Inquisitor //Partisan Review. 1954.-Vol. XXI. -#3. - P. 249-271.
150. Rahv Philip. Fiction and the Criticism of Fiction. //The Kenyon Review. -September 1956. Vol. XVIII. - #2. - P. 276-299.
151. Rahv Philip. Dostoevsky in "Crime and Punishment" // Partisan Review. -1960. Vol. XXVII. - #3. - P. 393-425.
152. Rahv Philip. Dostoevsky in The Possessed: Essays on Literature and Politics. 1932-1972. Boston, 1978. - 173 p.
153. Reeve Franklin. In the Stinking City: Dostoevski) "s Crime and Punishment. // SEEJ. Summer 1960. - Vol. IV (XVIII). - #2. - P. 127-136.
154. Reeve Franklin. Russian Novel. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966. - VIII. -395p.
155. Reeve Franklin. The White Monk: an Essay on Dostoevsky and Melville. -Nashville, Tenn, 1989.
156. Rexroth Kenneth. Classics Revisited. New York: a New Direction Books, 1965.
157. Rice James. Dostoevsky and Healing Art: an Essay in Literary and Medical History. Ann Abor, Ardis, 1985.
158. Roe Ivan. The Breath of Corruption: An Interpretation of Dostoevsky. New York, 1946.
159. Rowe William. Dostoevsky: Child and Man in His Work. New York, London., 1968. - XIV. - 242p.
160. Rosen Nathan. Dostoevsky's Notebooks // Slavic Review. 1969. - Vol. 27. -P. -625-635.
161. Russian Literary Attitudes from Pushkin to Solzhenitsyn /Ed. by Richard Freeborn. London: The Macmillan Press, 1976.
162. Sajkovic Miriam T. Dostoevski's Redeeming Image of Man // SEEJ. Vol. VI.-#3.-P.214-226.
163. Salinger J. The Catcher in the Rye. New York, 1951. - 220 p.
164. Salinger J. D. Nine Stories. Franny and Zooey. Raise High The Roof Beam, Carpenters. M.: Progress Publishers, 1982. - 439 p.
165. Seduro Vladimir. Dostoevsky's Image in Russia Today. Belmont, Massachusetts, 1975. - XV. - 508 p.
166. Silbajoris Rimvydas. The Children in The Brothers Karamazov //SEEJ. -1963.-Vol. VII.-P. 26-38.
167 Simmons Ernest. Feodor Dostoevsky. New York: Columbia University Press, 1969.
168 Simmons Ernest. Dostoevsky. The Making of Novelist. New York: Oxford, 1940. -416 p.
169 Simmons Ernest. Introduction to Russian Realism. Bloomington: Indiana Press, 1965. - 275 p.
170. Slonim Marc. Dostoevsky Under the Soviets // The Russian Review. April 1951 Vol. 10.-#1.-P. 118-130.
171. Spacks Patricia. The Adolescent Idea. Myth of Youth and the Adult Imagination. New York, 1981.
172. Spilka Mark. Playing Grazy in the Underground. //The Minnesota Review. -1966. Vol. VI. - P. 233-243.
173 Steinberg Aron. Dostoevsky. New York: Hullary House Publishers, 1966. -126 p.
174. Steiner George. Tolstoy or Dostoevsky: An Essay in the Old Criticism. -New York, 1959, - XIV. 354p.
175. Straus Nina Pelican. Dostoevsky and the Woman Question. New York, 1994. - 191p.
177. Terras Victor. The Young Dostoevsky (1846-1849). A Critical Study. -Hague, Mouton, 1969. 326 p.
178. Terras Victor. Reading Dostoevsky. University of Wisconsin Press, 1998.
179. Trilling Lionel. The Fate of Pleasure: Wordsworth to Dostoevsky //Literary Views: Critical and Historical Essays. Chicago, 1964. - P. 93-114.
180. Troyat Henry. Firebrand: The life of Dostoevsky. New York, 1946.
181. Vivas Eliseo. The Two Dimensions of Reality in The Brothers Karamazov // Sewanee Review. -1951. Vol. LIX. - #1. - P. 23-49.
182. De Vogue E.-M. The Russian novel. New York: Knopf, 1916.
183. De Vogue E.-M. An Early French View. //"Crime and Punishment" and the Critics /Ed. by Edward Wasiolek. Belmont, California: University of Chicago, 1962.-P. 37-41.
184. Wasiolek Edward. Dostoevsky: The Major Fiction. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1964. - XIV. - 225p.
185. Wasiolek Edward. Structure and Detail //"Crime and Punishment" and the Critics /Ed. by Edward Wasiolek, University of Chicago, Belmont, California, 1961.-P. 109-117.
186. Wasiolek Edward. Horst-Jürgen Gerick. Versuch über Dostoevskij "s "Jungling"; Ein Beitrag zur Theorie des Romans. München, 1965 / SEEJ. 1966. - Vol. X.-#3.-P. 331-333.
187. Wasiolek Edward. Dostoevsky's Notebook for Crime and Punishment // Psychoanalytic Review. 1968. - Vol. 5. - P. 345-359.
188. Wellek Rene. The Crisis of Comparative Literature // Concepts of Criticism. -New Haven, 1963. P. 282-295.
189. Wellek Rene. The Main Trends of Twentieth-Century Criticism // Concepts of Criticism. New Haven, 1963. - P. 344-364.
190. Wellek Rene. A History of Modern Criticism. 1750-1950. New Haven, 1965. - Vol. II.
191. Wellek Rene. Introduction //Dostoevsky: Collection of Critical Essays. /Ed. by Rene Wellek. New York: Englewood Cliffs, 1962.
