In distant antiquity in the territory modern Russia Numerous tribes lived with various pagan beliefs and rituals associated with the worship of many gods. The Slavs were among the first to live in this territory. The Slavs carved idols from wood. The heads of these idols were covered with silver, and the beard and mustache were made of gold. They worshiped the god of thunder - Perun. There was a god of the sun - Dazhdbog, Stribog - disposed of the air elements, winds. Idols were placed on a high place, and in order to appease the gods, bloody sacrifices (a bird, an animal) were made. By the 9th century tribal unions Eastern Slavs formed principalities, which were headed by princes. Each prince had a retinue (the wealthy higher nobility). Relations between the princes were complex, internecine wars often broke out.
In the I X - X centuries. various principalities of the Eastern Slavs united, created single state, which became known as the Russian land or Rus'. The central city was Kyiv, at the head of the state was Grand Duke Kyiv. Rurik became the founder of the dynasty of Kievan princes. Slavic tribes fought with each other and then decided to call one of the strangers. The Slavs went to the Varangians, who lived on the shores of the Baltic Sea. One of the leaders named Rurik was offered to come to the Slavic lands and rule. Rurik came to Novgorod, where he began to reign. He founded the Rurik dynasty, which ruled in Rus' until the 16th century. Slavic lands, ruled by Rurik, increasingly began to be called Rus, and the inhabitants were Rusich, and later Russian. In the language of the Varangians, a detachment of rowers, which sailed to Novgorod in a large boat led by Rurik, was called Rus. But the Russians themselves understood the word Rus differently: the bright land. Blonde meant light. The princes who began to rule after Rurik (Igor, Princess Olga, Oleg, Vladimir Svyatoslav, Yaroslav the Wise, Vladimir Monomakh, etc.) sought to stop civil strife within the country, defended the independence of the state, strengthened and expanded its borders.
significant date in the history of Russia-988. This is the year of the adoption of Christianity. Christianity came to Rus' from Byzantium. With Christianity, writing spread. In the second half of the 9th century, the brothers Cyril and Methodius created Slavic alphabet. Two alphabets were created: Cyrillic (named after Cyril) and Glagolitic (verb-word, speech); the Glagolitic alphabet did not become widespread. Brothers are revered Slavic peoples as enlighteners and they are recognized as saints. Writing contributed to the development ancient Russian literature. The literature of Ancient Rus' has a number of features.
I. Feature - syncretism i.e. compound. This feature is associated with underdevelopment genre forms. In one old Russian genre it is possible to distinguish features characteristic of other genres, i.e., elements of several genres are combined in one genre, for example, in the “Journeys” there are descriptions of geographical and historical sites and preaching and teaching. A vivid manifestation of syncretism can be traced in the chronicles, they contain both a military story, and tradition, and samples of contracts, and reflections on religious topics.
II.Feature - monumentality. The scribes of Ancient Rus' showed the greatness of the world, they were interested in the fate of the motherland. The scribe seeks to portray the eternal; Eternal values defined by the Christian religion. Hence there is no image of appearance, life, because. it's all mortal. The scribe seeks to tell the story of the entire Russian land.
III. Feature - historicism. In ancient Russian monuments, described historical figures. These are stories about battles, about princely crimes. Heroes were princes, generals, saints. In ancient Russian literature there are no fictional heroes, no works on fictional plots. Fiction was equal to lies, and lies were unacceptable. The writer's right to invent was realized only in the 17th century.
IV. Feature - patriotism. Old Russian literature is marked by high patriotism and citizenship. The authors always grieve over the defeats suffered by the Russian land. The scribes have always tried to put boyars and princes on the true path. The worst princes were condemned, the best were praised.
V. Feature - anonymity. Old Russian literature is mostly anonymous. Very rarely, some authors put their names at the end of the manuscripts, calling themselves “unworthy”, “sinful”, sometimes ancient Russian authors signed the names of popular Byzantine writers.
VI.Feature - Old Russian literature was entirely handwritten. And although printing appeared in the middle of the XVI century. even before the 18th century, works were distributed by correspondence. When rewriting, the scribes made their own corrections, changes, shortened or expanded the text. Therefore, the monuments of ancient Russian literature did not have a stable text. From the 11th to the 14th centuries, the main writing material was parchment, made from the skin of calves. Name parchment ancient city(in Greece) Pergamon, where in the 2nd century BC. started making parchment. In Rus', parchment is called "veal" or "haratya". This expensive material was available only to the propertied class. Craftsmen and merchants used birch bark. Recordings were made on birch bark. Wooden boards were fastened together in the form of student notebooks. Famous birch-bark writings are written monuments of the 11th-15th centuries. Birch bark letters - a source on the history of society and Everyday life medieval people, as well as on the history of the East Slavic languages.
