The description of Evgeny Bazarov in I. Turgenev's novel "Fathers and Sons" is unique and multifaceted for domestic literature. The author portrays the type of a competent Russian commoner. This fact explains the massive popularity artwork for young people at the end of the 19th century. as a writer, he continued the tradition of Pushkin and Lermontov in portraying the hero of our time. In this article we will tell you which estate Evgeny Bazarov belongs to.
The conflict of two generations
The title of the work clearly makes the reader understand the theme of the novel. Fathers and children are the eternal categories of one problem that Turgenev considers. In his novel, the writer introduces the image of Yevgeny Bazarov, who is a completely different, that is, a new generation, confident that the old customs are outdated and extremely unpopular. It seems to representatives of the adult, accomplished generation that they are better in everything. They are kinder and smarter! The old people are outraged that they have been replaced by young people who do not have a clear idea about However, there has always been a misunderstanding between the elders.
The first in the eternal is represented by the Kirsanov brothers. The reader sees the conflict at the very beginning of the novel. As soon as the youth in the person of Arkady and Evgeny enters the Kirsanov estate. Pavel Petrovich instantly feels hostile feelings for his nephew's friend. Not being sure what kind of person he is and to what class Bazarov belongs. At the same time, the young man has similar feelings for Kirsanov Sr. A conflict immediately arises between the two generations.
Friendship of Bazarov Evgeny and Arkady Kirsanov
Bazarov's analysis shows: Evgeny and Arkady have friendly relations. They study together at the university. The reader gets the impression that the guys are like-minded people. Kirsanov imitates Bazarov everywhere and in everything. He admires the views of Eugene, he is flattered by his behavior and character traits. Moreover, Kirsanov Jr. wants to be like a friend. In other words, Arkady is under his influence.
In fact, friends are completely different people. From the description of Bazarov, it becomes clear that he is a democrat. In whatever situation Bazarov is, he will always find something to do.
Black and white
Arkady himself is a spoiled nobleman who needs peace and comfort. He has no serious hobbies, and the views of his friends differ not only in art, but also in relation to people. Kirsanov Jr. lives by principles. He is very neat, well dressed, trained in manners. Eugene, on the contrary, does not consider it necessary to adhere to etiquette. What class does Bazarov belong to?
Eugene belongs to the raznochintsy, he is also possessed by the spirit of nihilism. These facts affect the actions, habits and even speech of the character.
The views of friends also differ in the most important thing - in the appointment of a person and his ideas about life. Their friendly relations end in escalating conflict. Already former friends goodbye forever.
I. Turgenev "Fathers and Sons". Bazarov Evgeny: portrait of a hero
Before characterizing the hero, let's answer the main question of the article. There is an erroneous opinion that Bazarov belonged to the philistine class. However, it is not. Already at the very beginning of the novel, it becomes clear that Bazarov is a commoner. This means that he does not belong to any class. He believes he made himself. He inherited hard work from his parents. This is what distinguishes him from the soft-bodied and lazy residents of the Kirsanov estate.
Bazarov is a hardworking person. Turgenev emphasizes that Yevgeny works, and Arkady suffers from idleness. In order to achieve something in life without anyone's help, Bazarov is constantly working and working on himself. This strengthens him as a person even more. He not only talks about the benefits of labor, he himself constantly works.
Bazarov - very strong personality. This is felt by every hero of the work. Power is manifested in everything: in interpersonal relationships, in evidence and statements, in unrequited love and even in death. Bazarov does not utter empty words, he only voices what humanity has realized, thanks to life experience.
He is kind in his own way. This is seen in the episode of the meeting with Fenechka. When the baby asked to be held by Eugene, the mother noted that young children feel what kind of person is in front of them. And here it already becomes unimportant to which class Bazarov belongs.
It should be noted that his kindness is manifested in many features and facets. He is easy to communicate with ordinary people, and they answer him with love. During the duel, Yevgeny rushed to the aid of the wounded Kirsanov. Relations with Odintsova evoke in the reader a feeling of sincere respect for the hero. Bazarov treats his mother and father with love and awe, and before his death he thinks about them.
Fracture of nihilistic views
In the first part of the novel, the author says that Bazarov is a supporter of the ideas of nihilism. In the second - the reader sees the human essence of Eugene. Here change it social relations. Surprisingly, even Kirsanov Sr. recognized his nobility after the duel. Turgenev does not fully show his attitude towards the main character. His character is seen in interpersonal relationships with other characters; in how they speak of him; in the very portrait of the hero; in his manner of speaking.
Conclusion
What class does Bazarov belong to? As mentioned above, he is a commoner. And this further reveals his character. Older generation in his appearance he sees a lot of unusual things: long hair, whiskers, hoodie with tassels.
In other words, Eugene protests them with all his appearance. His behavior and mannerisms are also unnatural. After all, by this he manifests the spirit of nihilism.
The novel "Fathers and Sons" is considered one of the the best works author. And for good reason. The novel is extremely versatile. It can be called psychological, everyday, social, and philosophical. It is impossible to give any one characteristic. The issues that the author raises in the novel are deep and complex. They are relevant today.
Generation conflict
From the very title of the novel, the theme of this work is already clear. The eternal problem that Turgenev raises in his work is fathers and children. Bazarov represents a new generation and is sure that the old foundations are outdated and outdated.
It seems to the outgoing generation that they are smarter, kinder, better. And they were replaced by young people who do not have clear moral ideals. Complete misunderstanding between the previous generation and the next. It has always been so.
The outgoing generation in the novel is represented by the Kirsanov brothers. The conflict arises at the beginning of the novel, as soon as Arkady and Evgeny arrive at the Kirsanovs' estate.
