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Methods of holistic analysis of a literary work. Holistic Analysis (music)

Methods of holistic analysis of a literary work. Holistic Analysis (music)

27.02.2019

The perception and comprehension of a work of art as a whole has become especially significant in our time. The attitude of modern man to the world as a whole has a valuable, vital meaning.

For people in our 21st century, it is important to realize the interconnection and interdependence of the phenomena of reality because people have acutely felt their own dependence on the integrity of the world. It turned out that a lot of effort is required from people to maintain unity as a source and condition for the existence of mankind.

Art from the very beginning was aimed at the emotional sensation and reproduction of the integrity of life. Therefore, “... it is precisely in the work that the universal principle of art is clearly realized: the re-creation of the integrity of the world of human life as an endless and incomplete “social organism” in the final and complete aesthetic unity of the artistic whole” (B. O. Korman. On the integrity of a work of art. Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Series of Literature and Language, 1977, No. 6).

Literature in its development, temporal movement, that is, the literary process, reflected the progressive course of artistic consciousness, striving to reflect people's mastery of the integrity of life and the destruction of the integrity of the world and man accompanying this movement.

Literature has a special place in preserving the image of reality. This image makes it possible for successive generations to imagine the uninterrupted history of mankind. The art of the word turns out to be “persistent” in time, most firmly realizing the connection of times due to the special specificity of the material - the word - and the work of the word.

If the meaning of world history is “the development of the concept of freedom” (Hegel), then it is the literary process (as a kind of integrity of a moving artistic consciousness) that reflected the human content of the concept of freedom in its continuous historical development.

Therefore, it is so important that those who perceive the phenomena of art realize the meaning of integrity, correlate it with specific works, so that both in the perception of art and in its comprehension a “sense of integrity” is formed as one of the highest criteria of artistry.

The theory of art, literature helps in this complex process. The concept of the integrity of a work of art, one might say, develops throughout the history of aesthetic thought. Especially active, effective, that is, directed towards those who perceive and create art, it has become in historical criticism.

Aesthetic thought, literary science in the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century went through a complex, extremely contradictory path of development (schools of the 19th century, trends in art, again schools and trends in art and literary criticism of the 20th century). Different approaches to the content, to the form of works either "fragmented" the integrity of the phenomena of art, or "recreated" it. There were serious reasons for this in the development of artistic consciousness, aesthetic thought.

And so the second half of the 20th century again sharply raised the question of artistic integrity. The reason for this, as stated at the beginning of the section, lies in the very reality of the modern world.

For us who study art and teach to understand it, to understand the problem of the integrity of the work means to comprehend the deepest nature of art.

The source of independent activity can be the works of modern literary scholars dealing with problems of integrity: B. O. Korman, L. I. Timofeev, M. M. Girshman, etc.

In order to successfully master the theory of the integrity of a work, it is necessary to imagine the content of the system of categories - carriers of the problems of integrity.

First of all, one must understand the concept artistic text and context.

Since the 1940s, linguistic science has been engaged in the definition and description of the text to a greater extent than literary criticism. Perhaps for this reason, the Dictionary of Literary Terms (M., 1974) does not contain the term “text” at all. he appeared in the Literary encyclopedic dictionary(M., 1987).

The general concept of text in modern linguistics (from Latin - fabric, connection of words) has the following definition: “... some complete sequence of sentences related in meaning to each other within general design author". (A. I. Domashnev, I. P. Shishkina, E. A. Goncharova Interpretation of a literary text. M., 1983).

A work of art as an author's unity can be called a text in its entirety and is comprehended as a text. Although it may be far from homogeneous in terms of the way it is expressed, in terms of its elements and methods of organization, it nevertheless represents a monolithic unity realized as the moving thought of the author.

A literary text differs from other types of text primarily in that it has an aesthetic meaning and carries aesthetic information. The literary text contains an emotional charge that has an impact on readers.

Linguists also note such a property of a literary text as a unit of information: its “absolute anthropocentricity”, i.e., focus on the image and expression of a person. A word in a literary text is polysemous (polysemantic), which is the source of its ambiguous comprehension.

Along with the understanding of the literary text for analysis, understanding the integrity of the work, it is necessary to understand the context (from Latin - close connection, connection). In dictionary literary terms"(M, 1974) the context is defined as "a relatively complete part (phrase, period, stanza, etc.) of the text, in which a single word receives the exact meaning and expression that corresponds to this particular text as a whole. The context gives the speech a complete semantic coloring, determines the artistic unity of the text. Therefore, a phrase or word can only be evaluated in context. In a broader sense, the context can be considered the work as a whole.

In addition to these meanings of the context, its broadest meaning is also used - feature and signs, properties, features, content of the phenomenon. So, we say: the context of creativity, the context of time.

For analysis, understanding of the text, the concept of a component (Latin - component) is used - an integral part, element, unit of composition, segment of the work, in which one way of depiction is preserved (for example, dialogue, description, etc.) or a single point of view (of the author, narrator, hero) to what is depicted.

The mutual arrangement, interaction of these text units forms a compositional unity, the integrity of the work in its components.

In the theoretical development of the work, in literary analysis The concept of "system" is often and naturally used. The work is considered as a systemic unity. The system in aesthetics and literary science is understood as an internally organized set of interrelated and interdependent components, that is, a certain set in their connections and relationships.

Along with the concept of a system, the concept of structure is often used, which is defined as the relationship between the elements of the system or as a stable repeating unity of relations, interconnections of elements.

A literary work of literature is a complex structural formation. The number of structural elements in today's science is not defined. Four main structural elements are considered indisputable: ideological (or ideological-thematic) content, figurative system, composition, language [see. "Interpretation of a literary text", p. 27-34]. Often these elements include the genus, type (genre) of the work and the artistic method.

The work is the unity of form and content (according to Hegel: the content is formal, the form is meaningful).

The expression of complete completeness, the integrity of the designed content is the composition of the work (from Latin - compilation, connection, connection, arrangement).

According to studies, for example, by E. V. Volkova (“A work of art is a subject of aesthetic analysis”, Moscow State University, 1976), the concept of composition came to literary science from the theory of fine arts and architecture. Composition is a general aesthetic category, since it reflects the essential features of the structure of a work of art in all types of art.

Composition is not only the orderliness of the form, but, above all, the orderliness of the content. The composition was defined differently at different times.

In the dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron, the category related to music and descriptive arts was called composition. Garnet's dictionary said that composition meant the creative process in music; composition - the composition of the whole (in liveliness, plasticity). In the "Literary Encyclopedia" of the first issue (vol. 5, 1931), the composition was already called the structure of the whole, and in the Bolshoi Soviet Encyclopedia(vol. 33, 1938) composition was defined as the construction of a literary work. In the 1920s, composition was widely studied as a law of the structure of a literary work (L. Vygotsky, V. Zhirmunsky, M. Bakhtin, A. Skaftymov, B. Tomashevsky, V. Shklovsky, B. Eichenbaum). But, for example, B. Eikhenbaum, V. Shklovsky understood the composition as a "catalog" of techniques, with the help of which the material of reality is "introduced" into the work. M. Bakhtin, A. Skaftymov, who studied functional poetics, considered the composition as a system-content level of the work.

Composition refers to the sphere of internal ordering of the work.

Artistic integrity is an organic unity, interpenetration, interaction of all content-formal elements of a work. Conventionally, for the convenience of understanding the works, we can distinguish levels of content and form. But this will not mean that in the work they exist on their own. Not a single level, like an element, is possible outside the system.

Topic - thematic, thematic unity, thematic content, thematic originality, diversity, etc.

Idea - ideation, ideological content, ideological originality, ideological unity, etc.

Problem - problematic, problematic, problematic content, unity, etc.

Derivative concepts, as we see, reveal and expose the inseparability of content and form. If we keep in mind how, for example, the concept of plot has changed (either as equal to the plot, then as a direct eventfulness of reality reflected in the work - to compare, for example, the plot in the understanding of V. Shklovsky and V. Kozhinov), then it becomes obvious: in In a work of art, each level exists precisely because it is designed, created, shaped, and the design, the design, is a form in the broadest sense: the content realized in the material of a given art, which is “overcome” through certain methods of constructing a work. The same contradiction is also found when the levels of form are distinguished: rhythmic, sound organization, morphological, lexical, syntactic, plot, genre, again - system-figurative, compositional, figurative and expressive means of the language.

Already in the understanding and definition of each of the central concepts of this series, inseparable bond content and form. For example, the rhythmic movement of the picture of life in a work is created by the author, based on rhythm as a property of life, all its forms. Rhythm in an artistic phenomenon acts as a universal artistic regularity.

The general aesthetic understanding of rhythm is derived from the fact that rhythm is the periodic repetition of small and larger parts of an object. Rhythm can be revealed at all levels: intent-syntactic, plot-figurative, compositional, etc.

IN modern science there is a statement that rhythm is a phenomenon and a concept wider and more ancient than poetry and music.

Based on the understanding of the integrity of the work as a construction created by the author, expressing the artist's thought about human reality, M. M. Grishman distinguishes three stages of the system of relations between the processes of artistic creation: 1.

The emergence of integrity as the primary element, the starting point and at the same time the organizing principle of the work, the source of its subsequent deployment. 2.

The formation of integrity in the system of correlations and the constituent elements of the work interacting with each other. 3.

Completion of the integrity in the complete and integral unity of the work (See: M. M. Girshman. Integrity of a literary work. // Problems of the artistic form of socialist realism, vol. 2, M., 1997).

The formation and deployment of a work is “the self-development of the created artistic world” (M. Girshman).

It is very important to note that although the integrity of a work is constructed, as it seems, from elements known from the practice of art, i.e., allegedly “finished” details, these elements in a given work are so updated in their content and functions that every time are new, unique moments of the unique artistic world. The context of the work, the moving artistic idea fills the means, techniques with the content of only this organic integrity.

Perceiving, realizing a particular work of art, it is important to feel it as a creative system, “in every moment of which the presence of the creator, the subject creating the world” (M. Hirshman) is revealed.

This allows for a holistic analysis of the work. Particular attention should be paid to M. Hirshman's "warning": a holistic analysis is not a way of studying (whether in the course of the deployment of activity or "following the author", in the course of the reader's perception, etc.). We are talking about the methodological principle of analysis, which assumes that each single element of a literary work is considered as a certain moment in the formation and deployment of the artistic whole, as an expression of internal unity, the general idea and organizing principles of the work. Holistic analysis is the unity of analysis and synthesis. He overcomes the mechanical selection and summing up of elements under a common meaning, a separate consideration of the various elements of the whole (M. Girshman. More on the integrity of a literary work. / Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Series of literature and language. T. 38. 1979, No. 5).

The principles of holistic analysis are different from the mechanical analytical approach to the work. Understanding integrity makes students, interpreters of literature, approach works more carefully, more subtly, feel deeper and more “tangibly” the “fabric” of the work, “verbal tie”, naturally highlight the “nodes” of this tie, feel the style of the work as a general speech system and strive in tune with the work. to interpret his idea, moving in every element-moment of the structure.

“HOLISTIC ANALYSIS OF LITERARY WORK Textbook for university students Andreev A.N. Holistic analysis of a literary work [Electronic resource]: Textbook for students...»

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A.N.Andreev

HOLISTIC ANALYSIS

LITERARY GENUINE

Textbook for university students

Andreev A.N. Holistic analysis of a literary work

[Electronic resource]: Textbook for university students -

Electron. text. Dan. (2.4 MB). - Minsk: Scientific and methodological center

“Electronic book of Belarusian State University”, 2003. - Access mode:

http://anubis.bsu.by/publications/elresources/Philology/andreev5.pdf. - Electron. print version. publications, 1995. - PDF format, version 1.4. - System. requirements: Adobe Acrobat 5.0 and above.

MINSK "Electronic book of Belarusian State University"

HOLISTIC

ANALYSIS

LITERARY

WORKS

Textbook for university students Approved by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Belarus MINSK NMCentre BBK 83.3ya A65 UDC 808.2(075.8) Reviewers:

D. D. Voron - candidate of philological sciences, V. P. Zhuravlev - doctor of philological sciences Andreev A. N.

A65 Holistic analysis of a literary work:

Proc. allowance for university students. - Minsk: NMTsentr, 1995. - 144 p. 18VM 985-6216-04-4.

The tutorial covers the most important properties artistic works. Distinctive feature benefit is its conceptual and compositional novelty.

All problems of the theory of literature are analyzed from the standpoint of philosophical aesthetics. A number of key problems of literary criticism are covered in a new way: the theory of integrity, figurativeness, multilevelness of works; traditional problems of gender, genre, style are interpreted in an unusual way. The issues of psychologism in literature, the national specifics of literature, the criteria of artistry, etc., are considered topical, but little studied by literary criticism.

Theoretically substantiated and demonstrated in practice the methodology of a holistic aesthetic analysis of works.

The manual is designed for teachers and students of philological faculties. It may be useful for specialists in the humanities of various profiles, as well as for readers interested in the problems of literary criticism.

BBK 83.3rd

INTRODUCTION

One of the most relevant today, the central problems of the theory of literature is the systematic development of the theory of a work of art.

(The basis of the system of concepts about the composition of a work of art is most fully developed in the works of G. N. Pospelov *, who, in turn, directly relied on the aesthetic ideas of Hegel **.) At the same time, the same fundamental idea provoked a simplified approach to the analysis of works .

On the one hand, the scientific analysis of the content is often replaced by the so-called interpretation, i.e.

arbitrary fixation of subjective aesthetic impressions, when it is not objective knowledge of the laws governing the formation and functioning of a work of art that is valued, but an originally expressed own attitude towards it. The work serves as a starting point for the interpreter, who reinterprets the work in its current context. On the other hand, the necessity and possibility of knowing a work in terms of its content is generally denied.

The work is interpreted as a kind of purely aesthetic phenomenon, supposedly having no content, as a pure phenomenon of style.

* Pospelov G. N. A holistic-systemic understanding of literary works // Questions of methodology and poetics. M., 1983.

** Hegel G.V. Aesthetics. T.1. M., 1968.

To a large extent, this happens because, having outlined the meaningful and formal poles (the poetic "world of ideas", spiritual content and ways of expressing it), science has not yet been able to overcome, "remove" these contradictions, present a convincing version of "coexistence" contradictions. Throughout the history of literary thought, either hermeneutical oriented concepts have inevitably been actualized (i.e., the work was interpreted in a certain sociocultural key; a hidden meaning was sought in it, the identification of which required an appropriate decoding methodology), or aesthetic, formalist schools and theories that study poetics (t .e. not the meaning of the works, but the means of conveying it).

For some, the work was in one way or another a "phenomenon of the ka" (accordingly, the work was considered mainly from the standpoint of either the sociology of literature or historical poetics).

The first can be attributed real criticism"Russian revolutionary democrats of the 19th century, cultural-historical, spiritual-historical, psychoanalytic, ritual-mythological schools, Marxist literary criticism, post-structuralism. To the second - aesthetic theories"art for art's sake", "pure art", the Russian "formal school", structuralism, aesthetic concepts "serving" modernism and postmodernism.

The cardinal question of the entire theory of literature, the question of the mutual representation of content in form and vice versa, was not only not resolved, but most often was not raised. Without rejecting the fundamental approach to the study of a work of art as an ideological formation in nature, having a specific plan of content and plan of expression, aesthetics and literary critics are increasingly cultivating the idea of a multi-level aesthetic object*.

At the same time, the idea of the nature of the integrity of the work itself changes. Achievements in the field of general scientific methodology - in particular, the development of such concepts as structure, system, integrity - make the humanists also go from the macro to the micro level, while not forgetting about their integration. The development of dialectical thinking is becoming extremely relevant for all humanitarian disciplines. Obviously, * Hartman N. Aesthetics. M., 1958; Ingarden R. Studies in Aesthetics. M., 1962. Tyupa VI Artistry of a literary work. Krasnoyarsk, 1987.

only on this path can one achieve in-depth knowledge about the object of study, adequately reflect its properties.

An innovative methodological approach to a work of art as a holistic phenomenon began to be systematically developed relatively recently (among the first works of this kind, the already mentioned monograph by V. I. Tyupa should be mentioned). This approach is proving to be very, very productive and increasingly authoritative. In fairness, it should be noted that the first steps in this direction were taken by the spiritual-historical school (V. Dilthey, R. Unger), as well as by the Russian philological science in the 1920s (works by V. B. Shklovsky, V. V. Vinogradov and others). However, as a scientific theory, the deep observations expressed by scientists have not taken shape.

In this work, such a “cell of artistry” is the consistently identified levels of a work of art, such as method, genre, meta-genre, genre, as well as all levels of style (situation, plot, composition, detail, etc.). Such an approach forces one to take a critical view of existing literary concepts, to interpret seemingly well-established categories in a new way.