They wrote with ink on birch bark or parchment. Ink was made from decoctions of alder or oak bark, from soot. Until the 19th century they used a goose quill, because parchment was expensive, then to save writing material, the words in the line were not separated, everything was written together. The paragraphs in the manuscript were written in red ink - hence the “red line”. Frequently used words were abbreviated - under a special sign - “title” For example, litharge (abbreviated from the verb, i.e. speak) Buka
The parchment was lined with a ruler. Each letter was written out. Texts were rewritten by scribes either across the entire page or in two columns. There are three types of handwriting: charter, semi-charter, cursive. Charter - handwriting XI - XIII century. This is handwriting with regular, almost square lettering. The letter was solemn, calm, wide, but not high letters were written. The work on the manuscript required painstaking work and great art. When the scribe completed his hard work, he happily noted this at the end of the book. So, at the end of the Laurentian Chronicle it is written: “Rejoice, book writer, who has reached the end of books.” They wrote slowly. So, “Ostromirovo Evangelie” was created for seven months.
From the second half of the 15th century, paper came into use and the charter gave way to a semi-charter, a more fluent letter. The division of the text into words and the use of punctuation marks are associated with the semi-charter. Straight lines of the charter are replaced by oblique lines. The charter of Russian manuscripts is drawing, calligraphically clear writing. In the semi-charter it was allowed a large number of abbreviations of words, stressed. The semi-statutory letter was faster and more convenient than the statutory one. Since the 16th century, semi-statutory writing has been replaced by cursive writing. “Cursive writing” is a tendency to speed up writing. This is a special type of letter, which differs in its graphics from the charter and semi-charter. This is a simplified version of these two types. Monuments ancient writing testify to the high level of culture and skill of the ancient Russian scribes, who were entrusted with the correspondence of texts. They tried to give handwritten books a highly artistic and luxurious appearance, decorating them. various types ornaments and drawings. With the development of the charter, a geometric ornament develops. It is a rectangle, an arch and other geometric shapes, inside which patterns were applied on the sides of the title, in the form of circles, triangles and others. The ornament could be one-color and multi-color. Ornaments depicting plants and animals were also used. painted capital letters, used miniatures - that is, illustrations for the text. The written sheets were sewn into notebooks, which were bound into wooden boards. The boards were covered with leather, and sometimes they were clothed in salaries specially made of silver and gold. A remarkable example of jewelry art is the setting of the Mstislav Gospel (XII). In the middle of the 15th century, printing appeared. Church works were printed, and artistic monuments corresponded for a long time. The original manuscripts have not come down to us; their later lists of the 15th century have been preserved. So, “The Tale of Igor's Campaign”, written in the late 80s of the XII century, was found in the list of the XVI century. Textologists study the monuments, establish the time and place of their writing, determine which list is more consistent with the original author's text. And paleographers, by handwriting, by writing material, miniatures, establish the time of creation of the manuscript. In ancient Rus', the word book in singular was not used, because the book consisted of several notebooks bound together. Books were treated with care, they believed that mishandling a book could harm a person. On one book, the inscription was preserved: “Whoever spoils books, who steals, let him be damned.”
Monasteries were the centers of book writing, education and culture of Ancient Rus'. In this respect big role played the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. Theodosius of the Caves introduced the duty of monks to write books. In his life, Theodosius Pechersky describes the process of creating books. Day and night the monks wrote books in their cells. The monks led an ascetic life educated people. They not only copied books, but also translated from Greek the Bible, the Psalter (songs of religious content), church prayers, explained the meaning church holidays. Several books have come down from the 11th century. They are decorated with great taste. There are books trimmed with gold and pearls. These books were very expensive. In Rus', printing was considered a state affair.
The first printing house was founded by Ivan Fedorov in 1561 in Moscow. He creates a printing press, a font, according to his scheme, they build a Printing Yard near the Kremlin. 1564 - the year of the birth of Russian book printing. Fedorov publishes the first Russian primer, according to which both adults and children were taught to read and write. Books and ancient manuscripts are stored in the libraries of Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Yaroslavl, Kostroma. Few parchment manuscripts have survived, many in one copy, but most of burned down in the fires.
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4. Monuments of ancient Russian literature
The word "Monument" comes from the word "memory". Most often, monuments are called structures or busts, arranged in honor and glory of a person. For example, many monuments to Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin have been created. To perpetuate the memory of the great poet, his grateful admirers erected monuments to him. Monuments are especially dear to us in those places where the poet lived and wrote his works. They keep the memory of the poet's stay in these places. Ancient temples and ancient buildings in general are called architectural monuments, because they also keep the memory of past centuries of native history.