192. Westbrook Perry. The Greatness of a Man: Essay on Dostoevsky and Whitman. New York: Thomas Voseloff, 1961. - 165 p.
193. Whitt Joseph. The Psychological Criticism of Dostoevsky. 1875-1951: a Study of British, American and Chief European Critics. 1953.
194Wilson Edmund. A Window of Russia for the Use of Foreign Readers. New York, 1943.
195. Witham W. The Adolescent in the American Novel 1920-1960. New York, 1964.
196. Woolf Virginia. The Russian Point of View // Common Reader. New York, 1925.
197. Woolf Virginia. Modern Fiction // Woolf V. Mrs. Dalloway and Essays. -Moscow: Raduga Publishers, 1984. 400 p.
198. Wyschogrod Edith. The Mind of a Critical Moralist: Steiner as Jew //Reading J. Steiner. 1994.-P. 151-174.
200. Yarmolinsky Avraham. Dostoevsky: A life. New York, 1934.
202. Alekseev M. P. Comparative literature. L.: Science. - 1983. -447 p.
203. Alekseev MP Russian literature and its world significance: Selected Works. L.: Nauka, 1989. - 410 p.
204. Anastasiev T. Worlds of Jerome Salinger // Young Guard. 1965.2. pp. 292-302.
206. Bakhtin M.M. Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics. M.: Soviet Russia, 1979, - 318 p.
207. Bakhtin M. M. Aesthetics of verbal creativity. 2nd ed. - M.: Art, 1986. - 445 p.
208. Bakhtin M. M. Questions of literature and aesthetics. M.: Hood. Literature, 1975. -502 p.
209. Belov S. J. Salinger's Paradoxes (The Catcher in the Rye: A Novel; nine stories. M., 1983). - // Literary review. - 1985. - No. 2. - S. 61-64.
210. Bem AD At the origins of Dostoevsky's creativity. Prague, 1936.
211. Bem A. Dreamworking. // Dostoevsky and world culture. Dostoevsky and world culture. - Almanac No. 2. - St. Petersburg, 1994. - S. 202-222.
212. Berdyaev H.A. Russian Idea // Russia and Europe: The Experience of Sobor Analysis / Sat. M.: Heritage, 1992. - S. 260-291.
213. Berdyaev H.A. About Russian classics. M.: Higher school, 1993. 368 p.
214. Berkovsky N. Ya. On the global significance of Russian literature. L.: Nauka, 1975. - 184 p.
215. Bogdanov V. Leo Tolstoy and Dostoevsky (On the principles of comparative study, the most general and some). // Dostoevsky and world culture. Almanac No. 1, part II. - St. Petersburg, 1993. - S. 132-163.
216. Brooks Van Wyck. The Writer and American Life: Per. from English. M.: Progress, 1971. - V.2. - 254 p.
217. Bursov B. National originality of Russian literature. L .: Soviet writer, 1967. - 396 p.
218. Bursov B. I. Dostoevsky and modernism // Modern problems of realism and modernism. M.: Nauka, 1965. - S. 469-506.
219. Vedernikov A.N. Henry James and Dostoevsky // Unity and National Identity in the World Literary Process. J.I. : LGPI, 1973. -S. 103-111.
220. Weiman R. "New Criticism" and the development of bourgeois literary criticism. History and criticism of the latest methods of interpretation: Per. with him. M.: Progress, 1965.-428 p.
221. Vinogradov V.V. Poetics of Russian Literature: Selected Works. M.: Nauka, 1976.-512 p.
222. Perception of Russian culture in the West // Sat. articles. M.: Nauka, 1975, - 279 p.
223. Perception of Russian literature abroad. XX century // Sat. articles. L.: Nauka, 1990. - 253 p.
224. Vygotsky L. S. Psychology of art. M.: Art, 1986. - 574 p.
225. Galinskaya I.L. Philosophical and aesthetic foundations of JD Salinger's poetics. M.: Nauka, 1975. - 111 p.
226. Ginzburg L. Ya. Literature in search of reality: Articles, essays, notes. L .: Soviet writer, 1987. - 397 p.
227. Grigoriev A.L. Russian literature in foreign literary criticism. - L.: Nauka, 1977. 302 p.
228. Grossman L.P. Poetics of Dostoevsky. M.: State. Academy of thin. Sciences, 1925.
229. Grossman L.P. Dostoevsky. M .: Young Guard, 1965. - 605 p.
230. Denisova T.N. Existentialism and the Modern American Novel. - Kiev: Nauk Dumka, 1985. 245 p.
231. James G. Portrait of a Woman. M.: Nauka, 1982. - 591 p.
232. Dostoevsky in the assessment of English-language criticism of the 70s.: (Review) // Foreign literary criticism and criticism of Russian classical literature. M.: INION, 1978. - S. 156-175.
233. Dostoevsky through the eyes of the literary West // New World. 1981. - No. 10. -WITH. 218-233.
234. Dostoevsky F.M. Demons // Poly. coll. op. : In 30 vols. JL: Nauka. - T. 10. -1974.
235. Dostoevsky F.M. Brothers Karamazov // Ibid. T.14. - 1975.
236. Dostoevsky F.M. Notes from the House of the Dead // Ibid. T.4. - 1972.
237. Dostoevsky F.M. Idiot // Ibid. T.8. - 1973.
238. Dostoevsky F.M. Letter to A.N. Maykov from Florence, December 11/23, 1868 / Ibid. T.28, part II. - 1985. - S. 327-333.