First of all, what should be meant by artistic content, which can be conveyed only through a multi-level structure?

It seems to me that the basis of any artistic content constitute not just ideas in a sensually perceived form (in other words, an image). Ultimately, the image is also just a way of conveying specific artistic information. All this information is focused in the figurative concept of personality. This concept has become the central, supporting one in the proposed theory of a literary and artistic work. It is through the concept of personality that the writer reproduces his vision of the world, his worldview system.

It is obvious that the key concepts of the theory of the work - integrity, the concept of personality and others - are not actually literary criticism. The logic of solving literary issues forces one to turn to philosophy, psychology, and cultural studies. Since I am convinced that the theory of literature is nothing but the philosophy of literature, contacts at the intersection of sciences seem to me not only useful, but also inevitable and necessary.

Before talking about personality in literature, one should understand what a personality is in life and in science. The basis of modern ideas about personality was the ideas gleaned from the works of Z. Freud, E. Fromm, K. Jung, V. Frankl and others. etc. Since a person is an integral object, it is important to determine the interdependence in a person of psychophysiological and spiritual principles, conscious and unconscious. Finally, it seemed to me necessary to clarify the following problems, without solving which it is simply meaningless to raise questions about personality in literature: what is the content of individual consciousness, what is its structure? At the same time, I proceeded from the fact that individual consciousness is inextricably linked with public consciousness one simply does not exist without the other.

It is in this vein of understanding that the personality is, from my point of view, the subject and object of aesthetic activity. A work of art in the proposed interpretation is a creative act of generating the concept of personality, reproduced with the help of special "strategies of artistic typification" (V.I. Tyupa).

The main ones are: method (in the unity of the typological and concrete historical aspects), gender, meta-genre and, in part, genre. Style is already a figurative and expressive embodiment of the chosen strategies through the plot-compositional level, detail, and, further, through the verbal levels of style (intonational-syntactic, lexico-morphological, phonetic, rhythmic).

Thus, if the premises of the stated concept are correct, we can approach the scientific and theoretical comprehension of the truth, figuratively expressed by A. A. Blok in the article "The Fate of Apollon Grigoriev": "The mental structure of a true poet is expressed in everything, up to punctuation marks."

An innovative approach should ideally extend to all traditional problems without exception. As a result, many problems appear in a completely different light. Thus, the dichotomy of the concepts content - form loses its "absolute" character. IN layered structure the content or formality of any level becomes relative: everything depends on the relationship with the higher and lower levels.

The problems of the genesis of the work and the related problems of literary traditions are also being rethought. The inheritance of the concept of personality and stylistic borrowing cannot be put in the same row. It is necessary to delimit the sphere of their influence.

The approach to the historical and functional aspect of works is changing. In particular, the phenomenon of mass literature receives its not only moral and psychological, but also aesthetic explanation.

A theoretical basis appears for a comprehensive formulation of the problems of psychologism in the literature. Within the framework of the presented concept, the regularity of the transformation of the ethical and psychological structure of the character into an aesthetic one becomes clear.

An attempt is made to analyze the national as a factor of artistry in literature. I wanted to get away from the descriptive approach to national specifics works and reveal the deep foundations of this content level.

The problem of the criteria for the artistic value of a work turns into new facets. The objectivity of the criteria is seen in the "potential of artistry", which is directly related to the concept of "human dimension".

Of course, I am far from thinking that the concept defended is blameless and exclusive. It is by no means aloof from various modern and previous schools and trends. I would like to synthesize the experience of such schools to the best of my ability. I am convinced that the existing literary methodologies can and should be reduced to a "common denominator".

Dialectical logic simply dictates such an approach. In essence, the whole difficulty lies in being really dialectical, so that real problems are adequately posed and comprehended. It seems to me that a truly dialectical methodology has not yet been introduced into literary criticism, which is at the initial stage of its formation.

THEORY OF LITERARY AND ART

WORKS

1. INTEGRITY OF THE ARTISTIC IMAGE

The nature of the formulation and methods of solving all problems of the theory of literature depend on the starting point - on the solution of the question of the necessity and laws of the existence of art (and fiction as its kind). If literature exists, does anyone need it?

In essence, such a paraphrase of the poet is a deep materialistic formulation of the question.

Scientifically, the same question can be formulated as follows: why does a person's spirituality manifest itself (hence, it cannot but manifest itself) in the form of an art, opposite to a scientific one? After all, the spiritual content of a person can be the subject of scientific research. However, this was not enough for a person who took art as his "eternal companion".

Without touching on all the depths of the general aesthetic problems of verbal and artistic creativity, it is necessary to note some decisive circumstances. First of all, art, unlike science, uses a very special way of reproducing and cognizing reality - an image, that is, a sensually perceived, individualized "representative" of certain objects, phenomena. Behind the individual in the image, a universal phenomenon, universal for a given class, shines through.

Science, including literary criticism, does not use images, but concepts, i.e., the designation of an entity that is maximally abstracted from individual features*. Essence as such cannot be sensible at all * In fact, between the polar categories "concept - image" there are several more intermediate formations. In epistemological terms, the concept of "gradually" turns into its opposite - the image - through a series of stages. Among them, first of all, we should note ideas, signs, images-signs (as well as symbols-signs), images proper, and, finally, artistic images (reaching the level of symbol-images).

In fiction, we deal with images of different types.

However, in order not to be distracted from the main concept, I deliberately do not focus on shades, concentrating from the entire "conceptual" spectrum on extreme polar categories. This is, of course, a simplification that can only be justified by the educational nature of this edition.

accepted. That's why scientific work almost devoid of emotions, which only "obscure" the essence. From concepts it is possible to build a chain of conclusions, hypotheses, theories, but it is impossible to create an image. In the same way, it is impossible to state a scientific theory with the help of an image.

The principle of artistic typification in art is based on the property of reality to "respond" to an image, on its ability to reflect adequately not only with the help of concepts, but also images. The more artistic image is individual, the more it is able to convey the general.

What has been said about the image is still common place in art theory. Much less often, researchers ask another equally important question: why is imaginative thinking, a holistic creative recreation of the figurative concept of personality and the corresponding perception - "co-creative empathy" possible at all? This kind of activity must be somehow explained from the point of view of the functioning of consciousness.

It has long been noted that a person's worldview is formed in a field of tension that arises between two poles: "worldview" and "theoretical activity of consciousness"*. If we translate the terminology into the language of philosophy, we are talking about the distinction between mind and consciousness. How do these categories relate, how do they interact? Only by answering these fundamental non-literary questions, we will be able to explain the nature of integrity and imagery, the laws of their emergence and functioning.

Let us turn to philosophers: "There are all grounds (genetic, logical, etc.) for the theoretical reconstruction of consciousness to go from the psyche. It historically preceded it, it is specific and highest form psyche"**. For the theory of integrity, this provision is fundamentally important. Further: "What has been said does not mean that consciousness is over-psychic. In essence, it is, of course, the opposite of the psyche, but since there is no transformation without adaptation (at least to the very results of the transformation), then the psychic proper is also inherent in human consciousness (transformation is the predominant function of consciousness, adaptation - of the psyche - A.A.). Human consciousness and psyche are inextricably linked; they are different aspects of a single subjective-spiritual reality.

* On the presence of these aspects in the artist's worldview, see: Pospelov G. N. Holistic-systemic understanding ... P. 150.

** Egorov A. V. Consciousness, knowledge, knowledge // Methodological aspects scientific knowledge and social action. Mn., 1985. S. 57.

*** There. S. 58.

Since this is the case, consciousness can function as the psyche, and the psyche can function as consciousness. As a basis, a prerequisite for artistic creativity, these aspects act in principle inseparably. In science, we rely on consciousness, which operates with entities, striving to eliminate emotions and experiences. In art, emotion contains thought, and thought contains emotion. An image is a synthesis of consciousness and psyche, thoughts and feelings.

This seems to me the real basis of artistic creation, which is possible only because consciousness and the psyche, being autonomous spheres, are at the same time inextricably linked. Reducing the image to thought (to the goal of concepts) is impossible: we will have to abstract ourselves from experiences, from emotions. To reduce the image to direct experience means "not noticing" the turnover of the psyche, its ability to be fraught with thought.

However, the integrity of the image is not just a sensually perceived thought (concept). An image is not yet a way for several concepts (a system of concepts) to exist simultaneously. The image is fundamentally polysemantic, it simultaneously contains several aspects (we will consider why this is possible in the next chapter). Science cannot afford this. Concepts reduce an object (phenomenon) to one aspect, to one moment, consciously abstracting from all the others. Science explores phenomena analytically with subsequent synthesis, working out all the moments of interconnection. Art, on the other hand, thinks in sums of meanings. Moreover, the presence of a sum of meanings is an indispensable condition for the "life" of an artistic image. It is often impossible to decide which meaning is true, which meaning is "more important". We will return to the problem of actualization of meanings throughout the work.

These are the two sides of the integrity of the artistic image.

Is scientific comprehension of an artistic image (its conceptual equivalent) possible, and where is the maximum limit of such comprehension?

Theoretically, artistic content can be reduced to scientific content, to a logically developed system of concepts. But practically it is impossible, and it is not necessary.

We are dealing with an abyss of meanings. They even think about the problem of the emergence of new semantic overtones, new deep meanings, about the "self-production" of meanings in classical works. Since a work can be fully understood only when the absolute logical unfolding of images is carried out, it can be argued that the knowledge of a highly artistic work is an endless process.

So the image is indecomposable. Its perception can only be holistic: as an experience of thought, as a sensually perceived essence. That is why the scientific analysis of a work is a "twice relative" cognition of artistic integrity: in addition to the fact that the inexhaustibility of meanings cannot be reduced to a system, with such cognition, an adequate perception of emotions - empathy - is taken out of the brackets. The most complete perception of an aesthetic object is always multidimensional:

empathy, co-creation, as well as an approach to integrity with the help of scientific dialectical logic. This is the aesthetic (indivisible) perception. It is always one-step, one-act.

Being perfectly aware of the fact that the integrity of a work of art cannot be exhaustively described in the formal language of science, at the same time, I see only one approach to the scientific comprehension of this integrity: it must be studied as a system approaching its limit (i.e. that turns into its opposite). The literary scholar has no choice but to analyze the work supposedly as a system, keeping constantly in mind that before him is not a system, but integrity. Another - intuitive - approach to the work is possible, and even necessary, but it is not scientific. These approaches should be complementary, not mutually exclusive.

It should also be borne in mind that any artistically reproduced picture of the world is also a reduction (it is impossible to reflect the whole world). In order to reproduce a reduced picture of the world, to create a "model of life", a specific artistic code is needed. This code should reduce the world in such a way that at the same time it would be possible to express the author's worldview.

The image itself cannot be such code. A holistic artistic image with all its unique possibilities is still only a way, a means.

What is the content of the image?

The answer, apparently, can be only one: personality.

2. PERSONALITY AS SUBJECT AND OBJECT OF AESTHETIC

ACTIVITIES

Integrity, as we shall see, is a characteristic of a specifically "human dimension". Integrity is a property not only of the image, but also of what the image reflects" - personality.

The matter is infinitely more complicated by the circumstance that the personality is not only the subject of aesthetic knowledge of the world (i.e., the one who cognizes the world with the help of the image), but also the object (i.e., that which is cognized at the same time). The image serves at the same time as a means knowledge and transmission of purely human information, and at the same time reflects the very essence of the existence of the individual. All questions of a proper aesthetic order in one way or another rest against the problem of personality.

Therefore, first of all, it is necessary to clarify what is meant by personality, to give a scientific concept of personality. Here, the logic of the study forces us to leave the mainstream of literary criticism for a while and invade the territory of philosophy and psychology, which are closest to personal problems in the aspect that interests us.

So what is personality?

Before our eyes, a complex of sciences (biology, anthropology, psychology, ethics, philosophy, etc.) is gradually taking shape, which can conditionally be called the "science of man"*. In addition, the personality, as already mentioned, is at the center of attention of art. Moreover, what interests the complex of sciences, art interests at the same time. This turned out to be possible because a person is still one, whole. Obviously, personality is a super-complex object of study, extremely multifaceted, requiring complex scientific approaches.

What determines the complexity of the personality structure?

What is the content of the personality, which has the property of integrity?

The answer to these and similar questions must be sought in the complex nature of man. In a person, three spheres or three levels are clearly distinguished, irreducible to one another, autonomous, despite the relationship: bodily, mental, spiritual. If a person is "projected" onto the plane of biology, psychology and consciousness**, then the person will be reflected in such a way that the projections will be correct, but will contradict each other. At the biological level, a person will be reflected as a closed system of reflexes, on psiFromm E. A person for himself. Mn., 1992. S. 27-31.

** I will make a reservation: "spiritual" is not a synonym for consciousness, but "spiritual" of the psyche. These pairs of concepts are by no means identical.

Consciousness is the basis of spirituality, the psyche is the soul. At the same time, the spiritual is characterized by a synthesis of the intellectual and mental principles (with the dominance of the first of them), and conscious organizing principles are felt in the soul (although in general the soul is mental chaos, "darkness").

The appearance of the concepts of soul and spirituality is highly characteristic. They emphasize that there is no naked psyche and consciousness, the latter can only be considered as scientific abstractions.

chological - as a closed system of psychological reactions, spiritual - as an autonomous ideal world.

It is impossible to correctly reflect a person in the plane of the lower psycho-physiological dimensions closed on itself; the essence of man is that he is open to the world, "self-transcendent" (W. Frankl). The higher dimensions include the lower ones in a "removed" form. Man, having become a spiritual being, remains in some way an animal, a plant, and a stone. Man is one.

Psychophysiological layers in a person shine through the spiritual in him.

How do these dimensions of a person correlate?

The human spirit, of course, is conditioned by its psychophysical abilities - no less, but no more! This means that a well-functioning human body is a condition for the development of its spirituality, but cannot give rise to spirituality itself. Spirituality of a person - that is. his freedom to form himself, his attitude to the world, to be responsible for his behavior - is determined by hereditary psychophysical factors ("vital basis" according to V. Frankl) and the environment (environment, social position). The "vital basis" together with the social position forms the natural predestination of a person. This assignment can always be established and fixed by means of three sciences: biology, psychology and sociology. But at the same time, one must not lose sight of the fact that proper human existence begins only where any fixedness and fixability, any unambiguous and final definiteness, ends. And it begins there, adding to the natural task of a person, where there is his personal position, attitude, his personal attitude to all this, to any "vital basis" and to any situation. This attitude, of course, can no longer be the subject of any of the named sciences; rather, it exists in a special dimension.

In addition, this setup is fundamentally free; ultimately, it represents the solution. And if we expand our coordinate system at the expense of this last possible dimension, then the possibility of existential restructuring, which always exists due to the freedom of personal position, will be realized in it.

Personality is "the totality of all social relations" (K. Marx), "an ensemble of social relations", as it is said in the original, considered the well-known advice of Frankl V. Man in search of meaning. M., 1990. S. 109.

Russian philosopher E. V. Ilyenkov*. Marx also saw in the individual not a natural, but a cultural-historical phenomenon. Therefore, personality can change.

Thus, the psychophysics of a person (including his brain) has the same relation to the personality, as words - to the content of a work of art, as the metal from which money is made - to the law of value.

Philosophy as a higher dimension includes philology. The latter is not able, relying only on its capabilities, to identify the specifics of the object of its study. It is very important for us to discover in man his highest dimension, since literature deals with this dimension. A person is a person insofar as he is able to overcome his natural predestination. The spiritual in a person is precisely the instance that ultimately forms a person. A person can stand above everything, even above himself - this is the basis of a person's ability to self-development.

So, personality is understood as "internal sociality" (MM Bakhtin), "ensemble of social relations" (K. Marx), "center of spiritual acts"**. Each specific personality is an individual internal sociality, "a specific ensemble of social qualities of human individuality" ***, "... in order to understand what a personality is, it is necessary to investigate the organization of the entire set of human relations of a specific human individuality to all other such individuals, t ... i.e. a dynamic ensemble of people connected by mutual ties, which always and everywhere have a socio-historical, and not a natural character" ****.

Looking ahead a little, I will note that this is precisely why it is possible to express one's worldview by depicting a person. The possibility of the existence of literature as a form of social consciousness is precisely based on the fact that a person contains all human problems. If you want to talk about everything, talk about personality.

Therefore, fiction can be defined as "thinking by individuals", "thinking by dynamic ensembles of individuals".

A spiritual personality can realize itself only * Ilyenkov EV What is a personality? //Where does the personality begin.

M., 1983. S. 325, 328.

** Frankl V. Man ... S. 100.

*** Ilyenkov E. V. What is a personality?... P. 333.

**** Ibid. S. 328.

through the psychophysical organization. Even by appearance we can judge the type of spirituality of a person. Literature and art use this circumstance very widely.