For an essay to be recognized literary monument, time needs to pass. The ancient Russian writer, who compiled chronicles, stories or biographies of saints, probably did not think that he was creating monuments. But after some time, descendants evaluate the work as a monument if they see in it something outstanding or characteristic of the era when it was created.
What is the value of literary, architectural and cultural monuments in general? The monument is a witness of its time.
To the number outstanding monuments Old Russian literature includes The Tale of Bygone Years by Nestor the Chronicler, The Tale of Boris and Gleb, The Tale of Igor's Campaign, The Life of Sergius of Radonezh, The Chronicle of the Battle of Kulikovo, and other heroic works of Ancient Rus'. One of the most remarkable monuments of ancient Russian literature is "Vladimir Monomakh's Teaching to His Children", extracted from the Laurentian Chronicle. All these monuments of ancient Russian literature cannot but be referred to by those who study native history and Russian literature. We will also turn to them, because all of them bear us a living testimony of the past of our Fatherland.
Literature is a part of reality, it occupies a certain place in the history of the people and performs enormous social duties. During the period of the IX-beginning of the XIII centuries. serves the purpose of unification, expresses the people's self-consciousness of unity. She is the keeper of history and legends, and these latter were a kind of means of space exploration, noted the holiness or significance of a particular place: tracts, mounds, villages, etc. Historically, legends informed the country of historical depth, they were that “fourth dimension”, in within which the entire vast Russian land was perceived and became visible. The same role was played by chronicles and lives of saints, historical novels and stories about the founding of monasteries. All Russian literature was distinguished by deep historicism. Literature was one of the ways of mastering the surrounding world.
What did ancient Russian literature teach? The secular element of ancient Russian literature was deeply patriotic. She taught active love for the motherland, brought up citizenship, and strove to correct the shortcomings of society.
In essence, all the monuments of ancient Russian literature, thanks to their historical topics are much more closely related than at present. They can be arranged in chronological order, but in general they tell one story: Russian and world. ancient literature according to the nature of its existence and creation, it is closer to folklore than to the personal creativity of modern times. The work, once created by the author, was then changed by scribes in numerous rewritings, altered, acquired various ideological colors in different environments, supplemented, overgrown with new episodes, etc.: therefore, almost every work that has come down to us in several lists is known to us in various editions, types and versions.
The first Russian works are full of admiration for the wisdom of the universe, but the wisdom is not closed in itself, but serving man. Along the way of such an anthropocentric perception of the universe, the relationship between the artist and the object of art also changed. And this new attitude took a person away from the canonically recognized by the church.
The appeal of art to its creators and to all people has become the style-forming dominant of everything. monumental art and all the literature of the pre-Mongolian period. It is from here that the imposingness, solemnity, ceremoniality of all forms of art and literature of this time comes.
literary style of the entire pre-Mongolian period can be defined as the style of monumental historicism. People of this time sought to see in everything significant in content, powerful in its forms. The style of monumental historicism is characterized by the desire to consider what is depicted as if from great distances - spatial, temporal (historical), hierarchical distances. This is a style within which everything that is most beautiful appears large, monumental, majestic. A kind of "panoramic vision" develops. The chronicler sees the Russian land as if from high altitude. He strives to narrate the entire Russian land, immediately and easily passes from an event in one principality to an event in another - at the opposite end of the Russian land. This happens not only because the chronicler combined sources of different geographical origin in his narrative, but also because it was precisely such a “broad” story that corresponded to the aesthetic ideas of his time.
The desire to combine various geographical points in his narrative is also characteristic of the writings of Vladimir Monomakh - especially for his biography.
It is characteristic that the writers of the IX - XIII centuries. they perceive victory over the enemy as gaining “space”, and defeat as loss of space, misfortune as “crowding”, life path if he is full of need and grief, this is, first of all, a "straight path."
The Old Russian writer, as it were, seeks to mark as many different places as possible by the historical events that took place in them. The earth is sacred to him, it is consecrated by these historical events. He also marks the place on the Volga, where Boris's horse stumbled in the field and broke his leg, and Smyadyn, where Gleb found the news of his father's death. and Vyshgorod, where the brothers were then buried, etc. The author seems to be in a hurry to connect with the memory of Boris and Gleb more different places, tracts, rivers and cities. This is especially significant in connection with the fact that the cult of Boris and Gleb directly served the idea of the unity of the Russian land, directly emphasized the unity of the princely family, the need for brotherly love, and the strict subordination of the younger princes to the elders.
The writer makes sure that all the characters behave appropriately, so that they utter all the necessary words. "The Tale of Boris and Gleb" from beginning to end furnished with speeches actors, as if ceremonially commenting on what is happening.