Pavel Petrovich
Pavel Petrovich immediately experiences hostile feelings towards the guest, not finding out what kind of person he is, what class he belongs to. Bazarov also feels hostility - only one appearance Kirsanova disgusts him. In addition, he considers him an eccentric. A quarrel immediately breaks out between them.
Kirsanov's words are just words not backed up by action. His life is a series of continuous successes, the reason for which is his origin. The very first difficulties made him a weak man and incapable of anything. He doesn't even have his own convictions. Arguing with Bazarov about principles, by them he understands only outward decency and the ability to remain a gentleman.
Nikolai Petrovich
Kirsanov Nikolai Petrovich is a real opponent of Bazarov. His attitude, spiritual breadth oppose the theory of the nihilist. He could argue with Eugene, but he realizes that his arguments will not convince young man. Everything he tells him about the harmony of life, about the beauty of poetry, will be an empty phrase for him.
The relationship between Bazarov and Arkady
Bazarov in the novel appears as a friend of Arkady. They study together at the university. It seems that they are like-minded people. Arkady tries to imitate Bazarov in everything, admires his views, character, behavior. Arkady wants to be like him. In a word, it falls under its influence.
But they are completely different people. Bazarov is a staunch democrat. In any situation, in any conditions, Evgeny Bazarov is always busy with business. The image of Arkady is the image of a spoiled sloth, for whom only peace and comfort are important. Nothing seriously fascinates him. Their views differ in relation to art, in relation to people.
Arkady cannot live without principles. He is always neat, well dressed, he has excellent manners. Bazarov does not consider it important to adhere to the rules good manners. What class does Bazarov belong to? He is a rogue. In addition, he is possessed by the spirit of nihilism.
And this affects his habits, actions, features of speech. Their views differ in the main thing - in the appointment of a person and in ideas about life. Relationships escalate into conflict. And the heroes say goodbye forever.
Main character's family
The author describes the origin of Yevgeny Bazarov with only one word - a raznochinets. Bazarov proudly declares that his grandfather plowed the land - he was a serf. His father, Vasily Ivanovich, is a former regimental doctor. Mother, Arina Vlasyevna, is a noblewoman. According to him, the parents did not marry for love. But, judging by their relationship, we can say that they respect each other.
They are united strong love to the son. And they made every effort to adequately educate him and give him a good education. At the university, Bazarov studies medicine, which means that his father somehow influenced his choice. But the reader is clearly aware that medicine will not become the subject of Bazarov's further activities.
The author of the work does not focus on the past of his hero. Perhaps because the essence of the hero is determined not by his past, but by his present, which can be clearly seen throughout the entire work "Fathers and Sons".
Bazarov: characterization of the hero
The author focuses on the origin of the hero. Bazarov is a commoner. From this alone it becomes clear that he does not belong to any of the estates. He is a man of action and made himself. From his ancestors, he endured diligence and moral hardening. This distinguishes him from the soft-bodied, lazy and flabby inhabitants of Kirsanov's house and their environment.
Bazarov is a solid and hardworking person. The author emphasizes that Arkady is idle and sybaritic, while Eugene works. In order to achieve something in life without outside help, without ranks and regalia, as evidenced by the origin of Yevgeny Bazarov, he has to constantly work and work on himself. This hardened him even more. He not only talks about the benefits of labor, but he himself works tirelessly.
The hero of the novel is strong man. This is felt by all the characters in the novel. His inner strength is felt in everything: in relation to people, in his categorical statements and, of course, in unhappy love and death. People like Bazarov do not say empty words, but only express what they have realized, what they have reached through scientific and life experience.
Bazarov is kind in his own way. This can be seen from the meeting between Bazarov and Fenechka. When her child went quietly into his arms, the mother notes that the children feel what a person really is. It does not matter here which class Bazarov belongs to, and what his convictions are.
The important thing is that his kindness is manifested in many ways: he naturally relates to the common people, and they respond to him with love; after the duel, Eugene immediately rushes to the aid of the wounded Pavel Petrovich. Relations with Odintsova, his lover, after their explanation, cause sincere respect. He touchingly refers to his parents, before his death, he first of all thinks about them.
In fact, these are the features and feelings of the protagonist, which the author does not focus on. But what does the author want to convey to the reader with these episodes? How does Bazarov change throughout the novel "Fathers and Sons"? The characteristic of the person whom we see in this work indicates that, rejecting love and moral standards, main character By by and large lives by them.
Bazarov's beliefs
First of all, Bazarov is a materialist and nihilist. Doesn't exist for him general principles, faith and ideals. Bazarov is sure that there are no natural moral principles in a person, everything is determined only by our views and actions.
This man does not recognize anything. He is sure that there are no feelings, there is only physiology. Love does not exist, there is just physical attraction. In his opinion, needs are the only thing that motivates to action. Only facts and needs - and no ideals. He acts by virtue of what he considers useful. He is sure that for his time the most useful thing is denial. And that's why he denies everything.
From these statements it is clear that Bazarov rejects what is not amenable to research. The criterion of truth for him is practice. He doesn't believe in anything. For him, a chemist is more useful than "any poet." Natural science is everything that Yevgeny Bazarov devotes his life to. The image of the hero-practitioner shown in the novel tries to convince the reader that the only acceptable way to study nature is experiment. Actually, Bazarov considers this the only important occupation.
Art, love, beauty are nonsense to him. The position of practicality is clear from his statement, where he claims that nature is not a temple, but a real workshop, and man is destined to work in it.