Also widely represented in the literature is another hypostasis of personality - character. In addition to the internal, the personality also possesses "external sociality", ie.

develops a complex of psychological mechanisms that allow them to adapt to the environment. Through character, a person fits into the social environment; through character, a person realizes himself. Character cannot be reduced to temperament - to the speed and intensity of psychological reactions. It creates primarily psychological features that implement the worldview attitudes of the individual.

Realism for the first time consistently revealed the connection between circumstances - character - personality. Character in literature is a way of existence of a person. Personality is connected with its character dialectically. "After all, I only have a type or character," writes V. Frankl, the same thing that I am is a personality. "* Ultimately, a personality always forms the character that it possesses. It can always change its character. But and character feeds back to form the personality.The dialectical formula can be summed up as follows: "I not only act in accordance with what I am, but I become in accordance with how I act" **.

Thus, temperament is the biological aspect of personality; psychological character- its social characteristics; the actual spiritual core of the personality cannot be finally determined by the natural predisposition of a person, actively opposes it when necessary, and forms itself in accordance with its ideal attitudes. The spiritual forms a person in a person, overcoming his material shell.

What has been said, it seems to me, is quite enough to imagine what personality and character are in literature.

Finally, it is necessary to touch upon another set of questions related to personal issues: what is the content of the spirituality of the individual, what, in other words, is the structure of individual consciousness and what is it due to?

This range of issues is practically not affected by * Frankl V. Man ... S. 112.

discussion of the problems of literary theory, while these issues are central. I will briefly dwell on them.

The idea of wholeness is, so to speak, a universal idea.

It is a deep qualitative sign not only of works of art or personality. In full, it also applies to the public consciousness.

Imagery does not exhaust the specifics of aesthetic consciousness, although it is a fundamental property of the latter. Imagery is always concrete, meaningful.

The aesthetic form of social consciousness is also, in turn, a "cell of integrity" of a different nature, a kind of "unit of integrity".

What are the relations of the aesthetic with other forms of social consciousness?

Obviously, without some idea of the laws governing the functioning of social consciousness as a whole, it is impossible to study one of its forms.

The solution of aesthetic problems proper lies in the plane of their philosophical understanding. That is why all attempts to solve general aesthetic problems as private problems could not lead to major success in creating the theory of a literary and artistic work.

So, in studying a work of art, we are ultimately dealing with problems of consciousness (social and individual). (I note that the question of questions about the relationship between being and consciousness, as well as the fundamental questions of the origin of consciousness, the connection between consciousness, psyche and language, etc., are not considered in this work. These are actually philosophical questions that are not directly related to the subject of research. I emphasize that however, it is impossible to "not notice" these issues.

The solution of these and all subsequent questions requires reliance on a certain philosophical system. For me, such a system is the philosophical system of dialectical materialism.) Let us turn to specialists in consciousness and briefly note for ourselves the most necessary, without which the very formulation of the basic problems of the theory of a work of art is impossible. An original and comprehensive interpretation of the problems of consciousness is contained in the work of A. V. Egorov*.

* Egorov A.V. Dialectics of Consciousness. The text of the lecture on the course of philosophy for students of all specialties. Mn., 1993.

Let's reproduce the scheme from this work, reflecting the structure of social consciousness.

Throughout the work, we will "keep in mind" this scheme, and we will repeatedly return to it directly.

Let's highlight the most obvious first.

Aesthetic consciousness is one of the oldest forms of social consciousness. In its development in the process of historical formation, it has gone from the pra-artistic sensory-emotional reflection of phenomena to the most complex emotional-intellectual reproduction of the entire spiritual paradigm of individual (and social) consciousness. Modern art is empowered to raise and resolve almost all issues of spiritual self-determination of the individual in the world. At the same time, aesthetic consciousness does not replace the scientific one, but complements it.

As can be seen from the diagram, the philosophical level of aesthetic consciousness in its "removed form" contains all the previous levels, starting with the psychological (vertically). Aesthetic consciousness (individual) does not always reach the level of philosophical, ideological generalizations, although there are already some moments of generalization at the lower levels.

On the other hand, aesthetic consciousness contains in itself, to one degree or another, at one level or another, all other forms of social consciousness (horizontally). In turn, each of the levels can be "aestheticized" as needed. The scheme, in essence, can be mentally turned into a circle, closing the levels both horizontally and vertically.

Such interpenetration of forms of social consciousness into each other makes it possible to understand why works of art can become "encyclopedias of life", why they operate with sums of meanings. At the same time, the irreducibility of one form to another, the sovereignty of the selected forms is obvious.

Special attention should be paid to the fact that the aesthetic consciousness is adjacent to the moral one. The world of interpersonal relations has been relevant for art since its inception. To study personality - the main task of art - means to study the patterns of its formation. A personality is always formed in interaction with other personalities.

In order to adapt the scheme to the tasks of our study, let us turn to the idea of a spectrum, i.e., a gradual transition from pole to pole. If we isolate (conditionally) aesthetic consciousness and place the main types of art within it - according to the degree of growth of rationalism - then we get the following scheme.

Literature as an art form can also be decomposed in a similar spectrum: from lyrics to epic. The epic, in turn, is also a spectrum, on one pole of which are lyrical epic poems, on the opposite - philosophical and analytical prose. "Spectral analysis" on various initial grounds can be subjected to any course, direction, trend.

As we have seen, the thesis "personality is the center of the content of works of art" is not the whole truth. We will come much closer to it if we keep in mind the following: the personal in a work of art is a form of the supra-personal, socially significant. Before us is always not just a person, but a "collective person" (K. G. Jung), not a person - but a "collective person". Actually, personality - "internal sociality" - by definition is a form of social. In other words, the structure of individual consciousness repeats the structure of social consciousness. "Personality is the totality of a person's relationship to himself as to some kind of "OTHER" ~ ~ relations of "I" to himself as to some kind of "NOT-I"*.

I think we do not always appreciate this fantastic gift of man. And this gift is the decisive prerequisite, thanks to which artistic creativity becomes a form of social consciousness.

Thus, personality is the bodily organization of the "ensemble of social relations." It is clear that a person in general is an "ensemble of social relations" in general. "A given personality is a single expression of that necessarily limited totality of these relations (not all), by which it is directly connected with other (with some, and not with all) individuals ..." ** A concrete personality, therefore, cannot be the totality of all relations. Only some, namely these relations, which this person associated with some other (not all!) individuals. This inevitable reduction is a way of taming the "evil infinity" (Hegel).

Let me summarize. By personality, I understand a complex spiritual and psychophysiological symbiosis, in which the leading, determining instance is the spiritual essence of the personality. The integrity of the personality is ensured by the unity of its consciousness and psyche. At the same time, the essence of the personality, its reflection and perception are integral.

It is in this vein that the understood personality is the subject of research in fiction.

The task of a literary and artistic work is to reproduce the figurative concept of personality. Consequently, the work reproduces, first of all, the spirituality of the individual, located in the field of tension between the poles of the psyche and consciousness; spirituality is ambivalent: on the one hand, it is sensually perceived, "mental", on the other hand, it is rational.

on the other hand, this integration contains all levels of consciousness - from the ordinary to the philosophical.

The "supersensible" nature of spirituality can only be conveyed in an image; the image for its embodiment requires special strategies of purposeful artistic selection of personal manifestations, fixed in style.

It is in this vein that the harassed work of art is the subject of my research.

Artistic creativity simply could not arise:

* Ilyenkov E. V. What is a personality? ... S. 329.

the integrity of the personality, as we see, can be conveyed only by three means of the image - also an ambivalent, super-perceptual education in its nature. Comprehension and reproduction of the spiritual essence of the personality in the form of l. is the content of the work of art.

From the fact that a personality can be most adequately conveyed through an image, many consequences of principle follow for us. I will note one of the most decisive among them. Artistic creativity should also exist because it satisfies one of the most fundamental needs of the human personality, namely: the need for "self-actualization" (the term of the American psychologist Maslow).

The individual personality exists because it interacts with other personalities, with the environment. Individuality is developed through contact with other individuals. Being yourself means constantly borrowing something from others. Outside of interaction with the object, the formation and existence of the subject is unthinkable, otherwise the emergence of a community of people can hardly be explained without the help of "higher powers".

Consequently, besides the fact that the personality is split from within - the coexistence of "I" and "NOT-I", - it is constantly exposed to external ideological influence from other personalities. In order for a person to remain identical to himself, his "holistic spiritual self-determination" (GN Pospelov), constant confirmation of the correctness of the chosen worldview "coordinate system", the spiritual system of orientation in the world is necessary. These moments in the life of a person (a need!) are the moments of self-actualization.

On the basis of this need, a person appears (again - it cannot but appear) an "aesthetic attitude" as a prerequisite for one of most effective ways self-actualization - aesthetic activity.

Self-actualization is not so much a rational act as an adaptive, adaptive, psychological act in its basis. It is not scientific, but intuitive, figurative knowledge of the world. Aesthetic activity (including its highest form - artistic creativity, as well as its perception) is the most adequate to such an attitude. Perceiving images of art, a person solves for himself not only artistic, but also adaptive, worldview problems, which determines the effect of catharsis: I am not alone, my ideal is the ideal of many others, the correctness of my choice is confirmed by the fact that it is shared by positive heroes and not shared negative.

This, of course, is the knowledge of the world, but the knowledge is non-rational, end result it is a figurative concept of personality. Artistic knowledge, it would seem, cannot be reduced to the creation of a figurative concept of personality. After all, a special artistic world is being created, a new, previously non-existent artistic reality.

But artistic knowledge is, so to speak, anthropological knowledge of the world as the habitat of the individual, knowledge through the individual, for the sake of the individual and by the means inherent in the individual. This is an attempt to understand and express yourself, and therefore all other personalities.

What does it mean to show a person, a person in literature?

This means to reproduce his "system of orientation and worship" (E. Fromm), his system of views on the world, the program of his self-actualization. The opposite is also true:

to portray any picture of the world, any "system of orientation and worship" - means to portray the bearer of the picture of the world - all the same person. In this sense, the newly created artistic reality can be reduced to a figurative concept of personality.

It is here that the origins of the integrity of a work of art are located. Here, I will add, are the origins of the idea of "destruction of integrity" by decomposing it into "units of integrity" - into levels. Holistic phenomena are grasped instantly, intuitively. But any intuitive act can be formalized to a certain limit, given a logical unfolding (a kind of analogue of super slow motion filming of the work of consciousness). If we proceed from the idea of the fundamental cognizability of the world, then such a "highlighting" of historical layers in an integral object seems natural and necessary, which I will try to prove in my work.

The concept of personality, being a holistic formation, is reflected and perceived accordingly:

not by analytical decomposition into elements, but all at once, in its entirety. Just as the ocean is reflected in a drop of water, so the whole is reflected in the "unit of integrity". Integrity is indecomposable into elements, and therefore it is transmitted not element by element, but in a different - integral - way.

Concluding the conversation about the integral nature of the image, it is necessary to note the following. The dialectical approach to integrity assumes that:

1. Each moment of concrete integrity can be at the same time a moment of another concrete integrity (it can be considered in a different plane, with different interconnections).

2. Each concrete integrity as such can in turn be a moment of integrity of a different order.

Thus, each specific moment of integrity is a moment of infinity, universality. A scientific study is always necessary and the only possible concrete integrity. It is impossible to study "everything" at once, but "to comprehend directly" is to some extent possible: through an image. The image localizes universality, giving it the properties of integrity - but such integrity, through which the embryos of other integrity are already visible.

In other words, only the image allows you to directly comprehend the universe from the side of its total unity.

This is how you can tame the "bad infinity".

The question arises: what kind of "concrete integrity" is investigated in this work?

I am primarily interested in the aesthetic aspect of the integrity of a literary work.

It is natural to ask the following question: where do the boundaries of integrity lie, what makes it sufficient? How to determine the minimum of elements and connections without which a "qualitatively mature integrity" is unimaginable?

This strictly philosophical question requires separate consideration. I proceed from the following thesis: each specific integrity is inexhaustible; equally inexhaustible are the variants of transformations both of itself and of its individual moments.

3. MULTILEVEL STRUCTURE OF ARTISTIC

WORKS

Now it is necessary to move on to a direct consideration of the holistic methodology for the study of a literary work. Personality, as a super-complex integral object, can be reflected only with the help of some analogue - also a multi-level structure, a multi-plane model. If the main content point in the work is the personality, then the work itself, in order to reproduce the personality, must have a multi-level character. The work is nothing but a combination, on the one hand, of various dimensions of personality, on the other hand, of an ensemble of personalities. All this is possible in the image - the focus of various dimensions.

Let me remind you famous expression M. M. Bakhtina: "Great works of literature have been prepared for centuries, but in the era of their creation, only the ripe fruits of a long and complex process of maturation are removed" *. Within the framework of the methodology indicated, this consideration can, in my opinion, be interpreted in the sense that “the process of maturation Bakhtin M. M. Aesthetics of verbal creativity. M., 1979. P. 331.

vaniya" is the process of "development" and "grinding" various levels, testifying to the historical path traversed by aesthetic consciousness. Each level has its own traces, its own "codes", which together form the genetic memory of literary and artistic works.

In solidarity with the methodological approach outlined by the supporters of a holistic and systematic understanding of the work, we will try to cover all possible levels, while maintaining a two-pronged approach:

1. The identified levels should help to understand the patterns of transformation of the reflected reality into the linguistic reality of the text. This reflection is carried out through a special "prism system": through the prism of consciousness and psyche (worldview), then through the prism of "artistic typification strategies" and, finally, style. (Of course, the reverse is also possible:

reconstruction of reality when repulsed from the text.) 2. Levels should help to understand the work as an artistic whole, "living" only at the point of intersection of various aspects; levels are those very specific cells that retain all the properties of the whole (but not the elements of the whole).

I also note that such an attitude will finally help to find a way to overcome the contradictions between the spiritual, non-material artistic content and the material means of fixing it; between the hermeneutic and the "erotic"* approach to a work of art; between hermeneutic schools of various kinds and formalistic (aesthetic) concepts, all the time accompanying artistic creativity.

In order to avoid misunderstandings, one should immediately stipulate the moment associated with the concept of the concept of personality.

There are many concepts of personality in a literary and artistic work. Which of them specifically are we talking about?

By no means do I mean the search and analysis of any one central character. Such a naive personification requires all other characters to be mere extras. It is clear that this is far from the case in the literature. It also cannot be about a certain sum of all conceptions of personality: the sum of heroes in itself cannot determine the artistic result. It is also not about revealing the image of the author: this is the same as the search for the central character.

* Sontag S. Against Interpretation // Foreign Literature, 1992, The point is to be able to discover the "author's position", "the author's system of orientation and worship", which can be embodied through a certain optimal ensemble of personalities. The author's vision of the world is the highest authority in the work, "the highest point of view on the world." The process of reconstruction of the author's vision of the world, i.e., the comprehension of a kind of "superconsciousness", "superpersonality", is an important integral part analysis of a work of art. But the "superconsciousness" itself is very rarely personified. It is invisibly present only in other concepts of personality, in their actions, states.

So, "thinking in personalities" always presupposes the one who thinks in them: not the image of the author, but the real author himself (although sometimes they can coincide, as, say, in "The Death of Ivan Ilyich"). Artistic truth in general - does not happen. Someone speaks it, it has an author, a creator.

The artistic world is a personal, biased, subjective world.

A paradox emerges: in some way, the almost complete non-materialization of the author is possible, with the clearly tangible effect of his presence. Let's try to figure it out.

Let's start with the fact that all conceptions of personality are affixed, so to speak, with the author's stigma. Each character has a creator who comprehends and evaluates his character, revealing himself at the same time. However, artistic content cannot be reduced simply to the author's conceptions of personality. The latter act as a means for expressing the author's worldview (both his conscious moments and his unconscious ones). Consequently, the aesthetic analysis of the concepts of personality is an analysis of phenomena leading to a deeper essence - to the author's worldview. From what has been said, it is clear that it is necessary to analyze all the concepts of personality, while recreating their integrating principle, showing the common root from which all concepts grow. This also applies, it seems to me, to the "polyphonic novel". The polyphonic picture of the world is also personal.

In the lyrics, the symbiosis of the author and the hero is indicated special term- lyrical hero. In relation to the epic, the term "image of the author" (or "narrator") is increasingly used as a similar concept. A common concept for all kinds of literature, expressing the unity of the author and the hero, may well be the concept of the concept of personality.

The most difficult thing is to understand that behind the complex, perhaps internally contradictory picture of the characters' consciousness, a deeper author's consciousness shines through. There is an imposition of one consciousness on another.

Meanwhile, the described phenomenon is quite possible, if we remember what we mean by the structure of consciousness.