239. Dostoevsky F.M. Letter to N.N. Strakhov from Florence, February 26/March 10, 1869 // Ibid. T. 29, part 1. - 1986. - S. 14-22.
240. Dostoevsky F.M. Teenager//Ibid. -T. 13.-1975.
241. Dostoevsky F.M. Crime and Punishment // Ibid. T. 6. - 1973.
242. Dostoevsky F.M. in work on the novel "Teenager": Creative Manuscripts. M .: Nauka, 1965. (Literary heritage. - T.77) - 519 p.
243. Dostoevsky: Aesthetics and poetics: Dictionary-reference book. Chelyabinsk: "Metal", 1997. - 272 p.
244. Dudkin V.V. Dostoevsky Nietzsche (The Problem of Man). - Petrozavodsk: publishing house of KSPI, 1994. - 152 p.
245. Elistratova A. The tragedy of the young generation (youth in the American novel). // New world. 1961. - No. 10. - S. 246-256.
246. Elistratova A.A. The Spiritual Crisis of the US Youth in the American Novel // Modern Literature of the USA. M.-L.: Nauka, 1962. - S. 23-43.
247. Zasursky Ya.N. American Literature of the 20th Century: Some Aspects of the Literary Process. M.: MSU, 1984. - 503 p.
248. Zakharov V.N. Dostoevsky's System of Genres: Typology and Poetics. L., 1985. - 209 p.
249. Zakharov V.N. Paradoxes of recognition: problems of "Dostoevsky's traditions" in the culture of the XX century // Sat. Dostoevsky and the Twentieth Century. The1.ubljana Papers /Ed. by Malcolm V. Jones. Nottingham: Astra Press, 1993.-P.19-38.
250. Zverev A. M. American novel of the 20-30s. M.: Artist. lit., 1982. - 256 p.
251. Zverev A. Russian classics and the formation of realism in US literature.// Sat. articles: World significance of Russian literature of the XIX century. M.: Nauka, 1987. - S. 368-398.
252. Zverev A. Broken Ensemble. Do we know American literature // Foreign Literature. 1992. - No. 10. - S. 243-250.
253. Zemlyanova JI. On the Freudian distortion of Russian literature in modern American literary criticism. // Russian literature. 1959. -№2.-S. 226-234.
254. Zemlyanova L. On some literary and theoretical concepts in the American "Sovietology" of the 70s. //Methodological problems of modern literary criticism. M.: Thought, 1976. - S. 253-271.
255. Zemlyanova L. Modern literary criticism in the USA: theoretical trends and confrontations in the 1920s-1980s. M.: MGU, 1990. - 277 p.
256. Zlochevskaya A. Dostoevsky and Nabokov. // Dostoevsky and world culture. - Almanac 7. St. Petersburg, 1996.
257. Zlochevskaya A. The element of laughter in the novel "Idiot" // Dostoevsky and world culture. Almanac 1. - Part 1. - St. Petersburg, 1993. - S. 25-48.
258. Ivanov Vyach. Dostoevsky and the novel-tragedy //Coll. op. T. 4. - Brussels, 1987. - S. 401-538.
259. Ivanova N.B. Dostoevsky in the assessment of modern American criticism // Russian literature in the assessment of modern foreign criticism. M., 1973.-S. 212-266.
260. History of American Literature. Part 1. - M.: Enlightenment, 1971. - 343 p.
261. History of American literature. Part 2. - M.: Enlightenment, 1971. -319s.
262. Itkina H.JI. J. D. Salinger: theme, hero, conflict // Semantic and stylistic features of English words and phrases. M., 1988.-S. 116-125.
263. Camus A. A rebellious person. Philosophy. Policy. Art: Per. from fr. M.: Politizdat, 1990. - 415 p.
264. Kandel B. Preface to the book: S. Anderson. Stories. M., 1959.
265. Karyakin Yu. Dostoevsky and the eve of the 21st century. M.: Soviet writer, 1989.-652 p.
266. Kashina N.V. Man in the work of F. M. Dostoevsky. M.: Artist. lit., 1986. -318 p.
267. Kirpotin V.Ya. World of Dostoevsky: Articles, studies. M.: Soviet writer, 1983. - 471 p.
268. Kozhinov V. Attention: US literature today: Achievements and miscalculations of Soviet American studies. // Moscow. 1982. - No. 11. - S. 180-191.
269. Kostyakov V.A. Faulkner and Dostoevsky // American Literature: Problems of Romanticism and Realism. Issue. 2. Krasnodar, 1973. - S. 86-98.
270. Kostyakov V.A. American novel of the middle of the 20th century: Conceptuality of the genre. Saratov, 1988. - 245 p.
271. Kustova L.S. Salinger's novel "The Catcher in the Rye" and its translation into Russian. // Bulletin of Moscow State University. Philology, journalism. - 1964. -№1. - S. 68-81.
272. Levidova I. Restless souls (Heroes of books by Kerouac, James, Salinger, Capote). // Questions of Literature. 1960. -№10. - S. 108-131.
273. Leontiev K.N. Our New Christians. F. M. Dostoevsky and gr. L. Tolstoy.-M., 1882.
274. Lossky N. Dostoevsky and his Christian world outlook. New York, 1953. - 406 p.
275. Lurie M.M. Dostoevsky in England // Dostoevsky and the English novel of the 20s and early 30s. L., 1971.
276. Lurie M. English writers and critics about Dostoevsky // Russian literature and the world literary process. L., 1973. - S. 186-212.