In his opinion, a person should not live in the name of societies and its ideals. Every person must put his "self" above all. And these "self-sufficient" beings must each fight for their existence, everything weak and unnecessary will perish, and only that which will lead humanity to "super-heights" will remain. Bazarov calls this destructive theory and denial of everything nihilism.
The attitude of the author to his hero
Turgenev wrote that Bazarov in the novel "Fathers and Sons" is his favorite brainchild. But on the other hand, everything suggests that, as a nihilist, he is alien to the author. Turgenev shows that the whole philosophy of Bazarov collapses as soon as it comes into contact with reality. He wins arguments by the power of conviction, but does not prove otherwise.
His hero in the novel is lonely. Arkady, who is trying to imitate Bazarov in everything, marries Katya and immediately forgets his teacher. The meaning of the novel is to show the absurdity of the idea of nihilism. The test of love made a hole in this theory. Bazarov begins to realize the romance in himself, he already sees something special in Odintsova. Before his death, he, persuading Arkady not to speak poetically and beautifully, himself speaks the language of poets.
Refutation of nihilism
If the first part of the work tells about the hero as an adherent of the ideas of nihilism, then the second reveals his human essence: his relationship with people changes. Even his eternal rival in disputes, Pavel Petrovich, recognizes his nobility after the duel.
The death scene also shows the strength of his character. First, death is impossible to deny, since it is a dispute between nature and human theory. Secondly, on his deathbed, he becomes sensitive, poetic, courageous. It is in this scene that his humanity is revealed.
The author does not openly express his attitude towards Bazarov. The character of his hero is manifested in the attitude of other characters towards him, their reviews, in the portrait of the hero, in his habits and speech. Even in its origin. What class does Bazarov belong to? He, as we have already said, is a raznochintsy. And this more fully reveals the character of the hero.
There is something unnatural in the appearance of Bazarov - long hair and sideburns, dressed in a hoodie with tassels. With all his appearance, he protests the outgoing world of fathers. His behavior, cheeky manners also look unnatural. He wants to express the spirit of nihilism. In the description of the hero, the somewhat ironic attitude of the author to this new trend is clearly felt.
Trying to show a nihilist and a materialist, Turgenev more than once turns his hero into a yearning person. Bazarov's speeches boil down to one thing - he wants to serve people, but he does not know how and does not know how. At times, he admits that a person cannot escape compassion, connection and solidarity with other people. Because only one instinct and selfishness are acceptable only in the animal world. More than once he confesses that it is difficult for him to realize his theories.
Fathers and Sons
Throughout the novel, Bazarov defends his beliefs. He was sure that the victory would be his. But at the end of the work, Bazarov not only changes his philosophy, but also does not remain the same. He was seized by the very feelings he denied.
His beliefs are in conflict with human nature. He cannot refuse them, but he is also unable to strangle the “new person” in himself. There is no way out of this situation. Therefore, the author leads to the fact that Bazarov is dying. His tragic death is the death of his convictions.
The position of the author in this work is clear - a person should not develop one-sidedly. It is necessary to train the soul, not just the brain. Humanity needs renewal, but it is also necessary to remember the lessons of the past. The worldview of Pavel Petrovich is empty and empty. Bazarov is so dry that he looks more like a machine than a person.
Nikolai Petrovich, speaking in the novel from the position of the author, understands that one cannot only destroy and deny. The basis of life lies in the harmony of the physical and spiritual. Bazarov's theory is incorrect, but the age of the Kirsanovs is ending. A new generation of strong and ideological people is ready to replace them.
The originality of the political situation in post-February Russia, about which V. I. Lenin spoke a lot at that time, really existed and consisted not only in dual power. An even more prominent role here was played by the position taken by the leading political forces countries. An analysis of the first weeks of the activities of the bourgeois and socialist parties allowed the leader of the Bolsheviks to draw a conclusion that was fully justified in the future: about their unpreparedness for a quick and radical solution to the most burning issues. Russian life- to give land to the peasants, bread to the hungry, freedom to the oppressed peoples, to put an end to the war.
SHORTLY IT WAS EXPRESSED LIKE THIS; THE BOTTOM BOTTOM DOES NOT WANT TO LIVE THE OLD, AND THE UPPER DOES NOT WANT OR MORE DEFINITELY CANNOT FIND A WAY OUT...
source; http://oldhat.ru/20vek/83.htmFebruary is fine. Stolypin carried out reforms, society accepted them. And after the revolution it was necessary to continue them. the tsar would have been left as in England. it’s a pity that by February Stolypin was no longer alive; he was banged in Kyiv in 16 or something.
With a similar arrangement of ideas and values driven by people, undoubtedly, on the side of the Reds
The first thing a person of the 19th century thought about when he heard about someone was: “Which one is he from?”, that is, from what class? The concept of "estate" should not be confused with the concept of "class", although these are close structures, especially in a feudal society. The difference between them still exists. The population of the Russian Empire was officially divided into 4 estates: the nobility, the clergy, the bourgeoisie and the peasantry. In addition, the merchant class, whose social position was somewhat uncertain. The richest merchants practically merged with the nobility in terms of their position in society, while petty merchants, in terms of their rights and obligations, joined the burghers and even peasants.
Visually class division of Russia can be represented as follows.
(data for 1858A line separates the tax-exempt, that is, the higher, and the taxable, that is, the lower classes.)
The strict pyramid of monarchical society is headed by the imperial family. This is a narrow (several dozen people) circle of people connected by relatives, family relationships with the king. After Paul I, the order of succession to the throne through the male line was established in the Russian Empire, so all male members of the royal family - the grand dukes - were perceived primarily as possible heirs to the throne. The official heir was called Tsarevich.