The author's consciousness has exactly the same structure as the consciousness of the characters. It is clear that one consciousness can include another, a third, etc. Such a "matryoshka" can be infinite - with one indispensable condition. As follows from the diagram (p. 17), higher-order values organize all other values in a certain hierarchy. This hierarchy is the structure of consciousness. This is especially well seen in the examples of complex, contradictory heroes, obsessed with the search for truth, the meaning of life. These include the heroes of Turgenev, L. Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Goncharov and others. The philosophical layer of the consciousness of the heroes forms their political, moral, aesthetic consciousness, etc. And no matter how complex the worldview the hero has, his thoughts are always transformed into ideas and, further, in behavior.

Structured internal sociality is not an optional, but an immanent feature of the personality.

The reader's value system must be equal to the author's, so that the artistic content can be adequately perceived. And sometimes the inner sociality of the reader is even more universal than that of the author.

Thus, the relationship between the worldviews of various heroes, between the characters and the author, between the characters and the reader, between the author and the reader constitutes the zone of spiritual contact in which the artistic content of the work is located.

The next task will be to show the specificity of each level, and at the same time its integration into a single artistic whole, its determinism, despite its autonomy.

Thus, the worldview and its main form of expression for the artist - the concept of personality - are non-artistic factors of creativity.

All "non-artistic typification strategies" are born here: all sorts of philosophical, socio-political, economic, moral-religious, national and other teachings and ideologies. The concept of personality in one way or another focuses all these ideologies, is a form of their simultaneous existence.

At the same time, the worldview in its respective aspects is a decisive prerequisite for artistic creativity proper. The concept of personality can be considered both as the beginning of any creativity and as a result of it (depending on the starting point: we go from reality to the text or vice versa). If we comment and interpret only these upper levels, without showing how they "grow" into others, are refracted in them - and this approach, unfortunately, is dominant in the practice of modern literary critics - then we will study a work of art very superficially. Behind the forest it is necessary to distinguish trees (and vice versa). Generalization at the level of the concept of personality is the final stage in the analysis of a work of art for a literary critic.

But you should start with him.

4. STRATEGIES OF ARTISTIC TYPING. METHOD

If we accept the stated concept as a cornerstone in the foundation of the theory of a literary and artistic work, it is necessary to proceed to the next stage.

Essence, as we know, is given to us in phenomena. To know the essence means to gradually move from the essence of a higher order to the essence of a lower order - and so on ad infinitum. In order to get an idea of the spiritual content of the personality, the corresponding specific manifestations of the personal principle are needed. Without them, a person will remain a "thing in itself", unknown and imperceptible. How can personality manifest itself?

Only through actions, deeds, thoughts, emotions. All this is possible only in contact with other personalities (contact can take the form of a conflict). In order for all actions, thoughts, appearance of the character to purposefully tell us about this type of personality, it is necessary to bring all manifestations of the personality into line with the internal ideal, in the image and likeness of which the personality of the character is created. The author must reincarnate in the person to whom he gives life. In other words, what is needed is a strategy for recreating the personality, a certain internally coordinated plan, a strategy of artistic typification. The strategy itself, of course, is determined by the concept of personality.

There are several strategies of artistic typification, without which it is impossible to reproduce the personality created by the creative imagination. I will list: pathos (the historical-typological side of the method), the principles of conditionality of the hero's behavior (the concrete-historical side of the method), gender, meta-genre.

The main strategy of artistic typification is the method in its two forms. The method is related to the very essential core of the personality, it is a kind of "first" manifestation of the essence of the personality or, if you like, the essence of the second order.

First, it is necessary to eliminate the terminological uncertainty, due to which unimaginable confusion reigns, and to correct the scope of the content of the term "method". Most often, the method is understood as the principles of "practically-spiritual development of life", "principles on the basis of which the content of reality is transformed into a proper artistic content"*.

In this case, the method is the concrete-historical, stage-individual side of the content, in other words, the historically concrete principles of personality typification.

However, the method, as will be shown later, also has a historical-typological side.

The issue of creative method appears to be much more complex than it is in the existing literature. In the already mentioned monograph by V. I. Tyupa, it is mainly about historical typological (and not stadial) "modifications of artistry" - such as heroism, satire, tragedy, idyll, humor, drama, irony (comic, tragic, sarcastic, romantic ). And this is absolutely true: we have before us really transhistorical types of artistry ("artistic modes", in the author's terminology). The "genetic formula" of "modes", inherited by authors, directions, epochs, is very convincingly deduced. The nature of this literary genetic code is found in various correlations of the "personal" and "superpersonal" (the author's terminology is preserved), which, with all their specific diversity, can be reduced to several basic types (heroics, satire, etc.).

It seems to me that the terminology of V.I. Tyupa is not entirely successful. First of all, the listed "modes of artistry" are not the only typing strategy. There will be several such strategies, as we will see later. Therefore, the "mode of artistry", that is, that which determines artistry as a whole, is an unjustified term. The concrete historical side of the method, gender, meta-genre are also "artistic modes", also strategies of artistic typification. Obviously, there is no point in changing the established terminology and calling pathos “artistic modes”**.

However, pathos should be understood not just as a kind of "ideological-emotional assessment" (GN Pospelov), but precisely as a strategy of artistic typification.

Thus, by pathos, I will mean a clot, the core of a certain worldview. The classification of pathos is nothing more than a classification of historiVolkov IF Creative methods and artistic systems. M., 1989. S. 24, 31.

** The theory of modes was developed by N. Fry. See: Fry N. Anatomy of Criticism // Foreign Aesthetics and Theory of Literature in the 19th-20th centuries.

Treatises, articles, essays. M., 1987. S. 232-263.

physically formed world-contemplative programs, mindsets. As an aesthetic category, pathos acts as a strategy for artistic typification, a strategy for the aesthetic origin, development and completion of a certain type of personality.

As you can see, the forms of manifestation of the personality core are quite amenable to classification. The initial basis is the type of emotional-evaluative, ideological attitude to the world. And each specific pathos is a meaningful strategy of artistic typification.

For literary criticism, such an attitude to what is traditionally called "pathos" is new and unusual.

However, the typology in the paradigm of "personal (P)" and the different nature of "superpersonal (Infra-L and Ultra-L)", undertaken by V. I. Tyupa, fits perfectly into the framework of the expounded theory of a work of art, the central concept of which is the figurative concept of personality.

Here are the main postulates of V. I. Tyupa (with the preservation of the author's terminology). Heroic, Satire and Tragic are forms of relationship between L and the values of the IL series:

natural, religious, cultural-historical and socio-political. These superpersonal values are priority for the individual, imperative, they strictly subjugate L. Heroic, satirical and tragic conflicts are a test of the personality for the ability to self-sacrifice, to reject L.

Idyll, Humor and Drama are values from the category of "private life", where love, life, loneliness, death predominate. L, breaking out of the authoritarian ideals of the IL series, cannot exist without ideals in general. Historically, the formation of the values of the UL series coincides with the true cult of the Personality (the era of sentimentalism, romanticism).

Here I have to make a digression before continuing the thread of reasoning. Again, the terminology raises an objection. As already mentioned in Chapter 2, the "personal" is the "super-personal", all personal ideals, worldviews, life programs are super-personal by definition ("a person is a set of social relations").

However, the nature of personal (i.e., supra-personal, social) ideals can indeed be different.

At various stages European civilization ideals were different, they evolved along with the development of society. One can quite agree with the very idea of "typology" of ideals.

It seems to me more accurate and simpler to call the ideals of IL - Authoritarian Ideals (AI), and UL - Humanistic Ideals (HI). I borrow this designation of two different systems of ideals from the work of E. Fromm*.

Let me describe these ideals.

Everything that will be said about them and about their connection with aesthetic categories is very much hypothetical.

But perhaps there is some truth in this hypothesis. In any case, I do not know a more convincing version of the origin of aesthetic categories.

If the concept of progress is applicable to the individual and society, and if we take as the vector of progress the direction that leads the individual to the conquest of ever greater degrees of internal and external freedom, then a number of significant stages can be noted along this path. Now I am interested in the moral and philosophical side of such progress.

Since the personality, as already mentioned, consists of several "I", internal conflicts are possible that can bring the personality to a split. Intrapersonal conflicts are, in fact, conflicts between different individuals nesting in one personality. But since there is nothing personal that would not be public, conflicts within the individual are also of a public nature.

It seems to me that two poles can be distinguished that give rise to various social ideals and conflicts between them: Authoritarian Ideals and Humanistic Ideals. AI in the Eurocentric civilization dominated for a very long time - up to the new time (until the era of the first bourgeois revolutions). These ideals are characterized by the fact that the individual was in dire need of authority (parents, state, religion, etc.), on the basis of which the integrity of the individual was formed. "The authoritarian conscience is the voice of an internalized external authority"**. A pure authoritarian conscience is "a consciousness that the authority (external and internalized) is pleased with you; a guilty conscience is the consciousness that it is dissatisfied with you"***.

The sin of Adam and Eve consisted mainly in the fact that they * Fromm E. Man for himself ... S. 16-21, 139-166.

** Ibid. S. 139.

Becoming free from authoritarian fetters, what does the person begin to worship? The idea of its own human destiny, which does not recognize irrational authorities over itself. Man becomes independent, he himself becomes "the measure of all things." This is already a humanistic orientation. A pure humanistic conscience is the consciousness that you serve your highest calling, you realize the abilities inherent in you;

a guilty conscience is the consciousness that you betrayed yourself, betrayed yourself. It seems to me that the change from an authoritarian orientation to a humanistic one was an undeniable progress in the development of the human personality.

Of course, GIs do not exist in isolation from AI.

Moreover, they need each other. However, GI can be combined mainly with "rational authority" (E. Fromm), which does not suppress humanistic aspirations, but helps to realize them. AI need an "enemy" (in a heretical, sinful beginning, in GI) in order to actively suppress it, thereby exalting itself.

It remains to add that between these poles there is a spectrum of possible combinations, in each of which one of the systems of ideals fundamentally dominates. In life, value eclecticism is quite possible, but as a strategy of artistic typification, an indistinct orientation is a major artistic shortcoming.

What is the connection between the multidirectional systems of ideals and the spectrum of aesthetic categories?

The fact is that the essence of each type of pathos lies precisely in the nature of the relationship between AI and GI.

Let's use the idea of a scheme where aesthetic categories. We get the final scheme of "formulas" of pathos:

Before us is a range of possible ratios of AI and GI.

The icon between AI and GI indicates the type of their relationship: GIAI - GI "more" AI; GIAI - "less";

GI^AI - harmony, balance; GIVAI - a gap between GI and AI, a person does not accept any of the systems of ideals.

In the lower triad, the AIs are higher than the GIs because they are the basis of the personality (respectively, in the upper triad, the GIs occupy the same place in relation to the AIs). The tragedy formula, for example, does not mean that GIs have become predominant. It means that the former harmony between the authoritarian and humanistic potentials has been broken, although the AIs still remain "higher", they dominate.

Let me briefly explain how pathos depends on the ratio of AI and GI.

The essence of each specific type of pathos has been repeatedly analyzed in the scientific literature*. I would like to draw attention to the fact that pathos is nothing but a type of some general life orientation. And as such, it could become a means of "initial typing," the most general strategy for typing personality.

Heroics, for example, is characterized by the following ratio of contradictions leading to the formation of a worldview: GI ^ AI. This symbol harmony with the unconditional dominant AI. GIs in personality do not protest, they "willingly" dissolve into AI. Man sees his natural destiny in serving the AI. This is his personal dignity, it does not humiliate, but elevates him. For the hero, there is nothing higher than serving the Duty (however one understands it). To change this destiny is to change yourself. The selected "heroic gene" is always the same.

If there are such socio-historical conditions when it is inappropriate to put the "personal" above the "public", in these cases the heroic principle in people is actualized. The heroes of Homer, "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", the heroes of the novels of socialist realism ("Mother", "How the Steel Was Tempered") are "twin brothers". These are people of duty, selflessly serving him. The conscience of heroes is an authoritarian conscience. The hero's life does not belong to him, but to the Authority (fate, god, estate, homeland, nation, etc.).

Therefore, the hero constantly performs feats - "charitable" deeds.

It is clear that heroism develops, becomes psychologized, the content of Authority changes - in a word, heroism evolves, complicating and improving its types.

* Among the works of recent times, I will single out: Tyup V.I.

The art of Chekhov's story. M., 1989.

But the heroic formula remains unshakable. And judging by the current state of the world, we hardly have sufficient grounds to predict the imminent death of the heroic life orientation.

As for tragedy, it is the "disintegration product" of heroism, its reverse side. The authority is still unshakable, but there is already an awareness of their humanistic mission. Formula of tragedy: GIAI.

There is simply no choice for the hero, because there is no alternative to AI. The tragic hero has such an alternative. He is in a situation of choice. But the tragedy lies in the fact that any choice cannot bring harmony to the hero. His "I" and "NOT-I" are split. By removing either "I" or "NOT-I", the hero does not achieve the desired integrity, but destroys his personality. "To be or not to be?" - only in form can remind of the possibility of a way out of the current situation. Essentially, "to be" for the tragic hero means "not to be." There is no way out of this tragic impasse. In principle, tragedy can be successfully resolved either into the harmony of heroism, or into a personality of a completely new, unprecedented type: a personality where GI prevail over AI (a personality of this type is a product of a long historical evolution).

However, to become a hero is to give up principles in some way, to give up part of yourself. Romeo, Hamlet, Phaedra, Katerina Kabanova, Bazarov, Raskolnikov comprehended such a truth, experienced such a level of personal freedom that it is better not to know the hero. The tragic character, in contrast to the heroic one, ate from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. He can no longer become a hero without tangible moral damage. A tragic person usually dies: for her, this is the only way to save human dignity.

Before moving on to satire, just a few words about more common problem- about the types of the comic in literature. Both satire, and humor, and irony as phenomena of comedy are related by the moment of non-coincidence between GI and AI (for various reasons, as we will see). Satire is a phenomenon of "reduced comedy". The second source of satire is the decomposition of heroism. Strange as it may seem, satire is based on the same heroic ideal, but the satirical hero cannot correspond to it. The satirical hero is exaggeratedly heroic, "too" a hero to be "just a hero". Behind heroic manifestations, he hides his inability to be him.

There is really only one step from the great to the ridiculous, and this step is from heroism to satire. Formula of satire: GIAI.

Satire is a caricature of a hero. As often happens with a caricature, it ridicules not the ideal itself, but unjustified claims to it. Satirical laughter is therefore very serious - to the extent that there may be no laughter in satire at all (as in "Lords Golovlyov", in "The Death of Ivan Ilyich"). There is no support in the satirical hero, there is no niche for moral dignity: GI - in the embryonic stage, AI - have ceased to be a shrine. The satirical hero already borders on an ironic mindset, but his ideal is still a heroic ideal. The inviolability of AI often leads the heroes of satire, if not to repentance, then to self-disclosure. The greatest examples of satire are Molière's satirical comedies, Gogol's The Government Inspector.

Approximately up to XVIII century personality, mainly focused on AI. Since I am not interested in the history of the problem in this case, but the necessary "working" installation, the most general contours hypotheses, I note the following. The weakening of the authoritarian principle inevitably strengthened the non-authoritarian principle. In the end, by the 18th century, a cultural situation had developed in which AI had weakened to such an extent that the integrity of the individual could only be restored on a fundamentally different basis. The private life of a person comes to the fore, the era of a true cult of personality (i.e., the cult of GI) begins. Human values are fundamentally changing. The artistic development begins not of the heroic, tragic and satirical sides of the personality, but of naturalness, human self-worth. Fundamentally different pathos arise on the basis of GI: idyllic, dramatic, humorous.

These are variants of a new life ideology. The named triad is heroism, tragedy and satire vice versa. GI and AI have changed places, forming the integrity of the personality on a different basis. Artistic results on the "leash" of the new ideology were amazing. New strategies of artistic typification formed the basis of romanticism, and then realism.

The idyll occupies a central place among the newly emerged pathos. And the new triad is located above the old one. Idyll is the harmony of the intrapersonal world, in which it is possible to combine AI and GI without prejudice to the latter and without the former aggressiveness of the former (since "irrational authority" gives way to "rational"). This is how the formula should be deciphered.

Tolstoy's heroes in "War and Peace" solve the problems of "idyllic harmony" in the highest degree dialectically:

the more personal they are, the more aware they are of the need to serve the AI, which does not suppress them, but, on the contrary, makes them extremely sensitive in private life.

The "hidden warmth of patriotism" becomes a component of the most intimate manifestations of the heroes.

The theme of idyllic harmony is one of the most unexplored in aesthetics and literary criticism. The significance of this issue is simply enormous. The ideals of this pathos, for all their "old-fashionedness," are extremely relevant.