277. Lewis Sinclair. Preface to "Fathers and Sons" //Coll. cit.: In 9 volumes - M .: Pravda Publishing House, 1965, - V.7. pp. 440-442.
278. Makeev A.B. Russian classical literature in the distorted mirror of English and American literary studies // Bulletin of Moscow State University. Series 9. Philology. - 1980. - No. 1. - S. 13-23.
279. Medvedev A. Outwitting Nabokov // Foreign Literature. 1999. -№12.-S. 217-229.
280. Meilakh B. Artistic perception. (Aspects and methods of study) // Questions of Literature. 1970. - No. 10. - S. 38-55.
281. Mendelsohn M. Novel USA today at the dawn of the 80s. - 2nd ed., add. - M.: Soviet writer, 1983. - 415 p.
282. Merezhkovsky D. S. L. Tolstoy and Dostoevsky: Life, creativity and religion // Full. coll. op. M., 1914. - T. 9-10.
283. Mishin I.T. Dostoevsky and foreign writers (Main problems of creativity, traditions and innovation): Uch. special course allowance. Rostov-on-Don, 1974. - 134 p.
284. Youth of the 60s in US literature. // Foreign literature. -1967.-№12.
285. Morozova T.L. The Human Debate in American Literature: History and Modernity. M.: Nauka, 1990. - 331 p.
286. Morozova T. The Image of a Young American in US Literature (Beats, Salinger, Bellow, Updike). M.: Higher school, 1969. - 95 p.
287. Motyleva T. Leo Tolstoy and the problems of the modern novel. (Historical and literary notes) // Foreign Literature. 1960. - No. 11. - S. 209-218.
288. Motyleva T.JI. Dostoevsky and world literature. //Motyleva T. Foreign Literature and Modernity. M.: Soviet writer, 1961. -368 p.
289. Motyleva T.L. Heritage of modern realism. Research and observation. M.: Soviet writer, 1973. - 438 p.
290. Motyleva T. Dostoevsky: new foreign works: (Review). // Questions of Literature. -1981. No. 4. - S. 218-250.
291. Motyleva T.L. Novel free form: Articles of recent years. - M.: Soviet writer, 1982. - 399 p.
292. Mochulsky K. Dostoevsky. Life and art. Paris, 1980
293. Mochulsky K. Gogol, Solovyov, Dostoevsky. M.: Respublika, 1995. - 607 p.
294. Mulyarchik A. Prose by Jerome D. Salinger. // Foreword: J. D. Salinger. Catcher in the rye. Tales. Nine stories. M.: Khu-dozh. lit., 1983. - S. 5-18.
295. Mulyarchik A. The dispute is about the man: On the literature of the United States of the second half of the XX century. M.: Soviet writer, 1985. - 359 p.
296. Mulyarchik A. Modern realistic novel of the USA. M., 1988.
297. Mulyarchik A. Dialogue with the United States. // Questions of Literature. 1990. - No. 9.
298. Mulyarchik A. USA: twentieth century. Limits of the literary process. -M., 1994.
299. Nikolyukin A.N. From the history of Russian-American literary relations. // Questions of Literature. -1981. No. 4.
300. Nikolyukin A.N. Literary ties between Russia and the USA. Formation of literary contacts. M.: Nauka, 1981. - 406 p.
301. Nikolyukin A.N. Dostoevsky translated by Constance Garnet // Russian Literature. 1985. - No. 2. - S. 154-162.
302. Nikolyukin A.N. Relationships between Russian and American Literature. Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky and America. M.: Nauka, 1987. - 350 p.
303. Orlova R.D. Fathers and Sons in the Literature of Modern America (J. Steinbeck, J. Salinger, X. Lee) // Literature at school. 1964. - No. 6. - S. 18-28.
304. Orlova R. Bridges: Russian-American Literary Relations. // Foreign literature. 1993. - No. 11. - S. 243-248.
305. From Romanticism to Realism: From the History of International Relations of Russian Literature. L.: Nauka, 1978. - 320 p.
306. Oates JK The tragic and the comic in The Brothers Karamazov. // Dostoevsky and world culture. Almanac No. 6. - St. Petersburg, 1996. - S. 210 -229.
307. Panova V. On the novel by JD Salinger. // Foreign literature. -1960. -#11. -With. 138-141.
308. Parrington V.P. Major Currents of American Thought. American literature since its inception until 1920. M.: Izd-vo foreign literature, 1963. - Vol. 3. - 603 p.
309. Pereyashkin V.V. F.M. Dostoevsky and the "southern school" in US literature (based on the works of W. Faulkner and W. Styron). // Continuity in the development of literature. Pyatigorsk, 1993. - S. 98-108.
310. Petrovsky Yu. Salinger's work and the traditions of world literature. // Uch. notes of the Novgorod state. ped. in-ta. 1967. V.20 / Issues of the content and form of a literary work. - S. 96-108.
311. US Writers on Literature / Sat. M.: Progress, 1982. - Vol. 1.2.
312. Writers of the USA: Short creative biographies. M.: Raduga, 1990. -623 p.
313. Plat S. Under a glass jar: Collection. St. Petersburg: North-West, 1994. - 341 p.
314. Pomerants G.S. Openness to the Abyss: Meetings with Dostoevsky. M.: Soviet writer, 1990. - 382 p.
315. Pomerants G. Thinkers read Dostoevsky. // October. 1993. - No. 3. -WITH. 185-189.
316. Pushkareva B.C. Children, childhood in the artistic world of F.M. Dostoevsky. Abstract dis. .cand. philol. Sciences. - JI., 1975.