Full official title Russian emperor occupied a good page of printed text and included about 60 names of the lands subject to him. In practice, it is important for us to know that in everyday situations, the king and queen were supposed to be addressed as "Your imperial majesty". To the rest of the members of the imperial family, that is, to the grand dukes and princesses - "Your Imperial Highness." In close relationships, in everyday life, the word "imperial" could be skipped - "Your Highness."
In the era of Nicholas I royal family numbered 28 people, in 1894 - 46 people, in 1914 - more than 60 people.
Members imperial family were different people. There were stupid martinets, and dressed up dolls, and heavy drinkers. But there were also those like Grand Duke Konstantin Konstantinovich Romanov, who wrote very good poems and plays, published under the pseudonym "K.R." There was Emperor Alexander III, who during the train crash held the roof of the car until all the servants were saved, and thereby undermined his health. Marriages of members of the imperial family with people not from influential houses, that is, not with princes and princesses, were not uncommon. These so-called morganatic marriages were quite common from an ecclesiastical and civil point of view, but limited the rights of children to the title and especially to the succession to the throne. In personal relationships, these families were almost no different from the usual aristocratic noble family that time.
The clergy, that is, people "professionally" involved in religion, constituted the ideological basis of the empire. The country was Christian, and although other beliefs - Islam, Catholicism, and so on - were respected, the Orthodox religion dominated everything. The clergy was a certain, closed estate, in which following the chosen path - serving God - as a rule, happened by inheritance. The children of male priests themselves became priests, the daughters married "their own" and became priests. The network of churches covered almost all corners of the vast empire, where people constantly lived. Territorially, the inhabitants living in the vicinity of any temple constituted the parish of this temple. Therefore, when we read: "at the Intercession", "at Nikola" - it means that a person lives near the church of St. Nicholas, that is, in this parish. Here he comes to confession to his spiritual father ("I was in spirit", "speak as if in spirit" in everyday conversation), here they bring a newborn child to be baptized, in their church a person is buried (A.S. Pushkin was buried in the church of Konyushennoye yard, located near his apartment on the Moika, 12).
Russian Orthodox Church, with external independence, was in a subordinate position to the state. Its affairs were in charge of a higher institution called the Synod, the head of which - the chief prosecutor - was appointed by the emperor. Therefore, an active self-policy, such as Catholic Church, the Russian church elite did not lead, in all essentials supporting the now living sovereign.
The clergy is divided into black and white. Black - these are monks, leaving the "world" and earthly temptations, living in monasteries, completely devoting their lives to serving God. When taking monastic vows, after a period of obedience, a kind of probationary period, a person assumed certain duties, including a vow of chastity. The black clergy were divided into five degrees, or ranks. The highest ones are the metropolitan and the archbishop, they should have been addressed as "your eminence"; then the bishop - "your Eminence". All three higher ranks also had a common title - "lord". The lower levels of the black clergy - the archimandrite and the abbot (who headed the monastery), were addressed to them as "your reverend." The abbess, that is, the abbess of the women's monastery, could be a woman, but women were not allowed into the white clergy.
The white clergy, that is, priests living "in the world", among people with families and children, were also divided into five ranks. This is a protopresbyter, archpriest (address - "your reverend"), priest, protodeacon and deacon ("your reverend"). In everyday life, in private conversation, especially among the peasant and bourgeois environment, the priest was often called by name - "Father Fyodor" - or "father", "father".
As already mentioned, priests who did not live in monasteries could have a family. The priest's wife, popadya (daughter - priest), was often called "mother" in everyday life. But a person could marry only before consecration to the first rank - deacon. After ordination, the clergyman becomes, as it were, engaged to the Church, and earthly marriage becomes impossible. Therefore, for a person of the clergy, the choice of a life partner is extremely limited in time, as a rule, these are the years of study, after which he already becomes a deacon. Either he manages to find a future mother, or he remains alone all his life. Naturally, the closest thing was the society of young girls from the clergy, which is why marriages between representatives of this stratum of society are so frequent. And of course, if even among the laity, divorce was a rarity and was accompanied by lengthy and painful procedures, then divorce was simply impossible for a priest. Therefore, the sexton from the story of A.P. suffers so much. Chekhov's "Witch" - she can never leave her husband, no matter how hated he may be.
The clergy received education in special educational institutions: theological schools, theological seminaries and theological academies. The lower educational institutions were also for women.
The ordained priests in the church were assisted by choristers, deacons, acolytes, and so on. These assistants were not officially clergy and could be from other classes.
The attitude towards persons of the clergy in Russia, most likely, was different. Now, in the 21st century, this is often discussed. Some are guided by the search for God of the heroes of L. Tolstoy and Dostoevsky, religion seems to them to be a bonding spiritual force that unites all Russians, and they see the loss of religiosity as the source of many current troubles. Others take the greedy Pop from Pushkin's fairy tale, Chekhov's deacon from The Witch, and religion for the Russian as a starting point. human XIX century seems to them something official, deceitful, formal. Real life is more complicated than any schemes, and in Russia there were both deeply believing Christians with a capital letter, and quite atheistic people. For example, Levin in L. Tolstoy's novel "Anna Karenina" does not go to church for many years, and only the upcoming sacrament of the wedding makes him perform the prescribed rites; and at the same time, questions of faith, its essence, deeply concern him. Yes, and Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy himself, a deeply religious thinker, was anathematized by the official church, that is, excommunicated. And at the same time, demonstrative atheism was considered indecent, violating the norms of behavior. The mayor in the "Inspector" reproaches the judge: "But you do not believe in God; you never go to church ...".
spirituality as ideological basis empire had certain benefits from the state. The clergy were exempted from taxes, from military service. Censorship monitored the compliance of works of art with both political and religious norms of permissibility. By the way, the appearance of a priest as a character in the play was practically excluded. After all, the theater, from the point of view of the church, is a "sinful" thing. During Lent, performances were forbidden, artists were presented as people of very dubious morality. In Chekhov's story "Panikhida", the daughter of a shopkeeper, who became an actress, is called by her father himself a "harlot". Judas in Saltykov-Shchedrin's The Golovlevs, Foma Fomich in Dostoevsky's The Village of Stepanchikovo and Its Inhabitants, for all their aggressive religiosity, cannot have an official relation to the clergy - censorship would never let such a work go to print.