Drama, on the contrary, is one of the most described and studied pathos. Its AIGI formula says that a person does not yet have enough strength to go to himself, he is "grabbed by the legs" by an authoritarian conscience, internalized public opinion. But the dramatic hero does not question his humanistic orientation and in the end can overcome his doubts.

"Parallel" tragic hero I am convinced of the opposite, that AI makes a person a person; but nature takes its toll, and he commits a sin, succumbing to the natural inclinations of the heart. The "dramatic sin" consists in the temptation not to answer for oneself, to shift responsibility to authority. Before dramatic hero, unlike the tragic, there is an obstacle that he can, in principle, overcome, but does not find the strength in himself (or finds it, overcoming his doubts, returning to his true self).

The pathos of "Oblomov" and many stories and plays by Chekhov is dramatic.

In general, it should be noted that the new pathos are much less stable than the classical heroism, tragedy and satire. "Humanistic" pathos often function on the verge of other pathos, in close alliance with them, and can be aesthetically resolved into one or another dominant.

A humorous hero (AIGI) has an "excessive" desire for a natural human predestination, and this is always a deviation from generally accepted behavioral norms that causes laughter. But this laughter is ambivalent: mockery not so much denies as affirms the humorous hero, paying tribute to his deep human worth.

Just as in drama, humor is clearly perceptible internal attraction to the idyllic ideal. Both of these pathos are by-products of the collapse of the main harmonic worldview - idylls. The humorous hero is a cute eccentric (a weirdo, as Shukshin says, who, by the way, has many humorous stories). Humanly speaking, this is a bright, colorful personality, naively measuring everything by the standards of human dignity and not recognizing the necessary conventions.

Finally, let's turn to irony. This pathos exists in four modifications, each of which gravitates towards the nearest "maternal" pathos. Variants of ironic pathos are located at the edges of the lower and upper parts of the "authoritarian" and "humanistic" spectra. As in any spectrum, the logic of a gradual transition from quantity to quality works. Irony is qualitatively different from satire, and from humor, and from drama, and from tragedy. Four peculiar hybrids form an ironic block rich in shades in a pathos palette. We can mentally fold the diagram so that its edges match. And then it will be seen how one kind of irony flows smoothly into another.

First of all, it is striking that authoritarian irony differs from humanistic. On the basis of AI, two types of irony arose: comic irony and tragic irony. Both classic pompous triads are serious in one way or another. However, there is also a fundamentally frivolous attitude towards AI and GI. The very "disregard" formula of comic (at its other extreme turning into tragic) irony - GIVAI - suggests that the hero rejects any productive personal ideology and orientation. The ideology of irony is not constructive, but destructive. The concept of ironic personality - and above all comic irony- man of the body. And he is finite, mortal, so his cheerful cynicism is expressed in a penchant for bodily pleasures.

This concept of personality originated in folk festivities, and folklore-carnival laughter adequately represents the comic-ironic worldview. Mostly this variant of laughter culture was studied by M. M. Bakhtin.

The cult of the bodily principle is nevertheless a life-affirming, "biophilic" orientation, and it evokes sympathy. But at the same time, this is a cult of inanimate flesh - and this is the danger of self-destruction of the integrity of the individual. The ironic personality of the authoritarian wing needs AI to be denied. The deep meaning of irony is in denial. The ironic character lives as long as there is something to deny. Creative tasks are incompatible with an ironic attitude.

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For the first time D.S. Likhachev, in his article “The Inner World of a Work of Art,” wrote that “each work of art reflects the world of reality in its creative perspective. And these angles are subject to comprehensive study in connection with the specifics of a work of art and, above all, in their artistic whole. D.S. Likhachev proposed such an approach to the study of a work of art, in which the style of the work, direction, era is explored, attention is drawn to what world the writer plunges us into, what is his space, time, psychological, moral world and the world of social relations, the movement of ideas, " what are the general principles on the basis of which all these individual elements are linked into a single artistic whole. It is with this approach that the researcher considers Russian fairy tales and the inner world of F.M. Dostoevsky.

Following Likhachev, P.V. took up a similar analysis of the work. Palievsky. In the article “A work of art”, he wrote that “having crossed the threshold of a work, we thus find ourselves inside a wholeness that is so hostile to dismemberment that even the very fact of reasoning about it contains a contradiction.” Exploring the story of L.N. Tolstoy "Hadji Murad", Palievsky pays special attention to the idea, composition, spatio-temporal relations. He also writes that a work has a length, its own artistic time, order in alternation and transition from one "language" to another (plot, character, circumstances, etc.).

T.I. Silman paid special attention to subtext. In one of her 1969 articles, “Subtext as a Linguistic Phenomenon,” she wrote that subtext is the unexpressed, latent, but tangible meaning for the reader of an event in a work of art; subtext is nothing but dispersed, distant repetition. This is a complex phenomenon, which is a unity of various levels of language, lexical and syntactic, which, at the same time, is included in the plan of general compositional relations of a literary work.

In the second article “Subtext is the depth of the text”, T. Silman argued that subtext cannot be understood in a simplified way. This is an underlying plot line that makes itself felt only indirectly, most often at the most crucial, psychologically significant moments in the plot development. The author of the article explored subtext on the example of Goethe's "The Sufferings of Young Werther", the works of Chekhov, Hemingway, because she believed that subtext began to be used in literature in the late 19th - early 20th century.

B.A. Uspensky in his 1970 book Poetics of Composition: The Structure of a Literary Text and the Typology of Compositional Form, offered his own approach to isolating the structure of a work. This is an approach associated with determining the points of view from which the story is told in a work of art. The point of view in this work is the central problem of the composition of a work of art, uniting the most different kinds art. B. Uspensky considered points of view in terms of ideology, phraseology, spatio-temporal characteristics and in terms of psychology, as well as their relationship on different levels artistic work.

The next was a monograph by A.P. Chudakov in 1971 "Chekhov's Poetics", in which he wrote that in dividing an artistic system into levels, one should proceed from understanding it as a ratio of material (facts, events displayed by the writer in a work) and the form of its organization. The dual aspect of the artistic system determines the dual nature of articulation. The first division is based on the material, and the following levels are distinguished: subject, plot-plot, and the level of ideas. The second division is based on the allocation of the organization of the narrative. The organization of the text relative to the "describer" - the narrator, or the narrator, is the narration. At each stage, the analysis is carried out on the basis of the unity of content and form. Chudakov studied the poetics of A.P. Chekhova, highlighting the subjective and objective narrative in the structure of the narrative, explores the plot, the plot and the depicted world in the work of A.P. Chekhov.

In the book of V.M. Zhirmunsky, Theory of Literature. Poetics. Stylistics" included the article "The Tasks of Poetics" in 1919. In its first part, the author paid special attention to the content of the work (what is expressed) and its form (how this something is expressed), since these two categories are merged: any content is manifested in art as a form and any change in form is a disclosure of content. In the second part of his article, V.M. Zhirmunsky spoke of two types speech activity- the language of poetry and prose, since both of them perform different tasks. He illustrated this on the example of a poem by A.S. Pushkin and Turgenev's story. The author also considered it important to study the subject matter of the work, its composition, semantics, and style.

In 1977, an article by Zoltan Kanyo "Notes on the question of the beginning of the text in literary narrative» . At the beginning of the article, Cagno writes that the text is a special language structure, since it is proved that the text is somehow closed on both sides. The purpose of his work Cagno determines the analysis of the beginning of the text in one type of speech, or, in other words, the analysis of literary texts with certain ways of speech. The author writes that the function of the beginning of the text is determined by the fact that it reveals one or another linguistic affiliation to one of the ways of narration, which are based on pragmatic moments. The author also focuses on the fact that the beginning of the text does not coincide with the actual beginning of the literary text. For comparison, the author studies the function of the beginning in Boccaccio's Decameron, arguing that the study this work difficult, and in fairy tales, since the text of the fairy tale is simpler.

L.Ya. Ginzburg devoted her 1979 monograph "About a Literary Hero" to the problem of depicting a person in fiction. In her work, Lidia Yakovlevna argued that the literary hero expresses his understanding of man; the first meeting with a literary hero should be distinguished by recognition. Ginzburg has in mind the typological and psychological identification of the character.

In the second chapter of the monograph, the researcher draws attention to direct speech, since she believed that among all the means of a literary depiction of a person (appearance, gestures, actions), a special place belongs to the external and internal speech of the characters. The direct speech of the characters has the ability to reliably testify to their psychological state.

In the chapter "Structure literary hero» L.Ya. Ginzburg wrote that a literary character is a series of successive appearances of one person within given text. Repetitive, more or less stable features form the properties of the character. The author also drew attention to the fact that the main moving mechanism of the behavior of a literary hero is the principle of contradiction, since the plot of a literary work is a unity moving in time, and movement is always a contradiction, a conflict.

MM. Girshman devoted his 1982 article “The Problem of the Specificity of the Rhythm of Fiction” to the rhythm itself. Rhythm he calls the prerequisite and fundamental principle of thinking, and poetic knowledge of the world. Girshman draws attention to the fact that rhythm in prose can manifest itself not in verbal-rhythmic fabric, but in other properties of prose narration: in the change of fragments, in the harmony of construction, in all elements of the composition. He also writes that rhythm is not an end in itself and not a separate, isolated problem, awareness of rhythm is inseparable from the holistic process of creating verbally - artistic structure. In the second part of his article, the author writes that the most obvious unit of articulation of a prose utterance is a phrase-sentence, and also draws attention to beginnings and endings, arguing that the opposition of stressed and unstressed forms is a particularly significant rhythmic opposition in them. Particularly important in the system of rhythmic-syntactic connections, according to Girshman, is the opposition of simple and complex, union and union-free syntactic constructions.

L.S. Levitan and L.M. Tsilevich studied the plot in the structure of a holistic analysis of the work. Their book "The Plot in the Artistic System of a Literary Work" is devoted to this topic. In the introduction, the authors come to the conclusion that the artistic system of a literary work is the unity of the speech structure and plot, organized by the composition and having rhythmic and spatio-temporal properties. In their work, Levitan and Tsilevich consider plot-plot unity (here the authors write that this unity should be considered from two points of view: the transition of reality into the plot - through the plot; the transition of the plot into the plot - through the word); plot-speech unity (since the word and plot are in a relationship of interpenetration), plot-thematic unity (by analyzing the plot, we analyze the process of realization, deployment, development of the theme of the work); plot-compositional unity (development of the action, as well as the location and ratio of parts).

In their latest monograph, the authors distinguish between lyrical and dramatic plots, drawing attention to the fact that a dramatic plot, unlike a lyrical one, is based on a plot. In conclusion, Levitan and Tsilevich come to the conclusion that the features of the plot are determined by the principles of the artistic method, genre, style, but these principles themselves are embodied only in the plot.

Studying the problem of holistic analysis, each of the literary critics offers his own system of studied layers of the work, or pay attention to only one aspect. In our analysis, we will try to study all the above levels of the work.

At the Literature Olympiad (regional stage) there are 2 options for tasks. 1 option - complex analysis prose text, 2nd option - a comparative analysis of poems

Analysis of a lyric poem

The method of analysis is dictated by the ideological and artistic features of the work, takes into account the intuitive-irrational, poetic comprehension and theoretical-logical principle. There are general principles for the scientific analysis of poetic works, based on the typological properties of genres, types of lyrical compositions, etc. Analysis should not be random, fragmentary, should not be reduced to a simple transfer of impressions or retelling.
The analysis of a lyrical poem reveals the correspondence between the distribution of grammatical categories and metric, strophic correlations, and the semantics of the text. Below is given exemplary scheme a holistic (multi-aspect) analysis of a lyrical poem in the unity of its formal and content aspects (in accordance with the poetic world and the artistic system of the author).

Parsing scheme
The creative history of the work (date of writing, textology -the history of the emergence and fate of the text of a work of art); the place of the poem in the creative biography of the poet; historical-literary, everyday context; real-biographical commentary, critical assessments.
Idea content.
Thematic structure. Motivation. Keynotes.
Type of lyric poem (meditative (philosophical:conveys feelings, thoughtspoet about life and death, about nature, love, friendship) , meditative-pictorial, pictorial lyrics).
The specificity of the genre form (elegy, ballad, sonnet, message, etc.).
Paphos ( emotional arousal, passionate inspiration, uplift, enthusiasm ..).
The meaning of the title, its connection with the main poetic idea.
The construction (structure) of the verse
Architectonics (composition - construction of a work).
Composition. Repetitions, contrasts, oppositions. Composition types. Ending. Comparison and development of the main verbal images (by similarity, by contrast, by association, by inference).
Features of the use of various parts of speech, grammatical categories.
Lyric hero. lyric recipient.
Forms of speech communication (dialogue, monologue).
Poetic vocabulary.
Rhythm, meter.
Sound (phonological) structure (alliteration, assonance, sound repetition,). Euphonia (euphony).

In the scheme for parsing a lyrical poem proposed below, the sequence of points is not strictly observed, the main requirement is to take into account (if possible) all of these components.
An important aspect in the study of a literary work is the definition of methods of analysis and methods of its interpretation. In modern philological research, the methodologies of various scientific systems are creatively used and complement each other, each of which is significant in its own way in the history of critical thought.

Poem analysis plan1. Elements of a commentary on a poem:- Time (place) of writing, history of creation;- Genre originality;- The place of this poem in the poet's work or in a series of poems on a similar topic (with a similar motive, plot, structure, etc.);- Explanation of obscure places, complex metaphors and other transcripts.2. Feelings expressed by the lyrical hero of the poem; the feelings that the poem evokes in the reader.3. The movement of the author's thoughts, feelings from the beginning to the end of the poem.4. Interdependence of the content of the poem and its artistic form:- Compositional solutions;- Features of self-expression of the lyrical hero and the nature of the narrative;- The sound range of the poem, the use of sound recording, assonance, alliteration;- Rhythm, stanza, graphics, their semantic role;- Motivation and accuracy of the use of expressive means.4. Associations caused by this poem (literary, life, musical, pictorial - any).5. The typicality and originality of this poem in the poet's work, deep moral or philosophical meaning works, opened as a result of the analysis; the degree of "eternity" of the issues raised or their interpretation. Riddles and secrets of the poem.6. Additional (free) reflections.

Analysis poetic work (scheme)Starting the analysis of a poetic work, it is necessary to determine the direct content of the lyrical work - experience, feeling;Determine the “ownership” of feelings and thoughts expressed in lyrical work: lyrical hero (the image in which these feelings are expressed);- to determine the subject of the description and its connection with the poetic idea (direct - indirect);- to determine the organization (composition) of a lyrical work;- to determine the originality of the use of visual means by the author (active - mean); determine the lexical pattern (vernacular - book and literary vocabulary ...);- determine the rhythm (homogeneous - heterogeneous; rhythmic movement);- determine the sound pattern;- determine intonation (the attitude of the speaker to the subject of speech and the interlocutor.

Poetic vocabularyIt is necessary to find out the activity of using separate groups of words in common vocabulary - synonyms, antonyms, archaisms, neologisms;- to find out the degree of proximity of the poetic language with the colloquial;- to determine the originality and activity of the use of trailsEPITET - artistic definition;COMPARISON - a comparison of two objects or phenomena in order to explain one of them with the help of the other;ALLEGORY (allegory) - the image of an abstract concept or phenomenon through specific objects and images;IRONY - hidden mockery;HYPERBOLE - artistic exaggeration, used to enhance an impression;LITOTA - artistic understatement;PERSONATION - the image of inanimate objects, in which they are endowed with the properties of living beings - the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel;METAPHOR - a hidden comparison, built on the similarity or contrast of phenomena, in which the word "as", "as if", "as if" are absent, but implied.

Poetic Syntax(syntactic devices or figures of poetic speech)- rhetorical questions, appeals, exclamations - they increase the reader's attention without requiring an answer from him;- repetitions - repeated repetition of the same words or expressions;- antitheses - oppositions;

Poetic phoneticsThe use of onomatopoeia, sound recording - sound repetitions that create a kind of sound "pattern" of speech.)- Alliteration - repetition of consonant sounds;- Assonance - repetition of vowel sounds;- Anaphora - unity of command;

Composition of a lyrical workNecessary:- to determine the leading experience, feeling, mood reflected in the poetic work;- to find out the harmony of the compositional construction, its subordination to the expression of a certain thought;- determine the lyrical situation presented in the poem (the hero's conflict with himself; the hero's inner lack of freedom, etc.)- to determine the life situation, which, presumably, could cause this experience;- highlight the main parts of a poetic work: show their connection (determine the emotional "picture").Analysis of a poetic text

The analysis of a poetic text includes the decision three questions: interpretation, perception, evaluation. It can be about your personal intellectual and emotional perception of the poem. You can write about how it resonates with you. what thoughts and feelings aroused. Also, we can talk about the perception of the poem by the author's contemporaries, his like-minded people and opponents, critics, literary critics, composers, artists.