317. Russian emigrants about Dostoevsky: Collection. St. Petersburg: Andreev and sons, 1994. - 427 p.
318. Rygalova L.S. From the history of the struggle around the artistic heritage of Dostoevsky and Tolstoy // Russian classical literature and ideological struggle. Stavropol, 1983. - S. 71-80.
319. Saraskina L. Nabokov, who scolds. // October. 1993. - No. 1. - S. 176-189.
320. Sarykulova V.D. Dostoevsky in contemporary American criticism. //Bulletin of Moscow State University. Journalism. - 1967. - No. 4. - S. 20-31.
321. Sarykulova V.D. F.M. Dostoevsky in Criticism of the US Comparatives. -M., 1968.
322. Semenov E. I. Dostoevsky's novel "Teenager" (problematics and genre). L.: Nauka, 1979. - 167 p.
323. Slonim M. Dostoyevsky's Three Loves. M.: Soviet writer, 1991. -304 p.
324. Modern literary criticism of the USA: Disputes about American literature // Sat. articles. M.: Nauka, 1969. - 352 p.
325. Sokhryakov Yu.I. Creativity F.M. Dostoevsky and realistic literature of the USA in the 20-30s of the XX century (T. Dreiser, S. Anderson, F. Scott Fitzgerald). // Dostoevsky. Materials and research. L .: Nauka, 1978.-TK,-S. 243-255.
326. Sokhryakov Yu.I. Russian classics in the US literary process in the first third of the 20th century. M.: Dissertation. Doctor of Philology Sciences.
327. Stepanova T.A. The theme of childhood in the work of Dostoevsky // Bulletin of the Moscow University. Series 9. Philology. - 1988 - No. 4. - With. 88-93.
328. Salinger JD Catcher in the Rye. Tales. Nine stories. -M.: Artist. lit., 1983. 592.
329. Tarasov B.N. "Future Humanity". // Tarasov B.N. The search for truth. -M., 1984.
330. Tove A.L. Constance Garnet translator and propagandist of Russian literature // Russian Literature. - 1958. - No. 4. - S. 193-199.
331. Welleck R., Warren O. Theory of Literature: Per. from English. M.: Progress, 1978. - 325 p.
332. Filippov L. I. Structuralism and Freudianism. // Questions of Philosophy. -1976. No. 3.
333. Finkelstein S. Existentialism and the Problem of Alienation in American Literature. / Translation by E. Mednikov. M.: Progress, 1967. - 319 p.
334. Friedlander G. Dostoevsky's Realism. M.-L.: Nauka, 1964. - 404 p.
335. Friedlender G. Methodological problems of literary criticism. - L.: Nauka, 1984. - 307 p.
336. Friedlander G. Dostoevsky and our present. // In the world of Russian classics. M., 1984. - S. 91-131.
337. Friedlander G. Dostoevsky and World Literature. L .: Soviet writer, 1985. - 456 p.
338. Fromm E. Psychoanalysis and ethics. M .: publishing house "Republic", 1993, - 416 p.
339. Khomyakov V.A. On decadent tendencies in Salinger's work. // Uch. Notes of the Vologda Pedagogical Institute. 1967. - T. 33. Issue. 1. English philology. - S. 63-76.
340. Shestov L. Dostoevsky and Nietzsche (philosophy of tragedy): Selected works. M.: Renaissance, 1993. - p. 159-324.
341. Schennikov G. Dostoevsky's human studies. // Questions of Literature. - M. - 1987. - No. 8. - S. 247-252.208
342. Shchennikov G.K. Synthesis of Russian and Western European traditions in the works of F.M. Dostoevsky. // Creativity of Dostoevsky. The art of synthesis. - Yekaterinburg, 1991.
343. Schennikov G. K. Dostoevsky and Russian realism. Sverdlovsk: publishing house Ural, un-ta, 1987. - 349 p.
344. Yakunina L.E. The image of childhood in the ideological and artistic concept of "Sunday" L.N. Tolstoy and The Brothers Karamazov by F.M. Dostoevsky. //Typology of the literary process. Perm, 1988.209
In contact with
Despite its relatively short history, American literature has made an invaluable contribution to world culture. Although already in the 19th century all of Europe was reading the gloomy detective stories of Edgar Allan Poe and the beautiful historical poems of Henry Longfellow, these were only the first steps; It was in the 20th century that American literature flourished. Against the backdrop of the Great Depression, two world wars and the struggle against racial discrimination in America, classics of world literature, Nobel Prize winners, writers are born who characterize an entire era with their works.
The radical economic and social changes in American life in the 1920s and 1930s provided the perfect breeding ground for realism, which reflected the desire to capture the new realities of America. Now, along with books whose purpose was to entertain the reader and make him forget about the surrounding social problems, works appear on the shelves that clearly show the need to change the existing social order. The work of the realists was distinguished by a great interest in various kinds of social conflicts, attacks on the values accepted by society and criticism of the American way of life.
Among the most prominent realists were Theodore Dreiser, Francis Scott Fitzgerald, William Faulkner And Ernest Hemingway. In their immortal works, they reflected the true life of America, sympathized with the tragic fate of young Americans who went through the First World War, supported the struggle against fascism, spoke openly in defense of workers, and unashamedly portrayed the depravity and spiritual emptiness of American society.
THEODORE DREISER
(1871-1945)
Theodore Dreiser was born in a small town in Indiana to a bankrupt small business owner. Writer from childhood he knew hunger, poverty and need, which was later reflected in the themes of his works, as well as in a brilliant description of the life of the ordinary working class. His father was a strict Catholic, limited and despotic, which made Dreiser hate religion till the end of one's days.