And another feature of the aesthetic formation is its ensemble character.
medieval art- systemic art, systemic and unified. It unites visible world and invisible, created by man with the whole cosmos. The works of literature of this period are not self-contained and isolated worlds. Each of them, as it were, gravitates towards the neighboring ones that already existed before it. Each new work is, first of all, an addition to the existing ones, but an addition not in form, but in theme, in plot. Each new work is, first of all, an addition to the existing ones, but an addition not in form, but in theme, in plot.
5. "The Word of Law and Grace"
The “Sermon on Law and Grace” by the first Kyiv metropolitan from the Russians Hilarion, appointed by the will of the Kyiv prince Yaroslav the Wise, is devoted to the most complex historiosophical problem. It speaks of the place of Rus' in world history, about historical role Russian people.
It is full of pride in the successes of Christian culture in Rus', and how surprising that for all this it is devoid of national limitations. Illarion does not place the Russian people above other peoples, but speaks of the equality of all peoples of the world who have joined Christianity.
This is the most perfect work both in the depth of its content and in the brilliant form in which it is clothed: consistency, logic, ease of transition from topic to topic, rhythmic organization of speech, variety of images, artistic laconicism make Illarion's "Word" one of the best works world oratory. And this work is not a rehash of Byzantine samples, because it is not just a theological sermon of the type that was common in Byzantium, but a theological and political speech that Byzantine oratory did not know, and at the same time on a national Russian theme.
6. "The Tale of Bygone Years"
Quite a different character. This is the work of many chroniclers. The last of them, Nestor, gave the Primary Chronicle artistic and ideological completeness and gave it a name.
This work expresses artistic unity, but the unity of a special, medieval type. Now we require artwork complete uniformity of style, rigid unity of ideas, complete absence of seams and differences in separate parts. If there are differences, they enter into a certain unity strictly uniting them. Artistic unity in ancient Rus' was understood much more broadly. This could be the unity of the ensemble, which was created over a number of decades and retained the author's features in each of its layers at different times.
In stories about the most ancient events of Russian history, the chronicler reflected the innocence characteristic of the legends that had come down to him. In the story about the baptism of Rus' and about the first Christian martyrs, the chronicler uses all the church ceremonial presentation. On the other hand, the annalistic story about the blinding of Prince Vasilko Terebovskiy is of a completely special character. Here the chronicler had to strike the reader with the horror of the crime committed, and this story is full of a kind of medieval naturalism, in which all terrible events are ideally described.
The historical consciousness expressed in The Tale of Bygone Years is very high level. The first chroniclers did not just describe events, they were original researchers, weighing different versions of the same event. Restoring the course of Russian history, the chroniclers sought to link this history of Rus' with the history of the world, to understand it as part of world history, to find out the origin of the Slavs and individual East Slavic tribes. With pedagogical clarity, the chronicler describes the geographical location of Rus', starting his description from the watershed of the Volga, Dnieper, Western Dvina, and, following their course, describes which sea each of them flows into and into which countries it is possible along each of the seas.
7. "Teachings"
The writings of the Kyiv prince Vladimir Monomakh are included in one of the lists of the Tale of Bygone Years under the year 1097 and are known as the Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh. In fact, only the first of them can be called "teaching"; This first is followed by Monomakh's autobiography, where he talks about his campaigns and hunts; the autobiography is followed by a letter from Monomakh to his primordial enemy Oleg Svyatoslavovich, the ancestor of the Olgovichi princes. All three works are written in a different manner, according to the themes. various genres that they represent, but all three are connected by one political idea.
Vladimir Monomakh promotes strict observance of mutual obligations and mutual compliance of princes. Strive to show the need to observe the principles of contentment with hereditary inheritances by personal example, but is not afraid to speak about those violations of this principle that he himself allowed.
8. "The Life of Theodosius of the Caves"
The Life of Theodosius, although it was essentially the first Russian life, completed the biographical genre. The story about a person is conducted in this work by highlighting only some moments of his life: those in which he reaches, as it were, his highest self-manifestation.
From the "Life" we learn a lot about the life around him and the people who are completely immersed in this life. Here is the life of a rich provincial house in Vasilva - at home, the leadership of his imperious matter. Something we can learn about the position of the servants. The flight of Theodosius to Kyiv depicts for us a trade convoy with carts heavily loaded with goods. But the description of everyday life is very restrained, - only to the extent that it is necessary for the plot - the plot is always over the insignificance and vanity of "passing" life. In the temporal setting, the eternal is seen, in the accidental, the significant. Thanks to this, everyday life is dressed up in ceremonial forms of high church virtues. These are, as it were, those dilapidated and poor relics that lie in precious vessels and are worshiped by wanderers who have come to the monastery.