The children of priests also had civil benefits. If they did not become priests, they had certain advantages in entering secular educational institutions and public service; some of them could receive the title of "honorary citizen" - a kind of "semi-nobility". A few even managed to curry favor with real nobility, become civil service departments big figures in Russian history, as, for example, M.M. Speransky. The priest's son was N.G. Chernyshevsky. But the semi-contemptuous nickname "priest", "he is one of the priest's children" haunted these people all their lives. So, M.Yu. Lermontov, in the plans of conceived, but unrealized works, we read: "The plot of a tragedy (not even a drama! - A.Z.). A young man in Russia who does not noble origin, rejected by society, love, humiliated by the bosses (he was from the priesthood or from the middle class, studied at the university and traveled at public expense). He shoots himself."
The most noticeable, honorable, defining estate of the Russian Empire is the nobility. This is the basis of the state main support monarch, the most cultured, educated stratum of society. The nobility is divided into two groups - hereditary and personal. More honorable, respected - hereditary. It is assumed that the best qualities of ancestors are inherited, "blood affects", therefore, the older the family, the better, automatically, its current representatives. There are about twice as many hereditary nobles; coats of arms of ancient families are studied by a special institution; knowledge of ancestors, the ability to understand genealogy, that is, the origin of one's surname, is an obligatory part of the education of children in such families.
There were not so many hereditary, ancient, or, as they also said, "pillar" noble families (the old woman in "The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish" wants to be not a simple, but a pillar noblewoman!) There were not so many. Everyone knew everyone at least by hearsay, and as a result of cross-marriages, almost everyone was related to each other by kinship or property, at least in previous generations, or through nepotism. The names of relatives and in-laws were the same in aristocratic circles and in peasant families. "Up", that is, to the ancestors, from the person himself go: father-mother, grandfather-grandmother, great-grandfather-great-grandmother. A distant ancestor is an ancestor. "Down", to descendants, go: son-daughter, grandson-granddaughter, great-grandson-great-granddaughter. The children of a brother and sister are nephews, the children of nephews (grandchildren of a brother-sister) are great-nephews. The brother and sister of the parent are uncle and aunt, their children are cousins and sisters, the children of their children are cousins (cousins in the nobility were often called in the French manner - cousins and cousins). The parent's cousin is a cousin uncle, his children are second cousins (sometimes called great brothers and sisters), his grandson is a second cousin.
In-laws are people connected not by "blood", but through marriage, relatives of a wife or husband. The wife's parents are father-in-law and mother-in-law, the husband's parents are father-in-law and mother-in-law; the wife's brother and his wife are brother-in-law and daughter-in-law, the wife's sister and her husband are sister-in-law and brother-in-law. For a wife, her husband's brother is a brother-in-law, his wife and her husband's sister are sisters-in-law. Sister's husband is brother-in-law.
The son's wife is the daughter-in-law or daughter-in-law, the daughter's husband is the son-in-law. The parents of the son's wife and the daughter's husband are matchmakers and matchmakers. A brother's wife is a sister-in-law or daughter-in-law. (In "Woe from Wit," the old woman Khlestova is Famusov's sister-in-law, that is, his brother's wife or wife's sister. But Famusov calls her "my daughter-in-law," which means she is his brother's wife. She calls Sophia a niece, since she is her aunt.)
The concept of nepotism is associated with religion. During the sacrament of baptism, the godson acquires godfather and mother. They should not be relatives either to the godson or to each other. God-parents each other is called godfather and godfather. It was considered very prestigious to invite high-ranking persons, sometimes even the royal family, to be godparents. So, the Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich baptized the future writer Vissarion Grigoryevich Belinsky, the son of a famous doctor.
The title of a hereditary nobleman was highly valued and protected by the laws of the state. The priority of these nobles over others was enshrined in law. A hereditary nobleman can be demoted, exiled, deprived of property, but it is almost impossible to take away the name, ancestors. Therefore, the demoted Dolokhov in "War and Peace" among the soldiers is in a special position (recall the episode with the overcoat). A hereditary nobleman of an ancient family may be poor, have no peasants, occupy an insignificant position, but he is a representative of the highest class of the state, and no one can turn to the impoverished Prince Myshkin in Dostoevsky's Idiot without his consent.