At the age of sixteen, Dreiser had to leave school and work part-time in order to somehow earn his living. Later, he was still enrolled in the university, but he could only study there for a year, again because of money problems. In 1892, Dreiser began working as a reporter for various newspapers, and eventually moved to New York, where he became editor of the magazine.
His first significant work is the novel "Sister Kerry"- comes out in 1900. Dreiser tells the story of a poor country girl, close to his own life, who recovers in search of work in Chicago. As soon as the book barely made it to print, it immediately was called contrary to morality and withdrawn from sale. Seven years later, when it became too difficult to hide the work from the public, the novel nevertheless appeared on store shelves. Writer's second book "Jenny Gerhard" published in 1911 was also crushed by critics.
Further, Dreiser begins to write a cycle of novels "Trilogy of Desires": "Financier" (1912), "Titanium"(1914) and unfinished novel "Stoic"(1947). Its purpose was to show how, at the end of the 19th century, America was "big business".
In 1915, a semi-autobiographical novel was published. "Genius", in which Dreiser describes the tragic fate of a young artist whose life was broken by the cruel injustice of American society. Myself the writer considered the novel his best work, but critics and readers greeted the book negatively and it is practically not for sale.
Dreiser's most famous work is the immortal novel. "American tragedy"(1925). This is a story about a young American who is corrupted by the false morals of the United States, which leads him to become a criminal and a murderer. novel reflects american lifestyle, in which the poverty of workers from the outskirts stands out against the backdrop of the wealth of the privileged class.
In 1927, Dreiser visited the USSR and published a book the following year. "Dreiser looks at Russia", which became one of the first books about the Soviet Union, published by a writer from America.
Dreiser also supported the movement of the American working class and wrote several non-fiction works on this topic - "Tragic America"(1931) and "America Worth Saving"(1941). With tireless strength and the skill of a true realist, he depicted the social order around him. However, despite how harsh the world appeared before his eyes, the writer never did not lose faith to the dignity and greatness of man and his beloved country.
In addition to critical realism, Dreiser worked in the genre naturalism. He scrupulously depicted seemingly insignificant details of the everyday life of his heroes, cited real documents, sometimes very long in size, clearly described the actions related to business, etc. Because of this style of writing, criticism is often accused Dreiser in the absence of style and fantasy. By the way, despite such condemnations, Dreiser was a candidate for the Nobel Prize in 1930, so you yourself can judge their veracity.
I do not argue, maybe sometimes the abundance of small details is confusing, but it is their ubiquitous presence that allows the reader to most clearly imagine the action and, as it were, become a direct participant in it. The writer's novels are large in size and can be quite difficult to read, but they are undoubtedly masterpieces american literature, worth spending time on. It is highly recommended to fans of Dostoevsky's work, who will certainly be able to appreciate Dreiser's talent.
Francis Scott Fitzgerald
(1896-1940)
Francis Scott Fitzgerald is one of America's most famous writers. lost generation(these are young people called to the front, sometimes who have not finished school yet and start killing early; after the war they often could not adapt to civilian life, drank too much, committed suicide, some went crazy). They were devastated people who had no strength left to fight the corrupt world of wealth. They try to fill their spiritual emptiness with endless pleasures and entertainment.
The writer was born in Saint Paul, Minnesota, in a wealthy family, so he got the opportunity to study in prestigious Princeton University. At that time, the university was dominated by a competitive spirit, under the influence of which Fitzgerald also fell. He tried with all his might to become a member of the most fashionable and famous clubs, which attracted with their atmosphere of sophistication and aristocracy. Money for the writer was synonymous with independence, privilege, style and beauty, and poverty was associated with avarice and narrow-mindedness. Later Fitzgerald realized the falsity of their views.
He never finished his studies at Princeton, but it was there that his literary career(he wrote for the university magazine). In 1917, the writer volunteered for the army, but he never took part in real military operations in Europe. At the same time he falls in love with Zelda Sayre who came from a wealthy family. They married only in 1920, two years later, after the resounding success of Fitzgerald's first serious work. "On the Other Side of Paradise" because Zelda didn't want to marry a poor unknown man. The fact that beautiful girls are attracted only by wealth made the writer think about social injustice, and Zelda was later often called the prototype of the heroines his novels.
Fitzgerald's wealth grows in direct proportion to the popularity of his novel, and soon the spouses become epitome of luxury lifestyle they even came to be called the king and queen of their generation. They lived chic and ostentatious, enjoying a fashionable life in Paris, expensive rooms in prestigious hotels, endless parties and receptions. They constantly threw out various eccentric antics, scandals and became addicted to alcohol, and Fitzgerald even began to write articles for glossy magazines of that time. All this is undoubtedly destroyed the talent of the writer, although even then he managed to write several serious novels and stories.
His major novels appeared between 1920 and 1934: "On the Other Side of Paradise" (1920), "The Beautiful and the Damned" (1922), "The Great Gatsby", which is the writer's most famous work and is considered a masterpiece of American literature, and "Night is tender" (1934).
The Best Fitzgerald Stories Included in Collections "Tales of the Jazz Age"(1922) and "All those sad young people" (1926).
Shortly before his death, in an autobiographical article, Fitzgerald compared himself to a broken plate. He died of a heart attack on December 21, 1940 in Hollywood.