Conclusion
The beginning of ancient Russian literature determined its character for the next time. It is significant that the influence of The Tale of Bygone Years remained active for half a millennium. In full or abbreviated form, it was copied at the beginning of most of the regional and grand ducal annals. She was imitated by subsequent chroniclers. For political glorifications, Metropolitan Hilarion’s “Sermon on Law and Grace” remained exemplary for many centuries, for hagiographic literature such as "Marty" - the lives of Boris and Gleb, for hagiographic biographies - "The Life of Theodosius of the Caves", for church teachings - the teachings of the same Theodosius, etc.
In the future, Russian literature is enriched with new genres, becomes more complex in content; its social functions are acquiring more and more ramified forms and diverse applications, literature is becoming more and more journalistic, but does not lose its monumentality and medieval historicism.
Literature
1. Adrianov-Perets V.P. The main objectives of the study of ancient Russian literature in research - P. 5-14
2. Adrianov-Perets V.P. Old Russian literature and folklore: (On the formulation of the problem). - pp. 5-16
3. Klyuchevsky V.O. Ancient Russian Lives of the Saints, as a historical source - M .: graduate School, 1879 - 254p.
4. Kuskov V. Literature and culture of Ancient Rus': a dictionary-reference book. - M .: Higher school, 1994. - 229 p.
5. Moral experience in the bookishness of Ancient Rus' // Thought. Yearbook of the Petersburg Association of Philosophers. - Issue. No. 1, 2000.
Kuskov V. Literature and culture of Ancient Rus': a dictionary-reference book. - M.: Higher School, 1994. - S. 129
Klyuchevsky V.O. Old Russian Lives of the Saints as a historical source - M .: Higher School, 1879 - S. 14
Moral experience in the bookishness of Ancient Rus' // Thought. Yearbook of the Petersburg Association of Philosophers. - Issue. No. 1, 2000.
Adrianov-Perets V.P. Ancient Russian Literature and Folklore: (On the Statement of the Problem). - pp. 5-16
Adrianov-Perets V.P. The main objectives of the study of ancient Russian literature in research P. 5-14
Ancient Russian literature. There is no need to consider all the monuments that existed in Ancient Rus'. On the example of several works, let us consider how the theme of man and his deeds developed in ancient Russian literature. 2. Man in the Literature of Ancient Rus' One of the first, most important genres of emerging Russian literature was the chronicle genre. The oldest chronicle that has actually come down to us ...
To the Soviet deficit, but also to Old Russian literature. But the differences between ancient Russian literature and contemporary literature of the Latin West or Byzantium do not at all speak of its inferiority, “second-rate”. Just ancient Russian culture- in many ways different. Culturologist and semiotician B.A. Uspensky explained the originality of ancient Russian literature in the following way. The word, according to semiotics (the science of signs) is a conditional ...
... "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" "each era finds ... new and its own" [Likhachev, 1994: 3] Conclusion The study made it possible to identify the aesthetic and functional nature of ancient Russian literature, using cultural aspects of analysis artistic text, comprehend the spiritual atmosphere of Ancient Rus' and the author's model of the world, identify and analyze methodological and methodological ...
He cannot help us: he himself calls his work either a “word”, or a “song”, or a “story” (“Remember, brethren, this story ...”). The Word has no analogies among other monuments of ancient Russian literature. Consequently, this is either a work of exceptional genre originality, or a representative special genre, whose monuments have not reached us, since this genre, combining features ...
Lesson 2
Subject: The original character of ancient Russian literature. Richness and variety of genres.
Target: briefly acquaint students with the circumstances of the emergence of ancient Russian literature; to form an idea of the specifics of Old Russian literature, the features of its traditions; an overview of the genres of ancient Russian literature
Tasks:
Subject: Know: the main features and genres of ancient Russian literature, the stages of its development; genre features. Understand: patriotic pathos of the works of Dr. Russia Be able to: build detailed statements based on what you read; argue your point of view
Metasubject: develop motives and interests cognitive activity
Personal: formation of motivation for learning and purposeful cognitive activity.
Intersubject communications Keywords: history, Russian language.
Lesson type: a lesson in the assimilation of new knowledge and the formation of new concepts.
Equipment: textbook
During the classes
I .Organizing time.
II . Learning new material.
Teacher's word.
You already know that the emergence of literature in Rus' is associated with the adoption of Christianity as the state religion. Today our goal is to get the most general idea about Old Russian literature and get acquainted with one of its monuments.