Interpretation is the analysis of a poem in the unity of its content and form. Analyze necessary, taking into account the context of the author's work and Russian poetry in general, as well as the originality of lyrics as a kind of literature. The essay may contain references to the interpretation of the poem by literary critics, a comparison of different points of view.
Evaluation is a remark about one or another side of the skill of the author of the poem and a conclusion about the artistic value of the text under study, the place of the work in author, generally. Evaluation is both the point of view of other authors, and your own opinion, formed in the process of analyzing the work.

Plan for parsing a lyric poem

1. Date of writing.
2. Real-biographical and factual commentary.
3. Genre originality.
4. Idea content:
5. Leading theme.
6. Main idea.
7. Emotional coloring of feelings expressed in a poem in their dynamics or statics.
8. External impression and internal reaction to it.
9. The predominance of public or private intonations.
10. The structure of the poem. Comparison and development of the main verbal images by similarity, by contrast, by contiguity, by association, by inference.
11. The main figurative means of allegory used by the author (metaphor, metonymy, comparison, allegory, symbol, hyperbole, litote, irony (as a trope), sarcasm, paraphrase).
12. Speech features in terms of intonational-syntactic figures (repetition, antithesis, inversion, ellipse, parallelism, rhetorical question, appeal and exclamation).
13. The main features of rhythm (tonic, syllabic, syllabo-tonic, dolnik, free verse; iambic, trochee, pyrrhic, sponde, dactyl, amphibrach, anapaest).
14. Rhyme (masculine, feminine, dactylic, exact, inaccurate, rich; simple, compound) and rhyming methods (pair, cross, ring), rhyme game.
15. Strophic (double-line, three-line, five-line, quatrain, sextine, seventh, octave, sonnet, "Onegin" stanza).
16. Euphony (euphony) and sound recording (alliteration, assonance), other types of sound instrumentation.

Poem analysis plan

1. What mood becomes decisive for the poem as a whole. Do the author's feelings change throughout the poem, if so - thanks to what words do we guess about it.
2. Is there a conflict in the poem, in order to determine the conflict, identify words from the poem that can conditionally be called positively emotionally colored and negatively emotionally colored, identify key words among positive and negatively emotionally colored in these chains.
3. Are there any chains of words in the poem that are associated associatively or phonetically (by associations or by sounds).
4. In which stanza can the culmination be distinguished, is there a denouement in the poem, if so, what kind.
5. Which line becomes the meaning for creating a poem. The role of the first line (what kind of music sounds in the soul of the poet when he takes up the pen).
6. The role of the last line. What words, with which he can end the poem, seem to the poet to be especially significant.
7. The role of sounds in a poem.
8. The color of the poem.
9. The category of time in the poem (the meaning of the past, present and future).
10. Category of space (real and astral)
11. The degree of isolation of the author, is there an appeal to the reader or addressee?
12. Features of the composition of the poem.
13. Genre of the poem (variety: philosophical reflection, elegy, ode, fable, ballad).
14. Literary direction, if possible.
15. The meaning of artistic means (comparison, metaphor, hyperbole, antithesis, alliteration, oxymoron).
16. My perception of this poem.
17. If there is a need to refer to the history of creation, the year of creation, the meaning of this poem in the poet's work. Conditions, location. Are there any poems in the work of this poet that are similar to him, is it possible to compare this poem with the work of another poet.

Analysis of the poem (speech cliché)

In a poem ... ( , name) refers to ...
In the poem ... (title) ... (surname of the poet) describes ...
The poem reigns ... mood. The poem ... is permeated with ... mood.
The mood of this poem... The mood changes throughout the poem: from ... to .... The mood of the poem is...
The poem can be divided into ... parts, since ...
Compositionally, the poem is divided into ... parts.
The sound of the poem determines ... the rhythm.
Short (long) lines underline...
In a poem, we seem to hear sounds .... Constantly repeating sounds ... allow you to hear ....

The poet wants to capture in words….

To create a mood, the author uses .... With the help of ... the author creates an opportunity for us to see (hear) .... Using…, creates .
The lyrical hero of this poem seems to me ....

2. Analysis of the prose text
The scheme of a complex philological analysis of a text (primarily prosaic) includes the following stages: a generalizing description of the ideological and aesthetic content, determining the genre of a work, characterizing the architectonics of the text, considering the structure of the narrative, analyzing the spatio-temporal organization of the work, the system of images and poetic language, and identifying elements of intertext.

Parsing scheme

Introduction. Creative history (textual criticism), the history of critical evaluations, the place of the work (story, essay, story, short story) in creative evolution or the writer's artistic system, in the history of the literary process.
Problem-thematic aspect.
Text analysis.
Semantics (symbols) of the name. The breadth of the semantic area through the prism of the title.
Architectonics.
Spatio-temporal organization of the artistic world: the image of time and space ("chronotope", spatio-temporal continuum, relations between the character and the place of action). Spatial and temporal oppositions (up / down, far / close, day / night, etc.).
Composition. Compositional techniques (repetition, editing, etc.). Reference "points" of the composition.
Plot. metadescriptive snippets.
Rhythm, tempo, tone, intonation of the story.
Functional-semantic types of speech (description, narration, reasoning).
Stylistic originality. Visual media system.
Image system. Heroes speech.
Portrait.
Artistic detail (external, psychological, symbolic detail). Functional detail. Detail.
Scenery. Interior. World of things. Zoologisms.
The role of subtext and intertextual connections.

1. Analysis of a work of art

1. Determine the theme and idea / main idea / of this work; the issues raised in it; the pathos with which the work is written;
2. Show the relationship between plot and composition;
3. Consider the subjective organization of the work /artistic image of a person, methods of creating a character, types of images-characters, a system of images-characters/;
4. Find out the author's attitude to the topic, idea and heroes of the work;
5. Determine the features of the functioning of the visual and expressive means of the language in this work of literature;
6. Determine the features of the genre of the work and the style of the writer.
Note: according to this scheme, you can write an essay-review about the book you read, while also presenting in the work:
1. Emotional and evaluative attitude to what is read.
2. A detailed justification for an independent assessment of the characters of the heroes of the work, their actions and experiences.
3. Detailed substantiation of the conclusions.

Analysis of a prose literary work
When starting to analyze a work of art, first of all, it is necessary to pay attention to the specific historical context of the work during the period of creation of this work of art. At the same time, it is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of historical and historical-literary situation, in the latter case it means
literary trends of the era;
the place of this work among the works of other authors written during this period;
creative history of the work;
assessment of the work in criticism;
originality of perception of this work by contemporaries of the writer;
evaluation of the work in the context of modern reading;
Next, we should turn to the question of the ideological and artistic unity of the work, its content and form (in this case, the content plan is considered - what the author wanted to say and the expression plan - how he managed to do it).

Conceptual (General) level of a work of art
(themes, problems, conflict and pathos)
The theme is what the work is about, the main problem posed and considered by the author in the work, which unites the content into a single whole; these are those typical phenomena and events of real life that are reflected in the work. Does the theme resonate with the main issues of its time? Is the title related to the topic? Each phenomenon of life is a separate topic; a set of topics - the theme of the work.
The problem is that side of life that is of particular interest to the writer. One and the same problem can serve as the basis for posing different problems (the theme of serfdom is the problem of the internal lack of freedom of the serf, the problem of mutual corruption, mutilation of both serfs and serfs, the problem of social injustice ...). Issues - a list of issues raised in the work. (They may be complementary and subject to the main problem.)
Idea - what the author wanted to say; the writer's solution to the main problem or an indication of the way in which it can be solved. (The ideological meaning is the solution of all problems - the main and additional ones - or an indication of a possible solution.)
Paphos is the emotional and evaluative attitude of the writer to the narrated, which is distinguished by a great strength of feelings (maybe affirming, denying, justifying, elevating ...).

The level of organization of the work as an artistic whole
Composition - the construction of a literary work; unites the parts of the work into one whole.
The main means of composition:
The plot is what happens in the work; system of major events and conflicts.
Conflict is a clash of characters and circumstances, views and principles of life, which is the basis of action. The conflict can occur between the individual and society, between characters. In the mind of the hero can be explicit and hidden. Plot elements reflect the stages of development of the conflict;
Prologue - a kind of introduction to the work, which tells about the events of the past, it emotionally sets the reader up for perception (rare);
The exposition is the introduction into action, the image of the conditions and circumstances that preceded the immediate start of the action (it can be expanded and not, whole and “broken”; it can be located not only at the beginning, but also in the middle, end of the work); introduces the characters of the work, the situation, time and circumstances of the action;
The plot is the beginning of the plot movement; the event from which the conflict begins, subsequent events develop.
The development of action is a system of events that follow from the plot; in the course of the development of the action, as a rule, the conflict escalates, and the contradictions appear more and more clearly;
The climax is the moment highest voltage action, the pinnacle of the conflict, the climax presents the main problem of the work and the characters of the characters very clearly, after which the action weakens.
The denouement is a solution to the depicted conflict or an indication of possible ways to resolve it. The final moment in the development of the action of a work of art. As a rule, it either resolves the conflict or demonstrates its fundamental insolubility.
Epilogue - the final part of the work, which indicates the direction of further development of events and the fate of the characters (sometimes an assessment is given to the depicted); this is a short story about what happened to the characters of the work after the end of the main plot action.

The plot may be:
In direct chronological sequence of events;
With digressions into the past - retrospectives - and "excursions" into
future;
In a deliberately changed sequence (see artistic time in the work).

Non-plot elements are:
Insert episodes;
Lyrical (otherwise - author's) digressions.
Their main function is to expand the scope of what is depicted, to enable the author to express his thoughts and feelings about various phenomena of life that are not directly related to the plot.
Some elements of the plot may be missing in the work; sometimes it is difficult to separate these elements; sometimes there are several plots in one work - in other words, storylines. There are various interpretations of the concepts of "plot" and "plot":
1) plot - main conflict works; plot - a series of events in which it is expressed;
2) plot - the artistic order of events; plot - the natural order of events

Compositional principles and elements:
The leading compositional principle (the composition is multifaceted, linear, circular, "thread with beads"; in the chronology of events or not...).

Additional composition tools:
Lyrical digressions - forms of disclosure and transmission of the writer's feelings and thoughts about the depicted (they express the author's attitude to the characters, to the depicted life, they can be reflections on any occasion or an explanation of their goal, position);
Introductory (plug-in) episodes (not directly related to the plot of the work);
Artistic anticipations - the image of scenes that, as it were, predict, anticipate the further development of events;
Artistic framing - scenes that begin and end an event or work, complementing it, giving additional meaning;
Compositional techniques - internal monologues, diary, etc.

The level of the internal form of the work
The subjective organization of the narration (its consideration includes the following): The narration can be personal: on behalf of the lyrical hero (confession), on behalf of the hero-narrator, and impersonal (on behalf of the narrator).
1) The artistic image of a person - typical phenomena of life that are reflected in this image are considered; individual traits inherent in the character; reveals the originality of the created image of a person:
External features - face, figure, costume;
The character of the character - it is revealed in actions, in relation to other people, manifested in a portrait, in descriptions of the feelings of the hero, in his speech. Depiction of the conditions in which the character lives and acts;
An image of nature that helps to better understand the thoughts and feelings of the character;
Image of the social environment, the society in which the character lives and acts;
The presence or absence of a prototype.
2) 0 basic techniques for creating an image-character:
Characterization of the hero through his actions and deeds (in the plot system);
Portrait, portrait characteristic hero (often expresses the author's attitude to the character);
Straight author's characteristic;
Psychological analysis - a detailed, detailed recreation of feelings, thoughts, motives -inner world character; here the depiction of the “dialectics of the soul” is of particular importance, i.e. movements inner life hero;
Characterization of the hero by other characters;
Artistic detail - a description of objects and phenomena of the reality surrounding the character (details that reflect a broad generalization can act as symbolic details);
3) Types of images-characters:
lyrical - in the event that the writer depicts only the feelings and thoughts of the hero, without mentioning the events of his life, the actions of the hero (found mainly in poetry);
dramatic - in the event that the impression arises that the characters act "on their own", "without the help of the author", i.e. the author uses the technique of self-disclosure, self-characteristics (found mainly in dramatic works) to characterize the characters;
epic - the author-narrator or narrator consistently describes the characters, their actions, characters, appearance, the environment in which they live, relationships with others (they are found in epic novels, short stories, short stories, short stories, essays).
4) The system of images-characters;
Separate images can be combined into groups (grouping of images) - their interaction helps to more fully present and reveal each character, and through them - the theme and ideological meaning of the work.
All these groups are united in the society depicted in the work (multidimensional or one-dimensional from a social, ethnic, etc. point of view).
Artistic space and artistic time (chronotope): space and time depicted by the author.
Artistic space can be conditional and concrete; compressed and voluminous;
Artistic time can be correlated with historical or not, intermittent and continuous, in the chronology of events (epic time) or the chronology of the characters’ internal mental processes (lyrical time), long or instantaneous, finite or endless, closed (i.e. only within the plot , out of historical time) and open (against the background of a certain historical epoch).
The position of the author and ways of expressing it:
Author's estimates: direct and indirect.
The way of creating artistic images: narration (image of the events taking place in the work), description (consistent enumeration of individual features, traits, properties and phenomena), forms of oral speech (dialogue, monologue).
The place and significance of the artistic detail (artistic detail that enhances the idea of the whole).

External form level. Speech and rhythm-melodic organization of a literary text
The speech of the characters - expressive or not, acting as a means of typing; individual features of speech; reveals the character and helps to understand the attitude of the author.
Narrator's speech - assessment of events and their participants
The peculiarity of the word use of the national language (the activity of including synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, archaisms, neologisms, dialectisms, barbarisms, professionalisms).
Techniques of figurativeness (tropes - the use of words in a figurative sense) are the simplest (epithet and comparison) and complex (metaphor, personification, allegory, litote, paraphrase).

Comparative analysis of the poems by M.Yu. Lermontov "The Cross on the Rock" and A.S. Pushkin "The Monastery on Kazbek".

Material for a literature lesson for grade 10

Ph.D. Madigozhina N.V.

Cross on the rock
(M-lle Souchkoff)

In the gorge of the Caucasus I know a rock,
Only the steppe eagle can fly there,
But the wooden cross turns black over her,
It rots and bends from storms and rains.

And many years have passed without a trace
Since it is visible from the distant hills.
And each hand is raised up,
As if he wants to grab the clouds.

Oh, if only I could get there,
How I would pray and cry then;
And then I would throw off the chain of being
And with a storm I would call myself a brother!

MONASTERY ON KAZBEK

High above the mountain family
Kazbek, your royal tent
Shines with eternal rays.
Your monastery behind the clouds
Like an ark flying in the sky,
Soaring, barely visible, over the mountains.

A distant, longed-for shore!
There b, saying sorry to the gorge,
Rise to the free height!
There b, in the sky-high cell,
In the neighborhood of God hide me! ..