But for the functioning of the state machine, especially in the post-Petrine era, some hereditary nobles were still not enough, and to XIX century there was a system of obtaining personal nobility by representatives of other classes. A person who has risen to the rank of officer in the army, awarded the order or received a certain rank according to civil service(at the beginning of the century - the XIVth, and since 1856 - the IXth class), became a personal nobleman, acquiring many rights. Khlestakov in "The Government Inspector" shouts to the Governor: "You don't dare to flog me!" - and he's right. The nobleman is protected from corporal punishment, and Khlestakov is a collegiate registrar, an official of the XIV class, that is, a personal nobleman, even if he comes from a different class. But the children of personal nobles are not nobles and must themselves climb the ladder of life, starting from the lowest rungs. If a personal nobleman has risen to a certain rank (in the army this is the VI class, colonel, in the civil service - VIII, collegiate assessor, and since 1845 - V class, state adviser), then he goes into the category of hereditary nobles, and his children are already receive the privileges of this rank. In 1828, in this way, having risen to the rank of collegiate assessor, having "Anna" of the 3rd degree, Mikhail Andreevich Dostoevsky, the father of the great Russian writer, received hereditary nobility. But such a nobility, "service", "nobility by rank", was still considered second-rate, "not real" among the ancient hereditary families.
In addition to the general title - "nobleman" - and the appeal "your honor", a nobleman could be welcomed with a special title of nobility, passing on to descendants. The title of baron was the least valued in Russia, as a rule, these were people from the western regions - the Baltic, German barons, or financiers, in fact, "buying" the baronial title. They were addressed by the title - "Mr. Baron", "Madam Baroness". Chekhov's Tuzenbach, a descendant of a Russified German family, is called baron by Solyony quite according to the rules, but with a certain degree of disdain, which corresponds both to their personal relations and to the general ironic attitude towards this title in Russia.
Much more respect county title. The count and countess were addressed in the 19th century as "your excellency".
The princes are the most ancient in Russia and the most numerous part of the titled nobility. Here, too, there were shades of title. Hereditary "just princes" were supposed to be called "your excellency." But the prince could be commanded by imperial decree to be titled "the most illustrious" ("grand lordship"), and then he was called "your lordship" (the courtiers called G.A. Potemkin among themselves - "the most illustrious", understanding who they are talking about).
The highest level of princes is the grand dukes and princesses belonging to the royal family. They were called, as already mentioned, "your highness."
A nobleman could be granted by the emperor, as a sign of special favor or for great merits, with several titles at the same time. So, great commander A.V. Suvorov bore the title of Count Suvorov-Rymnik Prince of Italy. Here you can see another form of royal mercy - an honorary surname, Rymniksky - for the victory at Rymnik.
In addition to hereditary and servicemen, having a title and "ordinary", the nobles differed among themselves, of course, in wealth. Before the abolition of serfdom in 1861, wealth was assessed not so much in money as in the number of peasants belonging to a nobleman. This number was calculated in "souls", that is, the number of male peasants. Peasant women were not included in the lists, they were not taken into account in the population censuses (when submitting "revision tales"). The nobles were conditionally divided into small estates - up to 80-100 souls, medium landed - hundreds of souls and large landed - more than a thousand souls. Individual representatives higher strata Russia owned dozens of estates and dozens, and sometimes hundreds of thousands of souls. As a sign of mercy, emperors and empresses, together with peasants, gave entire estates to their subjects, for example, His Serene Highness Prince Potemkin-Tavrichesky, according to some sources, received 37 thousand souls as a gift in just two years! The parents of Lermontov Pechorin "Three thousand souls in the Saratov, Voronezh and Kaluga provinces." But Chatsky is an average landowner, he has 300-400 souls. For Famusov, this is not enough, his desire is
Be bad, yes if you get it
Souls of a thousand two tribal, -
That and the groom.
According to Yu.M. Lotman, middle class landowners and Larina in "Eugene Onegin".
In a private conversation, in everyday life, nobles with a title could address each other either by name and patronymic, or by title: "Hello, baron", "I beg you, countess." Those who were absent could be called by title and name: "Ah! My God! what will he say // Princess Marya Aleksevna!"
Such a detail is interesting. The military in service, official situations addressed each other by rank - "Mr. Lieutenant", "Your Excellency." But in everyday, private communication, they preferred to address by the title of nobility: "Tell me, prince ..." - although the prince was, say, a captain.
The main privileges of the nobility, enshrined in the laws of the Russian Empire, were: the right to own serfs, freedom from poll tax, freedom from recruitment duty, physical integrity. The nobleman had the right not to serve at all (although only a few people used this right). The nobles had significant benefits when entering educational institutions and service, for them the length of service for obtaining a rank and order was significantly reduced, they quickly rose through the ranks. The monarchy tried in every possible way to strengthen the nobility as its support.
The nobles had the right to create their class organizations in provincial (today - regional) and county cities. (With a very large degree of approximation, these organizations could today be called a "noble trade union".) The nobles of the province or county gathered, gathered in the building of the noble assembly and by secret ballot elected their ruling bodies and their head - the marshal of the nobility for a three-year period. Upon arrival in the city, N Chichikov goes to introduce himself to such a leader in "Dead Souls", Ippolit Matveyevich Vorobyaninov, the hero of the novel "12 Chairs", was the county leader with the rank of the VI class "before the era of historical materialism". Although the meetings of the nobility were completely controlled, it was still a germ of democracy in the rigid structure of an autocratic state.
AND titles of nobility, and property and privileges were passed down through the male line. Wives and daughters were titled after their husband or father: princess - the wife of the prince, princess - his daughter. If a nobleman married, for example, a merchant's daughter, the title of nobility extended to her as well. But if a noblewoman married, though rich, but a merchant, she, along with her family name, also lost the nobility for her children. This is how very famous, ancient noble families were suppressed.
There was another group of the population in Russia - honorary citizens. These are not yet nobles, but they are no longer merchants, petty bourgeois, or clergy. This title, and hereditary, could be received by the children of priests who graduated educational institution, but employees in the civil service, as well as merchants of the 1st or 2nd guild who received an order, rank or for special merits. Personal, without transfer to descendants, honorary citizenship could have the children of priests who do not have special education and those who did not follow the spiritual line; philistines who graduated from an institute or university; officials who do not have the right to the nobility.