The concept of "Old Russian literature" includes literary works written in the 11th-17th centuries. They are represented by different genres.A genre is a historically established type of literary work, an abstract model, on the basis of which the texts of specific literary works are created. The system of genres in the literature of Ancient Rus' was significantly different from the modern one. Old Russian literature developed largely under the influence of Byzantine literature and borrowed from her a system of genres, reworking them on a national basis: the specificity of the genres of ancient Russian literature lies in their connection with traditional Russian folk art. Genres of Old Russian literature are usually divided into primary and unifying.
Among them are chronicles, walks, teachings, lives, messages, oratorical works, etc. It is impossible to indicate the very first ancient Russian monument, since the first monuments, the first books have not survived to this day. The first monument of ancient Russian literature that has come down to us is
"The Tale of Bygone Years".
It is known that in addition to church books in Rus', books devoted to the history of the country, its connections with world history, have become widespread. Records were kept of everything important that happened in the country: about the princes and their struggle for power, about the attacks of enemies and the fight against them. Such books are called chronicles.
The word "chronicle" comes from two words: summer, and write. Thus,chronicle - this is an essay, the narrative is presented on a yearly basis. The basis of the narrative in the annals is an annual record (a brief message about the event, without a description), chronicle story(a detailed account of the event) and an obituary description (description of the prince and praise to him).
The compilers of the chronicles considered themselves not the authors, but the registrars of the events taking place. Therefore, they do not mention the edge about themselves. Most often, the ancient Russian chronicler was a learned monk.
Being copyrighted, literary works are, as a rule, anonymous, since, on the one hand, ancient Russian authors rarely indicated their names in manuscripts, considering them only executors of the highest Divine will; on the other hand, Old Russian texts were distributed in handwrittenIand the ancient scribes, when copying, could also process the texts, became “co-authors”. This explains the existence of different editions of the same literary monument.
Chronicle writing began in Rus' inXIcentury. The first chronicler was the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra Nikon, whom he called the Great. His life was full of turbulent events, he was actively involved in the political struggle against those Kievan princes who put their interests above all-Russian ones, he was twice forced to flee to Tmutarakan. At the end of his life, Nikon became abbot Kievo-Pechersky Monastery. Then, apparently, he worked on the annals.
At firstXIIcentury monk of the same monastery Nestor compiled "The Tale of Bygone Years" - one of the most remarkable works of Russian literature. This story has come down to us, rewritten and partly revised by the monk of the neighboring Vydubetsky monastery Sylvester. This “Tale...” is the fruit of creativity of several generations of chroniclers. After all, there was no printing in those days, books were copied by hand, this work was entrusted to the chosen ones, scholars and scribes. When rewriting the annals, the followers inevitably made some additions, corrections, and sometimes even made mistakes. In addition, new information was added, since the annals were kept strictly by year, and everything important that happened during the year was entered into the annals.
Reading the chronicle, we hear the living voice of distant ancestors. The works of the past destroy the barriers of time, and by the power of imagination we can imagine ourselves as participants in those events, see what happened and how.
The following genres of Old Russian literature are also distinguished:lifeWordteachingTaleit also includes a weather record, chronicle story, chronicle legend and church legend.
life The genre of life was borrowed from Byzantium. This is the most widespread and favorite genre of Old Russian literature. Life was an indispensable attribute when a person was canonized, i.e. were considered saints. Life was created by people who directly communicated with a person or could reliably testify to his life. Life was always created after the death of a person. It performed a huge educational function, because the life of the saint was perceived as an example of a righteous life, which must be imitated. In addition, life deprived a person of the fear of death, preaching the idea of immortality. human soul. Life was built according to certain canons, from which they did not depart until the 15th-16th centuries.
Canons of Life The pious origin of the hero of life, whose parents must have been righteous. The saint's parents often begged God.A saint was born a saint, not made one.The saint was distinguished by an ascetic way of life, spent time in solitude and prayer.A mandatory attribute of life was a description of the miracles that occurred during the life of the saint and after his death.The saint was not afraid of death.The life ended with the glorification of the saint.One of the first works of the hagiographical genre in ancient Russian literature was the life of the holy princes Boris and Gleb.teaching - kind of genre old Russian eloquence. Teaching is a genre in which ancient Russian chroniclers tried to present a model of behavior for any ancient Russian person: both for a prince and for a commoner. by the most a shining example This genre is included in the "Tale of Bygone Years" "Instruction of Vladimir Monomakh." In The Tale of Bygone Years, the Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh dates back to 1096. At this time, the strife between the princes in the battle for the throne reached its climax. In his teaching, Vladimir Monomakh gives advice on how to organize your life. He says that there is no need to seek the salvation of the soul in seclusion. It is necessary to serve God by helping those in need. Going to war, you should pray - God will definitely help. Monomakh confirms these words with an example from his life: he took part in many battles - and God kept him. Monomakh says that one should look at how the natural world works and try to arrange public relations on the model of a harmonious world order. The teaching of Vladimir Monomakh is addressed to posterity.