The main theme of almost all of Fitzgerald's works was the corrupting power of money, which leads to spiritual decay. He considered the rich to be a special class, and only over time began to realize that it was based on inhumanity, his own uselessness and lack of morality. He realized this along with his characters, who were mostly autobiographical characters.
Fitzgerald's novels are written in beautiful language, understandable and refined at the same time, so the reader can hardly tear himself away from his books. Although after reading the works of Fitzgerald, despite the amazing imagination a journey into the luxurious Jazz Age, there remains a feeling of emptiness and futility of being, he is rightfully considered one of the most prominent writers of the 20th century.
WILLIAM FAULKNER
(1897-1962)
William Cuthbert Faulkner is one of the leading novelists of the mid-twentieth century, in New Albany, Mississippi, in an impoverished aristocratic family. He studied at Oxford when the First World War began. The experience of the writer, received at this time, played an important role in shaping his character. He entered military flight school, but the war ended before he could complete the course. After that, Faulkner returned to Oxford and worked head of the post office at the University of Mississippi. At the same time, he began taking courses at the university and trying to write.
His first published book, a collection of poems "Marble Faun"(1924), was not successful. In 1925, Faulkner met the writer Sherwood Anderson which had a great influence on his work. He recommended Faulkner engage in poetry, prose, and gave advice to write about American South, about the place Faulkner grew up in and knows best. It is in Mississippi, namely in the fictional district Yoknapatofa most of his novels will take place.
In 1926 Faulkner wrote the novel "Soldier Award" who was close in spirit to the lost generation. The writer showed tragedy of people who returned to civilian life crippled both physically and mentally. The novel was also not a great success, but Faulkner was recognized as an inventive writer.
From 1925 to 1929 he worked carpenter And painter and successfully combines this with writing work.
In 1927, the novel "Mosquitoes" and in 1929 - "Sartoris". In the same year, Faulkner published the novel "Sound and Fury" which brings him fame in literary circles. After that, he decides to devote all his time to writing. His work "Sanctuary"(1931), a story about violence and murder, became a sensation and the author finally gained financial independence.
In the 1930s, Faulner wrote several gothic novels: "When I was dying"(1930), "Light in August"(1932) and "Absalom, Absalom!"(1936).
In 1942, the writer publishes a collection of short stories "Come down, Moses", which includes one of his most famous works - the story "Bear".In 1948 Faulkner writes "The Defiler of Ashes", one of the most important social novels associated with racism.
In the 40s and 50s, his best work, a trilogy of novels, was published. "Village", "City" And "Mansion" dedicated the tragic fate of the aristocracy of the American South. Faulkner's last novel "The Kidnappers" comes out in 1962, it also enters the Yoknapatof saga and depicts the story of the beautiful but dying South. For this novel, and for "Parable"(1954), whose themes are humanity and war, Faulkner received Pulitzer Prizes. In 1949, the writer was awarded "for his significant and artistically unique contribution to the development of the modern American novel".
William Faulkner was one of the most important writers of his time. He belonged to Southern School of American Writers. In his writings, he turned to the history of the American South, especially during the Civil War.
In his books, he tried to deal with racism, knowing full well that it is not so much social as psychological. Faulkner saw African Americans and whites as inextricably linked to each other by a common history. He condemned racism and cruelty, but was sure that both whites and African Americans were not ready for legislative action, so Faulkner mainly criticized the moral side of the issue.
Faulkner was proficient with the pen, although he often claimed to have little interest in writing technique. He was a bold experimenter and had an original style. He wrote psychological novels, in which great attention was paid to the replicas of the characters, for example, the novel "When I was dying" built like a chain of characters' monologues, sometimes long, sometimes one or two sentences. Faulkner fearlessly combined opposing epithets to powerful effect, and his writings often have ambiguous, indefinite endings. Of course, Faulkner knew how to write in such a way that excite the soul even the pickiest reader.
ERNEST HEMINGWAY
(1899-1961)
Ernest Hemingway - one of the most widely read writers of the 20th century. He is a classic of American and world literature.
He was born in Oak Park, Illinois, the son of a provincial doctor. His father was fond of hunting and fishing, he taught his son shoot and fish and also instilled a love for sports and nature. Ernest's mother was a religious woman who was entirely devoted to the affairs of the church. On the basis of different views on life, quarrels often broke out between the writer's parents, because of which Hemingway couldn't feel at home.
Ernest's favorite place was a house in northern Michigan, where the family usually spent their summers. The boy always accompanied his father on various trips to the forest or fishing.
Ernest's school gifted, energetic, successful student and excellent athlete. He played football, was a member of the swim team and boxed. Hemingway also loved literature, writing weekly reviews, poetry and prose for school magazines. However, the school years were not calm for Ernest. The atmosphere created in the family by his demanding mother put a lot of pressure on the boy, so that he ran away from home twice and worked on farms as a laborer.
In 1917, when America entered World War I, Hemingway wanted to join the army, but due to poor eyesight, he was refused. He moved to Kansas to live with his uncle and started working as a reporter for the local newspaper. The Kansas city star. Journalistic experience clearly visible in the distinctive style of Hemingway's writing, laconic, but at the same time clear and precise language. In the spring of 1918, he learned that the Red Cross needed volunteers for Italian front. It was his long-awaited chance to be at the center of the battles. After a short stop in France, Hemingway arrived in Italy. Two months later, while rescuing a wounded Italian sniper, the writer came under fire from machine guns and mortars and was badly injured. He was taken to a hospital in Milan, where, after 12 operations, 26 fragments were removed from his body.