It would be tempting to assume that M.Yu. Lermontov was familiar with the text of the poem "Monastery on Kazbek" (1829). Then it would be possible to write about the polemical response of a daring teenager to a great contemporary. But, most likely, a number of coincidences at different levels, which we will fix in a comparative analysis, are due to the specifics of the romantic method by which both works were written.
The commonality is noticed already at the first glance at the titles of the poems. The opening lines of the texts immediately set the general theme and flavor. (Caucasus). It is clear that both authors have lyrical heroes at the foot (rocks, mountains), and their views and thoughts are directed upwards. Thus, by the very location of the characters, the romantic antithesis of "here" and "there" is set. A. S. Pushkin's poem was created at a time when the poet himself regularly declared his departure from the romantic method. For example, in one of his private letters, he comments in detail on the progress of the creation of " winter morning”, published in the same 1829, explains why all the editing went from the “Cherkasy horse” to the “brown filly”, that is, to a more “prosaic” figurative system, vocabulary, syntax, and so on.
Luckily, gone are the days when we tried to straighten creative way any author and were looking for evidence that all the great poets moved "from romanticism to realism." The implication was that the realistic method was, of course, better.
The Caucasus, in almost all Russian lyricists and in any of their "creative periods", awakened and awakens a romantic worldview.
The lyrical hero of Pushkin, standing at the foot of a high mountain, looks at the top of Kazbek and thinks about eternity, about God, about freedom...
In M.Yu. Lermontov's poem "The Cross on the Rock" (1830), the lyrical hero is also shocked by the Caucasian landscape, but his thoughts and feelings are completely different. The named work by M.Yu. Lermontov, like many other poems of 1830, is dedicated to E.A. Sushkova, (later Countess Rostopchina.) It should be noted that this woman was a poetess, so Lermontov turned to her not only poems on a love theme, but he hoped that his girlfriend would share, understand those thoughts and moods that his lyrical hero experienced.
Images of rocks, cliffs, mountains run through all of Lermontov's work; this author has repeatedly declared his love for the mountains of the Caucasus. But the love for nature, like the love for a woman, is gloomy and hysterical in the young poet.
The lyrical hero of the "early" Lermontov calls his "familiar" and favorite place in the Caucasus a rock, on top of which there is someone's nameless grave with a simple wooden cross on it. The cross turned black and almost rotted from the rains, but 6 out of 12 lines of text are given to the description of this gloomy detail of the landscape.
This poem is very simple in “form”: it is written in four-foot amphibrach with a caesura, it consists of three quatrains with adjacent rhymes, and the rhymes are precise and banal. The work is divided into two parts: two quatrains are a description of a cross on a rock, the last four verses are an emotional response.
In the first lines, an eagle, beloved by romantics, appears, which - fortunately for him - can fly so high that he rests on the top of a rock. The lyrical hero is languishing because he cannot climb the rock, and the personified cross, resembling a man from below, stretches even higher, as if "he wants to grab the clouds." Thus, one direction of movement passes through the whole poem: from below - upwards. There are two contrasting color spots in the work: a black cross and white, unattainable clouds.
The last quatrain is one exclamatory sentence, almost entirely composed of romantic cliches and beginning, of course, with "Oh!".
The hero rushes "there", "above", there he will begin to "pray and cry", because, probably, from here, from below, God does not hear his lamentations. The young romantic wants to "throw off the chain of being", get rid of the shackles and fraternize with the storm (it is worth remembering Mtsyri).
The last quatrain is written in the subjunctive mood and the repeated “would”, together with the words “threw”, “being”, “with a storm”, “brother” give a sonorous alliteration.
In general, this poem seems to me weaker than "Sail" or "The Beggar", created around the same time. The paradox is that, although the analyzed text is imitative, it is, at the same time, very characteristic of the early Lermontov's worldview and his style, which, according to E. Maimin, was "the standard of romanticism."
Pushkin's poem creates a completely different mood in the reader. Yes, the lyrical hero also dreams of getting “there”, to the top of the mountain, where the old Georgian church is located. But he aspires just not to storms, but to peace. The top of Kazbek "shines with eternal rays", and light clouds are needed only so that not everyone can see the reserved place. The sky, like the sea, for Pushkin is a free element, so it is so natural to compare a barely visible church with a “floating ark”, in which only the elect must be saved.
Pushkin's work is also divided into two parts, corresponding to two stanzas, but the second stanza consists of five lines, which, obviously, by the rhyming system itself, puts one of the lines in a "strong position". Here is the exclamation: “Distant, longed-for coast!” The image of the desired and unattainable shore (and even more solemnly - the archaic, eternal "shore") is also quite logical after the description of the ship-symbol. The lyrical hero of Pushkin is not looking for storms, for him happiness is "peace and freedom." He aspires to the “transcendental cell”, and it is in solitude that he hopes to find freedom, for it is inside the soul, and not bestowed from outside.
It is no coincidence that the lyrical hero dreams of the "neighborhood of God." He does not ask the Almighty for anything, he himself is almost equal to him.
The entire poem is written in the traditional iambic tetrameter, with a large number of pyrrhic verses to make the verse easier. In the first stanza, the adjacent rhyme unobtrusively divides the sextine into couplets. But the very first line of the five-line rhyme is associated with the first part, and the remaining four verses are rhymed "cross". All this - as we have already noted - highlights the key line - the impulse of the spirit to the distant, radiant, divine "shore".
In the second stanza, Pushkin, like Lermontov, concentrates a maximum of emotions. The quintet of Pushkin's text consists of three exclamatory sentences, two of which begin with a romantic impulse: "There b...!" This desire from the gorge to the top is recognized by the lyrical hero as a natural impulse of the spirit. The unattainability of this dream is also natural. Pushkin's poem is bright and wise, without youthful anguish and pain.
Thus, the comparison of the two "Caucasian" works of Pushkin and Lermontov once again emphasizes the difference between the attitudes and idiostyles of these Russian classics.

"MONUMENT" OF G. R. DERZHAVIN AND "MONUMENT" OF V. YA. BRYUSOV
(methodological aspect of comparative analysis)

The theme of the monument takes great place in the work of Russian poets, so this topic is given considerable attention in school curricula. Comparative analysis of poems by G.R. Derzhavin and V.Ya. Bryusov will help students understand the originality of the solution to the theme of the monument in the work of the poet of the 18th and 20th centuries, to reveal the individuality of style, the worldview of artists.

These two poems are based on one theme, one source - Horace's ode "Monument". The poems of G.R. Derzhavin and V.Ya. Bryusov can hardly be called translations of Horace’s ode in the exact sense - it is rather a free imitation or alteration of the latter, which allows literary critics to consider these works as independent and original.

Derzhavin's poem "Monument" was first published in 1795 under the title "To the Muse. Imitation of Horace". "Monument" Bryusov was written in 1912. The teacher asks the students to read the poems, compare them and answer the questions:

What exactly did each poet recognize in his work as deserving of immortality?

Compare the figurative structure of poems, rhythmic organization, stanza, syntax. How does this affect the overall pathos of the poems?

What is the originality of the lyrical hero of poems?

Pay attention to geographic names. How do they define the space of the poems? Derzhavin sees his merits in the fact that:
That I was the first to dare in a funny Russian syllable
Proclaim the virtues of Felitsa,
In the simplicity of the heart to talk about God
And tell the truth to kings with a smile.

Students comment that the poet made the Russian syllable simple, sharp, cheerful. He "dared" to write not about greatness, not about exploits, but about the virtues of the empress, seeing in her ordinary person. The poet managed to preserve human dignity, sincerity, truthfulness.

Bryusov speaks of his merits in the fourth stanza:
For many I thought, for all I knew the torments of passion,
But it will become clear to everyone that this song is about them,
And distant dreams in invincible power
Glorify proudly every verse.

According to the author, he managed to convey human thoughts and passions in the "singing" words of his creations.

The poems of Derzhavin and Bryusov are close not only thematically, but also according to the external features of their construction: both are written in four-line stanzas (Derzhavin has 5 stanzas, Bryusov has 6) with masculine and feminine rhymes, alternating in all stanzas according to the scheme: avav. The meter of both poems is iambic. Derzhavin's iambic is six-meter in all lines, Bryusov's is six-meter in the first three lines and four-meter in the fourth line of each stanza.

Students note the difference at the syntactic level. Bryusov's poem is complicated not only by exclamatory forms, but also by rhetorical questions, which gives the intonation some expressiveness and tension.

In Derzhavin's poem, the image of the lyrical hero connects all the stanzas, only in the last one does the image of the muse appear, to which the hero addresses with the thought of immortality. In Bryusov, already in the first stanza, the image of the lyrical hero is opposed to those who did not understand the poet, to the “crowd”: “My monument stands, from the stanzas of consonant complex. / Shout, run amok, you won’t dump it!”. This opposition gives rise to the tragic attitude of the lyrical hero.

It is interesting to compare the spatial plans of the poems. Derzhavin: "A rumor will spread about me from the White Waters to the Black Waters, / Where the Volga, Don, Neva, the Urals pour from the Riphean; ..". Bryusov writes that his pages will fly: "To the gardens of Ukraine, to the noise and bright dream of the capital / To the thresholds of India, to the banks of the Irtysh." In the fifth stanza, the geography of the verse is enriched with new countries:
And, in new sounds, the call will penetrate beyond
Sad homeland, and a German, and a Frenchman
Dutifully repeat my orphaned verse,
Gift of supportive muses.

Students come to the conclusion that the space of the symbolist poem is much wider: it is not only the expanses of Russia, but also European countries - Germany, France. The symbolist poet is characterized by exaggeration of the theme of the monument, the scale of influence of both his own poetry and poetry in general.

The next stage of the work can be associated with a comparison of the figurative and expressive means used by the classicist poet and the symbolist poet. Students write epithets, comparisons, metaphors in a notebook, summarize examples and draw conclusions. They note the dominance of Derzhavin's epithets: "wonderful monument, eternal", "fleeting whirlwind", "uncountable peoples", "just merit", etc., as well as the use of the inversion technique, which gives solemnity, distinctness, objectivity of the image. For Bryusov, metaphors play a significant role in the poem: "the decay of melodious words", "a gift of supportive muses", etc., which, as it were, emphasizes the scale of style, a tendency to generalize. In the poem of the classical poet, the image of the empress and the theme of power associated with her are natural. The symbolist is not interested in images statesmen, kings, commanders. Bryusov shows the inconsistency of the real world. In his poem, the “poor man’s closet” and the “king’s palace” are contrasted, which introduces a tragic beginning into the work of the symbolist poet.

The teacher can draw students' attention to vocabulary, sound and color of poems. Finding common and differences, students come to the conclusion about the continuity of traditions in Russian literature and about the diversity and richness of styles, methods, trends.

The leading principle of Bryusov's poetry is thought. The vocabulary of his poems is sonorous, close to oratorical speech. The verse is concise, strong, "with developed muscles" / D. Maksimov /. Thought dominates in the poem of the classicist poet, whose style is characterized by rhetoric, solemnity, monumentality. And at the same time, in the work of each of them there is something of their own, unique.

This form of work contributes to an increase in the level of perception of the lyrics of Derzhavin and Bryusov, complex and subtle images of poetry, allows you to form and consolidate students' ideas about the theory and practice of classicism and symbolism.

Comparative analysis of the Poems of A. S. Pushkin "Again I visited ..." and "Village"

In one and the other poems the same landscape is described, and in both poems this landscape gives rise to deep reflections in the lyrical .
The “village” is replete with bright epithets (“desert, invisible, azure, free”). Let's compare them with numerous epithets from “…I visited again…” (“wooded, inconspicuous, miserable, pitted, gloomy”). The metaphors in the poem “The Village” also speak of the poet’s special pathos (“ideological fetters”, “oracles of the ages”, “skinny fields”, “young virgins bloom”). The metaphors in “…I visited again…” are less pretentious in color, but more philosophical than the metaphors in “The Village” (“the green family”, “the young, unfamiliar tribe”, “the past embraces me vividly”). The artistic means used in writing "The Village", let's say, are more worn out, they still gravitate towards the classicist tradition. The pictorial means in “... I visited again ...” are fresh, they are already, as it were, a product of the realistic method of A. S. Pushkin.
Compare: “Where the fisherman’s sail sometimes turns white” - “Floats and pulls // Poor net”; “Lake azure plains” - “I sat motionless and looked at the lake…”; “The winged mills” - “the windmill was twisted, its wings were forced // Turning in the wind”.
Already by varying the same images appearing in different poems, one can see how the author's idea of the world has changed.
There are a lot of exclamations, appeals, rhetorical questions in “The Village” (“Oracles of the ages, here I ask you!”, “Will the beautiful dawn finally rise?”). The abundance of these syntactic turns brings the poem closer to the samples oratory. Echoes of poetic verses of the end of the 18th century are heard in it. It is not for nothing that in the second part of the poem there is a distinctly accusatory pathos.
In the poem of 1835 we have before us a philosophical reflection. There is only one exclamation here, but it does not serve to create special pathos in the poem.
In the poem “... Again I visited ...” the boundaries of the phrase often do not coincide with the boundaries of the verse. Splitting a line, A. S. Pushkin simultaneously preserves the integrity of thought. Thus, the poetic speech in “... Again I visited ...” is as close as possible to prose.
The poem cannot be read without a special arrangement of pauses.

Green family; the bushes are crowding
Under their shadow, like children. And away
Their gloomy comrade stands,
Like an old bachelor, and around him
Everything is still empty.

In the poem "Village" the phrase almost always coincides with the border of the verse, there are practically no inversions. The poet's thoughts are clear, they follow each other in a strict order. That is why the “Village” is rather a speech of a speaker, and not philosophical reflections. A completely lyrical landscape gives rise to reflections on social topics in the lyrical hero.
The random interspersing of four-foot lines into lines with six feet in the "Village" once again speaks of the pathos of the poem. There are especially many four-foot lines in the second part of the poem.
In the poem “... Again I visited ...”, only the first and last stanzas differ in size.
So, the thought, which is in the first stanza, due to the fact that the last line is divided between the first and second stanzas, has a logical continuation in the second stanza.
When comparing the rhythms of the two poems, it turns out that the poem of 1835 has much more perichia. In combination with white verse, they bring the rhythm of the poem closer to prose.
It is on the example of these two poems that one can trace the movement of A. S. Pushkin as a poet from romantic traditions to a realistic method in lyrics.

Analysis of a dramatic work

Scheme for analyzing a dramatic work
1. general characteristics Keywords: history of creation, vital basis, design, literary criticism.
2. Plot, composition:
- the main conflict, the stages of its development;
- the nature of the denouement /comic, tragic, dramatic/
3. Analysis of individual actions, scenes, phenomena.
4. Collecting material about the characters:
- character's appearance
- behavior,
- speech characteristic
- the content of the speech / about what? /
- manner / how? /
- style, vocabulary
- self-characteristics, mutual characteristics of the characters, author's remarks;
- the role of scenery, interior in the development of the image.
5. CONCLUSIONS: Theme, idea, meaning of the title, system of images. Genre of the work, artistic originality.

dramatic work
The generic specificity, the “borderline” position of the drama (Between literature and the theater) obliges it to be analyzed in the course of the development of dramatic action (this is the fundamental difference between the analysis of a dramatic work from an epic or lyrical one). Therefore, the proposed scheme is conditional, it only takes into account the conglomeration of the main generic categories of drama, the peculiarity of which can manifest itself in different ways in each individual case, namely in the development of the action (according to the principle of a untwisted spring).
1. General characteristics of the dramatic action (character, plan and vector of movement, tempo, rhythm, etc.). "Through" action and "underwater" currents.
2. Type of conflict. The essence of drama and the content of the conflict, the nature of the contradictions (two-dimensionality, external conflict, internal conflict, their interaction), the "vertical" and "horizontal" plan of the drama.
3. The system of actors, their place and role in the development of dramatic action and conflict resolution. Main and secondary characters. Off-plot and off-stage characters.
4. The system of motives and the motive development of the plot and micro-plots of the drama. Text and subtext.
5. Compositional-structural level. The main stages in the development of dramatic action (exposition, plot, development of action, climax, denouement). Assembly principle.
6. Features of poetics (the semantic key of the title, the role of the theater poster, stage chronotype, symbolism, stage psychologism, the problem of the finale). Signs of theatricality: costume, mask, game and post-situational analysis, role-playing situations, etc.
7. Genre originality (drama, tragedy or comedy?). The origins of the genre, its reminiscences and innovative solutions by the author.
8. Ways of expressing the author's position (remarks, dialogue, stage presence, poetics of names, lyrical atmosphere, etc.)
9. Contexts of drama (historical and cultural, creative, dramatic).
10. The problem of interpretations and stage history.

Current page: 1 (the book has a total of 14 pages) [accessible reading excerpt: 10 pages]

A.N. Andreev
Lectures on Literary Theory: A Holistic Analysis of a Literary Work
Textbook for university students

Introduction

One of the most relevant today, the central problems of the theory of literature is the systematic development of the theory of a work of art.

The ingenious idea of distinguishing the content and formal sides in a work of art determined for centuries the main trend in the study of the problems of the work. The content traditionally includes all aspects related to the semantic side of creativity (comprehension and evaluation of reality). The plane of expression, the phenomenological level, is referred to as the realm of form. (The basis of the system of concepts about the composition of a work of art is most fully developed in the works of Pospelov G.N. 1
Pospelov, G.N. Holistic and systemic understanding of literary works // Questions of methodology and poetics. M., 1983.

Which, in turn, directly relied on the aesthetic ideas of Hegel 2
Hegel, G. V. Aesthetics. T.1. M., 1968.

At the same time, the same fundamental idea provoked a simplified approach to the analysis of works. On the one hand, the scientific analysis of the content is often replaced by the so-called interpretation, i.e., the arbitrary fixation of subjective aesthetic impressions, when not objective knowledge of the laws governing the formation and functioning of a work of art is valued, but an originally expressed own attitude towards it. The work serves as a starting point for the interpreter, who reinterprets the work in its current context. On the other hand, the necessity and possibility of knowing a work in terms of its content is generally denied. The work is interpreted as a kind of purely aesthetic phenomenon, supposedly having no content, as a pure phenomenon of style.

This is largely due to the fact that, having outlined the meaningful and formal poles (the poetic "world of ideas", spiritual content and ways of expressing it), science has not yet been able to overcome, "remove" these contradictions, present a convincing version of "coexistence" contradictions. Throughout the history of literary thought, either hermeneutical oriented concepts have inevitably been actualized (that is, the work was interpreted in a certain sociocultural key; a hidden meaning was sought in it, the identification of which required an appropriate decoding methodology), or aesthetic, formalist schools and theories that study poetics (that is, , not the meaning of the works, but the means of conveying it). For some, the work was somehow a “phenomenon of ideas”, for others it was a “phenomenon of language” (accordingly, the work was considered mainly from the standpoint of either the sociology of literature or historical poetics).