Word The word is a kind of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. An example of the political variety of ancient Russian eloquence is the "Tale of Igor's Campaign". This work causes a lot of controversy about its authenticity. This is because the original text of The Tale of Igor's Campaign has not been preserved. It was destroyed by fire in 1812. Only copies have survived. Since that time, it has become fashionable to refute its authenticity. The word tells about the military campaign of Prince Igor against the Polovtsy, which took place in history in 1185. Researchers suggest that the author of the Tale of Igor's Campaign was one of the participants in the described campaign. Disputes about the authenticity of this work were conducted in particular because it is knocked out of the system of genres of ancient Russian literature by the unusual nature of the works used in it. artistic means and tricks. Here the traditional chronological principle of narration is violated: the author is transferred to the past, then returns to the present (this was not typical for ancient Russian literature), the author makes digressions, inserted episodes appear (Svyatoslav's dream, Yaroslavna's lament). The word has a lot of elements of traditional oral folk art, characters. There is a clear influence of a fairy tale, an epic. The political background of the work is obvious: in the fight against a common enemy, the Russian princes must be united, disunity leads to death and defeat.Another example of political eloquence is the "Word about the destruction of the Russian land", which was created immediately after the Mongol-Tatars came to Rus'. The author glorifies the bright past and mourns the present.An example of a solemn variety of ancient Russian eloquence is Metropolitan Hilarion's "Sermon on Law and Grace", which was created in the first third of the 11th century. The word was written by Metropolitan Hilarion on the occasion of the completion of the construction of military fortifications in Kyiv. The word carries the idea of the political and military independence of Rus' from Byzantium. Under the "Law" Illarion understands the Old Testament, which was given to the Jews, but it does not suit the Russian and other peoples. Therefore, God gave the New Testament, which is called "Grace." In Byzantium, Emperor Constantine is revered, who contributed to the spread and establishment of Christianity there. Illarion says that Prince Vladimir Krasno Solnyshko, who baptized Rus', is no worse Byzantine emperor and should also be revered by the Russian people. The case of Prince Vladimir is continued by Yaroslav the Wise. The main idea of the "Word about Law and Grace" is that Rus' is as good as Byzantium.
Tale The story is a text of an epic nature, telling about princes, about military exploits, about princely crimes. Examples of military stories are "The Tale of the Battle on the Kalka River", "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu Khan", "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky".
Message - usually used for journalistic purposes.
Walking is a genre that describes all kinds of travel to other lands and adventures.
chronicle It is a story about historical events. This is the most ancient genre ancient Russian literature. In ancient Rus', the chronicle played very important role, because not only reported on the historical events of the past, but was also political and legal document, testified to how it is necessary to act in certain situations. The oldest chronicle is The Tale of Bygone Years, which has come down to us in the lists of the Laurentian Chronicle of the 14th century and the Ipatiev Chronicle of the 15th century. The chronicle tells about the origin of the Russians, about the genealogy of the Kyiv princes and about the emergence of the ancient Russian state.
Literature of ancient Rus' general characteristics period
Old Russian literature went through a long period of development, which is 7 centuries: from the 9th to the 15th centuries. Scientists associate the formation of ancient Russian literature with the adoption of Christianity in Rus' in 988. This year is the starting point for the periodization of literature. It is authentically known that writing in Rus' existed even before the adoption of Christianity. But very few monuments of pre-Christian writing have been found. According to the available monuments, it cannot be said that before the adoption of Christianity in Rus' there was literature and books.Spreading Christian religion in Rus' involved the study of Holy Scripture and Christian rites. In order to preach the Christian canons, it was necessary to translate religious books from ancient Greek and Latin into a language that the Slavs understood. This language became the Old Church Slavonic language. Scientists talk about the special status of the Old Church Slavonic language. Old Church Slavonic is the literary language of all Slavs. It was not spoken, but only written and read books. The Old Church Slavonic language was created by Christian preachers Cyril and Methodius on the basis of the Thessalonica dialect of the Old Bulgarian language specifically in order to make the canons of the Christian religion understandable to the Slavs and to preach these canons in the language of the Slavs. Books in the Old Slavonic language were copied in different territories inhabited by Slavs, where they spoke differently: in different dialects. Gradually, the features of the speech of the Slavs began to be reflected in the letter. Thus, on the basis of the Old Church Slavonic language, the Church Slavonic language arose, reflecting the peculiarities of the speech of the Eastern Slavs, and then of the Old Russian people.Christian preachers arrived in Rus', who created schools. Schools taught reading, writing and canons Orthodox Christianity. Over time, a layer of people appeared in Rus' who could read and write. They rewrote holy scripture, translated it into Old Slavonic. Over time, these people began to write down historical events that took place in Rus', make generalizations, use images of oral folk art, evaluate the events and facts described. This is how the original ancient Russian literature gradually took shape.Old Russian literature was fundamentally different from what we are accustomed to understand as literature at the present time. Literature in ancient Rus' was closely connected with the spread of the Christian religion and served as an instrument for preaching and strengthening Christianity in Rus'. This determined special treatment to the book as a sacred subject, but to reading as a sacred process of communion with God's Word.