Experience Hemingway received in war, was very important for the young man and influenced not only his life, but also his writing. In 1919 Hemingway returns as a hero to America. Soon he travels to Toronto, where he begins working as a reporter for a newspaper. The Toronto star. In 1921, Hemingway married the young pianist Hadley Richardson, and the couple moves to Paris, the city that the writer has long dreamed of. To collect material for his future stories, Hemingway travels around the world, visiting Germany, Spain, Switzerland and other countries. His first job "Three Stories and Ten Poems"(1923) was not successful, but the next collection of short stories "In our time", published in 1925, achieved public recognition.
Hemingway's first novel "And the Sun Rises"(or "Fiesta") published in 1926. "A Farewell to Arms!", a novel depicting World War I and its aftermath, comes out in 1929 and brings great popularity to the author. In the late 20s and into the 30s, Hemingway released two collections of short stories: "Men Without Women"(1927) and "Winner Gets Nothing" (1933).
The most outstanding works written in the first half of the 30s are "Death in the Afternoon"(1932) and "Green Hills of Africa" (1935). "Death in the Afternoon" narrates about the Spanish bullfight, "Green Hills of Africa" and the well-known collection "Snows of Kilimanjaro"(1936) describe Hemingway's hunting in Africa. nature lover, the writer skillfully draws African landscapes for readers.
When in 1936 began Spanish Civil War Hemingway hastened to the theater of war, but this time as an anti-fascist correspondent and writer. The next three years of his life are closely connected with the struggle of the Spanish people against fascism.
He took part in the filming of the documentary "Land of Spain". Hemingway wrote the script and read the text himself. The impression of the war in Spain reflected in the novel "For whom the Bell Tolls"(1940), which the writer himself considered his best job.
A deep hatred of fascism made Hemingway active participant in World War II. He organized counterintelligence against Nazi spies and hunted German submarines in the Caribbean on his boat, after which he served as a war correspondent in Europe. In 1944, Hemingway took part in combat flights over Germany and even, standing at the head of a detachment of French partisans, was one of the first to liberate Paris from German occupation.
After the war Hemingway moved to Cuba, occasionally visited Spain and Africa. He ardently supported the Cuban revolutionaries in their struggle against the dictatorship that had developed in the country. He talked a lot with ordinary Cubans and worked hard on a new story. "The Old Man and the Sea", which is considered the pinnacle of the writer's work. In 1953 Ernest Hemingway received Pulitzer Prize for this brilliant story, and in 1954 Hemingway was awarded Nobel Prize in Literature "for storytelling once again demonstrated in The Old Man and the Sea."
During his trip to Africa in 1953, the writer was in a serious plane crash.
In the last years of his life he was seriously ill. In November 1960, Hemingway returned to America in the town of Ketchum, Idaho. Writer suffered from a number of diseases, because of which he was admitted to the clinic. He was in deep depression, because he believed that FBI agents were watching him, listening to telephone conversations, checking mail and bank accounts. In the clinic, this was taken as a symptom of mental illness and the great writer was treated with electric shock. After 13 Hemingway sessions I lost my memory and ability to create. He was depressed, suffered from bouts of paranoia, and increasingly thought about suicide.
Two days after his release from the psychiatric hospital, on July 2, 1961, Ernest Hemingway shot himself with his favorite hunting rifle at his home in Ketchum, leaving no suicide note.
In the early 80s, the Hemingway case at the FBI was declassified, and the fact of surveillance of the writer in his last years was confirmed.
Ernest Hemingway was by far the greatest writer of his generation, with an amazing and tragic fate. He was freedom fighter, vehemently opposed wars and fascism, and not only through literary works. He was incredible master of writing. His style is distinguished by conciseness, accuracy, restraint in describing emotional situations, and concrete details. The technique he developed was included in the literature under the name "iceberg principle", because the writer gave the main meaning to the subtext. The main feature of his work was truthfulness, he was always honest and sincere with his readers. While reading his works, there is confidence in the reliability of events, the effect of presence is created.
Ernest Hemingway is the writer whose works are recognized as real masterpieces of world literature and whose works, no doubt, should be read by everyone.
MARGARET MITCHELL
(1900-1949)
Margaret Mitchell was born in Atlanta, Georgia. She was the daughter of a lawyer who was chairman of the Atlanta Historical Society. The whole family loved and was interested in history, and the girl grew up in atmosphere of stories about the Civil War.
At first, Mitchell studied at the Washington Seminary, and then entered the prestigious Smith College for Women in Massachusetts. After graduation, she began working in The Atlanta Journal. She wrote hundreds of essays, articles and reviews for the newspaper, and in four years she has grown to reporter, but in 1926 she suffered an ankle injury that made her work impossible.
The energy and liveliness of the character of the writer were traced in everything she did or wrote. Margaret Mitchell married John Marsh in 1925. From that moment on, she began to write down all the stories about the Civil War that she heard as a child. This resulted in a novel "Gone With the Wind", which was first published in 1936. The writer has been working on it for ten years. This is a novel about the American Civil War, told from the point of view of the North. The main character is, of course, a beautiful girl named Scarlett O'Hara, the whole story revolves around her life, family plantation, love relationships.
After the release of the novel, the American classic bestseller, Margaret Mitchell quickly became a world-famous writer. Over 8 million copies have been sold in 40 countries. The novel has been translated into 18 languages. He won Pultzer Prize in 1937. The very successful movie with Vivien Leigh, Clark Gable and Leslie Howard.
Despite numerous fan requests for a continuation of O'Hara's story, Mitchell did not write more. not a single novel. But the name of the writer, like her magnificent work, will forever remain in the history of world literature.
6 votes