Honorary citizens had some rights of nobility: they did not pay the poll tax, they were exempted from corporal punishment. But the cherished dream of most honorary citizens still remained the "real" nobility.
Honorary citizenship was often marked by the activities of representatives of the "free professions" - artists, musicians. This title was awarded to artists of the Imperial Theaters in the 19th century. As a graduate of an educational institution, he received the title of honorary citizen Platon Zybkin in Ostrovsky's play "Truth is good, but happiness is better."
The merchant class is the most indefinite in status, although a noticeable segment of the population. Officially, in the censuses, merchants, that is, people engaged in trade and industrial production on a private, non-state basis, were not singled out as a separate estate. Most of the merchants came from philistines, that is, urban non-noble residents, but there were merchants and peasants.
The merchant class was divided into guild, richer, and petty-bourgeois. Depending on the capital, a merchant could be enrolled in a guild (group, category, union): from 500 to 1000 rubles - III guild, from 1 to 10 thousand - II guild, over 10,000 rubles - I guild. The merchants of the first two guilds were closer in their position, in rights to the nobility, among them there were more honorary citizens, and for special merits they could be awarded a medal or even an order, in rare cases receive a rank and nobility. Merchants of the third guild and "petty-bourgeois", non-guild, were practically equated with tax-paying estates - petty bourgeois, small artisans.
A merchant of the first guild - "first-class" - and an honorary citizen - Akhov in Ostrovsky's play "Not Everything is Shrovetide for a Cat". Lazar Podkhalyuzin in the finale of the play "Our People - Let's Settle" is called a merchant of the 2nd guild, which means that Samson Silych Bolshov could not be of a lower level, apparently, this is the 2nd, and maybe even the 1st guild.
The merchants were distinguished by their manner of dressing, a special, sometimes deliberately "folkish" style of conversation. Merchant men wore beards. The nobles willingly used the services of merchants, but the attitude towards them was, as a rule, condescending. The nobleman called the merchant on "you", addressed him as "amiable", "honorable", and the merchant of the most seedy nobleman was obliged to call on "you". Lower-ranking people often turned to merchants, especially significant ones, "your degree."
After the reform of 1861, the abolition of serfdom, many economic, trade, social restrictions disappeared, and the merchant class moved to a new stage of development. Many merchant children received an education, "went into science", contacts with foreign countries became more active. A new type of merchant appeared, in many respects competing with the nobility even in culture, in education, in demeanor. This difference is clearly seen in the example of A.N. Ostrovsky. The merchants from his early plays - Bolshov, Korshunov, Akhov - are still pre-reform, poorly educated, rude, petty tyrants. In his later plays, a completely different merchant appears. He is educated, energetic, travels abroad, and feels free in a secular living room. These are Paratov, Pribytkov, Velikatov; this is Chekhov's Lopakhin, Gorky's Bulychov. It was precisely such merchants that made up a significant part of the class of Russian capitalists, in short time put forward the Russian state among the most dynamically developing countries in the world. In 1896 there were 245 trading houses of merchants of the 1st guild and 5403 of the 2nd guild in the whole of Siberia - and the population was then extremely small there.
The word "philistinism" is now perceived as a characteristic of a person's lifestyle, views, and tastes. But in Russia XIX For centuries, town dwellers were called philistines ("philistine" - living in a "place", that is, in a city). These are people from peasants, and artisans, and small merchants. Many representatives of the so-called "free professions" - artists, musicians, actors, writers - were considered philistines. Kiev bourgeois by passport - Konstantin Treplev ("The Seagull" by A.P. Chekhov) and his father, an actor. This estate was considered taxable, the townspeople paid taxes, they were taken into the army. It was possible to get out of the bourgeois class different ways: having received an education, go to the civil service, to the officials, to rise to honorary citizenship or nobility. It was possible through a successful trade to try to enter the number of merchants of the II or I guild. But most of the townspeople remained artisans and representatives of professions serving the upper classes: janitors, stove-makers, cooks, seamstresses, matchmakers, tailors, watchmakers, maids, shoemakers, and so on.
And the last in nobility, but the most numerous, fed the whole of Russia, which constituted its economic basis, was the peasantry. (At the end of the century, the working class also rapidly formed, but in the works fiction and dramaturgy, its representatives are still rare, writers did not have time to comprehend this type of psychology, a special social group of people. Representatives of the workers appear, perhaps, only in the work of M. Gorky, but this is already a phenomenon rather of culture. Soviet period than the Russian classics of the "golden" age.) Until the end 19th century it was the peasants who bore the main burdens of the Russian economy, it was their hands that created all the wealth of the country, everything that the upper strata of society were proud of as their property. And throughout the 19th century, like the previous ones, they were called "you", they were deprived of almost all rights, including - until 1861 - the right to choose a place of residence, type of activity, sometimes even choosing a life partner. They were counted into "souls", that is, by males. Peasant women they didn’t even take it into account in the censuses, they simply doubled the number of “souls” - and the approximate number of the population was obtained. When buying peasants "wholesale", as a rule, only men were taken into account. Therefore, Chichikov is dissatisfied with Sobakevich, who attributed the "soulless" woman Elizaveta Vorobei to the list of souls for sale - you can't get a penny for a woman.