As they wrote Old Russian books? Old Russian books were huge folios, the pages of which were made of cowhide. Books were bound into boards, which were covered with leather and decorated. Dressed cowhide was an expensive material that had to be saved. That is why ancient Russian books wrote in a special way: There were no spaces between words in the books. Naturally, reading such books was very difficult. In addition, many frequently used words were not written in full. For example, BG - God, BGTS - Mother of God, NB - sky. Above such words they put the sign "titla" - an abbreviation. Because of the high cost of the material, the books cost entire villages. Only wealthy princes could afford to have books.
The book is a source of divine grace One of the differences between ancient Russian literature and modern literature is that ancient Russian books do not and could not have an author. In Ancient Rus', the concept of authorship did not exist at all, it appeared much later. It was believed that God leads the hand of the scribe. Man is only an intermediary through which God conveys His Word to people. Putting your name in a book was considered a great sin. Faith in it was strong, so for a long time no one dared to put his name in the books. But some could not resist and put an inconspicuous, but so important for them inscription like "Az the multi-criminal (name) put his hand to it."There was a strong belief that the book had a miraculous effect on a person, giving him divine grace. Talking to a book old Russian man believed in communicating with God. That is why it was customary to fast and pray for at least a week before reading books.
Historicism of Old Russian Literature Old Russian authors were aware of their special historical mission - the mission of witnesses of the times. They believed that they were obliged to record all the events that took place on their land in order to convey history to posterity through a book. In addition, the texts included many traditions, legends that had oral existence. So in ancient Russian texts, along with Christian saints, pagan deities are mentioned. This meant that Christianity existed in Rus' with the original religion of the Slavs, which is usually called paganism, although the pagans themselves did not call themselves that. Folklore greatly enriched ancient Russian literature.There was no lyricism in ancient Russian literature. Ancient Russian literature, bearing an exclusively religious character, placed the preaching of the laws of Christian morality at the forefront. That is why it did not pay any attention privacy person. Maximum objectivity is one of the main canons of ancient Russian literature. Among the genres in ancient Russian literature, the lives of the saints, chronicles, chronographs, chapels, patericons, and apocrypha predominated. Old Russian literature was distinguished by religiosity and historicism.Many Old Russian books have not reached us: they were destroyed by fires, some were taken to Poland and Lithuania, and some were destroyed by the scribes themselves - the old inscriptions were washed away, and new ones were written on top. This was done in order to save expensive material from which the books were made.
III Job With saying
It is useful when the soul asks for something unusual.
A. S. Demin
Monuments to Peter and Fevronia:
in Ulyanovsk. Opening date: July 5, 2009 .
Place of installation: in front of the building of Ulyanovsk State University.
Sculptors: Oleg Klyuev and Nikolai Antsiferov.
The monument to Peter and Fevronia in Ulyanovsk is made of bronze and represents the young princes Peter and Fevronia with a dove, symbolizing love and fidelity.
The monument in Ulyanovsk was erected as part of the national program "In the family circle".
In Samara:
The monument was erected as part of the “In the Family Circle” program, which appeared in 2004 with the blessing of Patriarch Alexy II. As part of the same program, monuments to Saints Peter and Fevronia were opened today in Vladivostok and Omsk, and over the past three years, sculptural compositions dedicated to Saints of Murom have already been installed in Arkhangelsk, Ulyanovsk, Yaroslavl, Sochi and Blagoveshchensk.
Orthodox believers on July 8 celebrate the day of memory of the Russian saints Peter and Fevronia of Murom, patrons of marital fidelity and love.
Saints Peter and Fevronia are princes who ruled in Murom in the 13th century. The couple were a model of fidelity and love for each other, in their old age they became monks and soon died at one o'clock. Being buried in different graves, their bodies miraculously ended up side by side, the legend says. After that, the spouses were buried in Murom near the Church of the Nativity Holy Mother of God. In 1547 the Church canonized them as saints.
IV . Consolidation of the material covered
1. Conversation .