After the abolition of serfdom in 1861, changes took place in the position of the peasants, and quite significant ones. But even then it was very difficult to change the centuries-old way of the country, especially in the field of human relations. Peasants who were torn off from the land either left for the city, losing family and spiritual ties with the past, or were hired by their own people. former owners or to rich peasants (at the beginning of the 20th century, the term "fist" appeared for such people). And all these paths were psychologically difficult, very unusual. Old relationships were destroyed, new ones were only being laid. As always with changes, the worst human traits surfaced - anger, envy, cynicism, depravity. It is not surprising that not only the landlords, but even many peasants yearned for the "old, good times". So, in "The Cherry Orchard" by A.P. Chekhov, Firs, the butler, a former courtyard man, calls "freedom" a misfortune.
In the field of spirituality, the working peasant often appears in the works of Russian writers as a standard of spiritual integrity, decency, morality, religiosity, common sense. Such are Tolstoy's Akim in "The Power of Darkness" and the peasants in "War and Peace", the heroes of Chekhov's story "The Steppe", the characters of I.S. Turgenev. But next to the peasants working on the land, there was another type of peasant - household people. They did not work on arable land, their task is to serve the landowner's yard, fulfill his orders, whims, and serve his family. In this environment, the lowly ones often flourished. human qualities- servility, servility, meanness. Such are Yasha in The Cherry Orchard, Smerdyakov in The Brothers Karamazov, Vidoplyasov in The Village of Stepanchikovo and Its Inhabitants. Yard people were not respected either by real, landed peasants, or by their own masters. (Of course, there were other courtyard people, it is enough to recall two people close to A.S. Pushkin - the valet Nikita, who saw off the poet on his last journey, and the poet's nanny Arina Rodionovna.)
As actors, central characters works, peasants did not often appear in literature XIX century. The difference between other representatives of the peasantry here is more psychological, human than social. Peasants, even literate and educated, in official documents, especially at the beginning of the century, were called in a humiliated form - "Vaska", "Ivashka". Later, a more respectful form arose - "Peter Ivanov son of Stepanov", sometimes abbreviated - "Peter Ivanov Stepanov". After the reform of 1861, the peasants, especially those who managed to get rich, instilled an emphatically respectful appeal to each other with "-vich", that is, "Fedorovich", "Sergeich". Previously, such treatment was used only by the nobles in informal address.
So, good or bad, smart or stupid, rich, poor, man, woman, child - a person in Russia of the 19th century belonged to some class. The ambiguity in this matter, the absence, for example, of documents, gave rise to painful uncertainty, including spiritual one - Neznamov in Ostrovsky's "Guilty Without Guilt" suffers from orphanhood, the absence of parents, but also from social uncertainty, it is enough to recall his monologue about a passport ( "view") Shmagi. The overwhelming majority Russian citizens they knew exactly what class they belonged to, they knew their rights and obligations, they knew their "pole" in the state building.
Despite the numerical smallness, leading role in the life of the state played the nobility. Therefore, both in the literature and in dramaturgy XIX century majority actors- noblemen. Both the merchant class and the bourgeoisie also occupy a prominent place in the culture of Russia; most of Ostrovsky's heroes come from this layer. But the system of social relations, the social ladder, was most clearly, even legislatively, designated precisely in the nobility. The huge class of Russian bureaucracy, bureaucracy can be equated (in terms of relations) with it. officials, especially lower levels may have come from different classes. But receiving a position and rank, they enter into relationships that are created and protected by the main pillar of the system - the nobility. These relationships will be discussed in the following chapters.
In Russia, before 1917, as is known, the division of society into estates was accepted. By the beginning of the 20th century, there were 7 main estates. We immediately emphasize that the estates Russian Empire and the so-called "classes" that the communists introduced after the seizure of power are completely different things.
Here is how the estate is defined on Wikipedia:
estate- a social stratum, a group whose members differ in their legal status from the rest of the population
I will add that, as a rule, the difference between representatives of one class consisted not only in their legal status, but also in their way of life, occupation, and partly in the level of well-being. The transition from one class to another was possible, but this happened infrequently. As a rule, marriages were concluded within the same class, so class affiliation was preserved for centuries, passed from generation to generation.
Over the years Soviet power everything got mixed up. Now it is difficult to find a person whose all ancestors would belong to the same class. The vast majority of different branches have representatives of two, and more often even more estates.
Nevertheless, it is interesting to compare how the estate structure has changed Russian society over the past century. Descendants of representatives of what estates survived in greater numbers.
Here is the 1897 census data.
peasantry - 77.5%, petty bourgeois - 10.7%, Cossacks - 2.3%, nobles (hereditary and personal) - 1.5%, clergy - 0.5%, honorary citizens (hereditary and personal) - 0, 3%, merchants - 0.2%, others - 0.4%.
I suggest that the haidarkers choose which class their ancestors belonged to. The task, based on the foregoing, is not an easy one. After all, the vast majority will have to choose on the basis of some criteria: which branch of their kind they prefer. Which estate of their ancestors will be considered more significant, expressed in order to reflect it in the survey.
Someone will choose the estate to which most of his ancestors belonged. Whoever considers the estate represented in the male line more important, someone, on the contrary, in the female line. Someone will be guided by the class of some of his famous ancestor. In any case - everyone decides for himself.
If the class of ancestors is unknown, it is not clear (which is quite acceptable, almost 100 years have passed), then it is better to indicate: I don’t know.
In the list of estates, he did not indicate the option: "honorary citizens" is an intermediate between the townspeople, raznochintsy and nobles. In the Russian Empire 100 years ago they were singled out as a separate class, but there were few of them (about 0.3%) and it did not last long.
So, dear guideparkers, we choose the most suitable option and justify it in the comments. And it would also be interesting to know some stories from the life of your ancestors - this is primarily a memory of them.