The first include the “real criticism” of Russian revolutionary democrats of the 19th century, cultural-historical, spiritual-historical, psychoanalytic, ritual-mythological schools, Marxist (pan-sociological) literary criticism, post-structuralism. The second group includes the aesthetic theories of "art for art's sake", "pure art", the Russian "formal school", structuralism, aesthetic concepts that "serve" modernism and postmodernism.

But the cardinal question of the entire theory of literature - the question of the mutual representation of content in form and vice versa - not only was not resolved, but most often was not raised. Without rejecting the fundamental approach to the study of a work of art as an ideological education in nature, having a specific plan of content and a plan of expression, aesthetics and literary scholars are increasingly cultivating the idea of a multi-level aesthetic object. 3
Hartman, N. Aesthetics. M., 1958; Ingarden, R. Research in Aesthetics. M., 1962. Tyupa, V. I. The artistry of a literary work. Krasnoyarsk, 1987.

At the same time, the idea of the nature of the integrity of the work itself changes. Achievements in the field of general scientific methodology - in particular, the development of such concepts as structure, system, integrity - make the humanists also go from the macro to the micro level, while not forgetting about their integration. The development of dialectical thinking is becoming extremely relevant for all humanitarian disciplines. Obviously, only on this path can one achieve in-depth knowledge about the object of study, adequately reflect its properties.

An innovative methodological approach to a work of art as a holistic phenomenon began to be systematically developed relatively recently (among the first works of this kind, the already mentioned monograph by V.I. Tyupa should be mentioned). This approach is proving to be very, very productive and increasingly authoritative. In fairness, it should be noted that the first steps in this direction were taken by the spiritual-historical school (V. Dilthey, R. Unger), as well as Russian philological science in the 20s (the works of V.B. Shklovsky, V.V. Vinogradov, P. Sakulina and others). However, as a scientific theory, the deep observations expressed by scientists have not taken shape.

Awareness, on the one hand, of the fact that in the phenomenon under study all the historically passed stages of its formation are present in a collapsed form, and a non-scholastic, flexible interpretation of the moments of mutual transition of content into form (and vice versa), on the other hand, all this makes literary theorists change their minds. treat the object of scientific analysis. The meaning of the new methodological approach to the study of integral formations (such as personality, society, a work of art, etc.) lies, firstly, in the recognition of the fact that integrity is indecomposable into elements (we are talking about information structure integrity). What we have before us is not a system consisting of elements, but an integrity in which the interrelationships between the elements are fundamentally different. Each element of the whole, each "cell" retains all the properties of the whole. The study of the "cell" ("drop of the ocean") - requires the study of the whole; the latter is a multicellular, multilevel structure. Secondly (and here we are talking about essential content abstract information structure), in recognizing the fact that the nature of the phenomenon of artistry is adequately described by the language of integrity: a multi-level literary and artistic integrity arises when moral and philosophical (non-artistic) strategies turn into artistic strategies (into modes of artistry). In other words, integrity is a philosophical version of how problems personalities related to problems text.

In this work, the "cells of artistry" are consistently distinguished levels of a work of art, such as personacentric valency, pathos, behavioral strategies of a character, metagenre, gender, genre, as well as all style levels (situation, plot, composition, detail, speech, lexical-morphological level of the text, intonation-syntactic, artistic phonetics and artistic rhythm). Such an approach forces one to take a critical view of existing literary concepts, to interpret seemingly well-established categories in a new way.

First of all, what should be kept in mind artistic content, which can be transmitted only through a multi-level structure?

It seems to us that the basis of any artistic content is not just ideas in a sensually perceived form (in other words, an image). Ultimately, the image is also just a way of conveying specific artistic information. All this information is focused in a figurative personality concept(for the transmission of which are necessary modes of artistry, performing the function artistic typing strategies). This concept has become the central, supporting one in the proposed theory of a literary and artistic work. It is through the concept of personality that the writer reproduces his vision of the world, his worldview system.

It is obvious that the key concepts of the theory of the work - integrity, the concept of personality and others - are not actually literary criticism. The logic of solving literary issues forces one to turn to philosophy, psychology, and cultural studies. Since we are convinced that the theory of literature is nothing but the philosophy of literature, contacts at the intersection of sciences are seen not only as useful, but also inevitable and necessary.

Before talking about personality in literature, one should understand what a personality is in life and in science. The basis of modern ideas about personality was the ideas gleaned from the works of Z. Freud, E. Fromm, K. Jung, V. Frankl and others. etc. Since a person is an integral object, it is important to determine the interdependence in a person of psychophysiological and spiritual principles, conscious and unconscious. Finally, it seemed necessary to us to clarify the following problems, without solving which it is simply meaningless to raise questions about personality in literature: what is the content of individual consciousness, what is its structure? At the same time, we proceeded from the fact that individual consciousness is inextricably linked with social consciousness, one simply does not exist without the other.

It is in this vein of understanding that the personality is, from our point of view, the subject and object of aesthetic activity. A work of art in the proposed interpretation is a creative act of generating the concept of personality, reproduced with the help of special modes of artistry, “artistic typification strategies” (V.I. Tyupa). The main ones are: method (in unity typological And specific historical sides, that is, in the unity of personacentric valency and pathos, on the one hand, and the behavioral strategies of the character, on the other), metagenre, gender and, in part, genre. Style is already a figurative and expressive embodiment of the chosen strategies through the plot-compositional level, detail, speech, and, further, through the verbal levels of style (intonational-syntactic, lexico-morphological, phonetic, rhythmic).

Thus, if the premises of the stated concept are correct, we can approach the scientific and theoretical comprehension of literary truth, figuratively expressed by A.A. Blok in the article “The Fate of Apollon Grigoriev”: “The mental structure of a true poet is expressed in everything, down to punctuation marks.”

An innovative approach should ideally extend to all traditional problems without exception. As a result, many problems appear in a completely different light. Thus, the dichotomy of the concepts content - form loses its "absolute" character. In a multi-level structure, the content or formality of any level becomes relative: everything depends on the relationship with the higher and lower levels.

The problems of the genesis of the work and the related problems of literary traditions are also being rethought. Inheritance of such parameters of the concept of personality as, say, personacentrism or sociocentrism, it is impossible to put on a par with style borrowings. It is necessary to distinguish between the scope of their functioning.

An attempt is made to analyze the national as a factor of artistry in literature. We wanted to get away from the descriptive approach to the national specifics of the work and to reveal the deep foundations of this content level.

Of course, we are far from thinking that the concept being defended is flawless and exclusive. It is by no means aloof from various modern and previous schools and trends. We would like to synthesize the experience of such schools to the best of our ability. We are convinced that existing literary methodologies can and should be brought to a “common denominator”. Dialectical logic simply dictates such an approach. In essence, the whole difficulty lies in being really dialectical, so that real problems are adequately posed and comprehended. It seems that a truly dialectical methodology has not yet been introduced into literary criticism, which, on the way to the philosophy of literature, is in the initial stage of its formation.

1. The nature of artistic thinking and a work of art as an object of scientific study

If literature exists, does anyone need it?

In essence, such a paraphrase of the poet is a deep materialistic formulation of the question. Scientifically, the same question can be formulated as follows: why does a person's spirituality manifest itself (hence, it cannot but manifest itself) in the form of an art, opposite to a scientific one? After all, the spiritual content of a person can become the subject of scientific research. However, this was not enough for a person who took art as his "eternal companion".

Without affecting all the depths of the philosophical and aesthetic problems of verbal and artistic creativity, it is necessary to note some decisive circumstances. First of all, art, unlike science, uses a very special way of reproducing and, in a certain sense, cognizing reality - image, that is, concrete, sensible carrier of information about certain objects or phenomena. The image is single, moreover, it is unique, and due to its concreteness it is addressed to feelings.

But this is only half of what needs to be said about the nature of the image. The second half will contradict what has just been said. Behind unique the image shows through the universal, universal as a characteristic of these phenomena, - a characteristic that is fundamentally not reducible to sensually perceived information. In the image (here it is, the source of artistry!) there is not only a sensually perceived beginning, but also a supersensible beginning - information addressed not only to feelings (psyche), but also to abstract-logical thinking (consciousness).

How to call this “something” that is opposite to the image in its informational nature?

The supersensible principle, perceived by consciousness, but not by feelings, is called concept.

The image in this quality (image + concept) acts as a special language of culture, whose specialization is synthetic, ambivalent in relation to the "soul" (psyche) and "mind" (consciousness) information.

Science, including literary criticism, uses not images, but concepts, whose function is the designation of an entity that is maximally abstracted from individual features 1
In fact, between the polar categories of "concept - image" there are several more intermediate formations. In epistemological terms, the concept of "gradually" turns into its opposite - the image - through a series of stages. Among them, first of all, it should be noted ideas, signs, images-signs(and symbols-signs), actually images and finally artistic images(reaching the level symbol-images).// In fiction, we deal with images of different types. However, in order not to be distracted from the main concept, we deliberately do not focus on shades, concentrating from the entire “conceptual-figurative” spectrum on extreme polar categories. This is, of course, a simplification that can only be justified by the academic nature of the course.

Essence as such cannot be perceived by the senses at all, for it is perceived by abstract-logical thinking.

Concepts also act as special language of culture, whose specialization is to operate with a strictly defined scope of meanings, to describe processes and relationships perceived from the side of their essence. There can be no talk of any informational ambivalence in relation to concepts; they are "soulless" (supersensible), and therefore addressed to the "cold mind" (consciousness). Therefore, scientific works are almost devoid of emotions, which only "obscure" the essence. From concepts it is possible to build a chain of conclusions, hypotheses, theories, but it is impossible to create an image, something artistic. In the same way, it is impossible to state a scientific theory with the help of an image.

The principle of artistic typification in art is based on the property of reality to “respond” to an image, on its ability to reflect adequately not only with the help of concepts, but also images. The more an artistic image is individual, unique, the more it is able to convey the general, universal.

What has been said about the image is still more or less commonplace in the theory of art.

Much less often, researchers ask other at least important issues: why is “figurative thinking” possible at all”, which is the basis of artistic creativity, and, further, the corresponding perception of creativity - the reader's “co-creative empathy”?

Why is an image, unlike a concept, always “more than an image” (image + concept)? In what cases does the need for figurative thinking arise? What is the epistemological potential of such thinking? Why can't you do without it?

This kind of “figurative” (artistic) activity must be somehow explained from the point of view of the functioning of consciousness, which, on behalf of culture, “legitimately” represents human needs.

It has long been noted that personality outlook, that is, what is of decisive importance for literature is formed in the field of tension that arises between two poles: “world outlook” and “theoretical activity of consciousness” 4
For the presence of these aspects in the artist's worldview, see: Pospelov, G. N. Whole-system understanding ... S. 150.

If we translate the terminology into the language of philosophy, we are talking about the distinction between the psyche and consciousness. How do these categories relate, how do they interact?

Only by answering these fundamental non-literary questions, we will be able to understand the nature of imagery and integrity, we will be able to explain the laws of their occurrence and functioning.

Let's keep in mind that the question with which the literary theory begins is epistemological - not strictly literary or artistic! - nature.

Strictly speaking, it is not about images and concepts as such; the point is in the psyche and consciousness, which master the world in different ways, and therefore speak different languages. In order to understand, to adequately perceive the figurative language of literature, it is necessary to have an idea of what possibilities literature has in comprehending the world, what is the epistemological potential of literature.

We will start from the following fundamental position.

Mental, sensually perceived information is the basic basis for the existence of the psyche (from Gr. Psyche - soul) and serves as a tool fixtures person to the world.

What is the essence of adaptation as a type of relation to reality?

In the psychological sense, it is to see not what really is, but what you want to see (illusions to be taken for truth). In the scientific sense - to distort the objectively existing picture, to absolutize subjective perception. Adjustment requires a language of "emotionally compelling" imagery.

If a person is faced with a task know world (and not to adapt to it), then he is forced to turn to consciousness, which is able to give an objective idea of the world with the help of concepts.

Thus, a person who adapts and a person who learns are two different types attitudes towards the world, including oneself as a component of the universe. It is clear that these relations contradict each other. Abstract-logically perceived information is predisposed to systematization (this kind of information is structured according to the principle “from general to particular”), which ideally takes the form of a law. Knowledge is based on laws, which are the bread of science. As for adaptation, it becomes more effective the more the cult of "lawlessness" is professed - lack of system, chaos, unknowability of the world (including oneself). From the point of view of the "opportunist", the world and man are fundamentally unknowable. There is only one thing left: to believe in what you want to believe (to see not what really is, but what you want to see).

The picture becomes sharply more complicated if we take into account the following: the relations of adaptation and cognition, which contradict each other, are inextricably linked; moreover, they, as contradictory sides of a single whole, now and then "pass" into each other. They are easy to confuse.

It follows from this: to speak in the language of images means to adapt in part and to know in part. Moreover, verbal and artistic activity presupposes cognition to a degree comparable to scientific activity (it is no coincidence that many writers, especially novelists, are called philosophers). The language of fiction is ambivalent: the imperfection of the cognitive attitude is compensated by the power of the emotional impact.

Such is the epistemological niche of literature.

At the same time, in different genres and genres of literature, the adaptive-cognitive ratio is different. However, there is also a distinct cultural trend: the development of literature means the steady development of the cognitive attitude (along with the improvement of the adaptive attitude: feelings become more and more intelligent, and the mind acquires the qualities of sincerity).

Literature becomes a companion of a person who wants to discover a personality in himself. We will return to this thesis later. In general, it is worth noting that from the point of view of a holistic approach, it is impossible in one place, right here and now, to state everything related to one local problem, to exhaustively cover the issue or define a category. Simply because local problems, individual issues or categories in holistically organized scientific discourse does not exist. One “cell” (question, category) is always marked with the properties of the whole, and one can be understood only by keeping everything in mind.

Therefore, from time to time we will return to already “disassembled”, meaningful categories in a new context, which will constantly enrich the category in terms of content. The principle of relations “through a moment of the whole to comprehend the whole” (through a drop - to know the ocean) dictates just such a scientific strategy.

Thus, as a prerequisite for artistic creation, the relations of adaptation and cognition are, in principle, inseparable. In science, we rely on consciousness, which operates with entities, striving to eliminate emotions and experiences. In art, emotion contains thought; thought contains emotion. An image is a synthesis of consciousness and psyche, thoughts and feelings, abstract and concrete.

This seems to be the real basis of artistic creativity, which is possible only because consciousness and the psyche, being autonomous spheres, are at the same time inextricably linked. Reducing the image to thought (to the goal of concepts) is impossible: we will have to abstract ourselves from experiences, from emotions. To reduce the image to direct experience means to “not notice” the turnover of the psyche, its ability to be a fraught thought, that is, a set of concepts.

We have reason to talk about image integrity and, more broadly, about integrity as an objective premise of aesthetic attitude. From now on, by default, we will interpret the image as something originally integral; There is no “incomplete” image; a holistic image in our interpretation turns into a kind of tautology.

However, the integrity of the image is not just a quality that contributes to the sensory perception of a thought (concept). An image is also a way of existence of several concepts at the same time ( concept systems). The image is fundamentally polysemantic, it simultaneously contains several aspects (we will consider why this is possible in the next section). Science cannot afford this. Concepts reduce an object (phenomenon) to one aspect, to one moment, consciously abstracting from all the others. Science explores phenomena analytically with subsequent synthesis, working out all the moments of interconnection. Art thinks sums of meanings(“drops of the oceans”). Moreover, the presence of a sum of meanings is also an indispensable condition for the “life” of an artistic image. It is often difficult, if not impossible, to decide which meaning is true, which meaning is "more important." We will return to the problem of actualization of meanings throughout the work.

These are the two sides of the integrity of the artistic image: firstly, we are talking about the unity of two types of relations, adaptive and cognitive, which make up the integrity; secondly, we emphasize the synthetic character of the cognitive relation in the image.

But here it should be borne in mind that any artistically reproduced "picture of the world" is a reduction (it is impossible to reflect the whole world). In order to reproduce a reduced picture of the world, to create a "model of life", a specific artistic code is needed. This code should reduce the world in such a way that at the same time it would be possible to express the author's worldview.

The image itself cannot be such code. An artistic image (holistic, as we remember) with all its unique capabilities is still only a way, a means, a form.

What is the content of the image?

The answer, as it seems to us, can be only one: personality.

At least, the cognitive possibilities of a holistic approach dictate just such an answer.

So, the key words that characterize the methodological concept of "holistic analysis of literature" are information(more precisely, information structure) And personality,- words of clearly “non-literary” origin (we note this as a contradiction).

The key word for characterizing a special information structure, which ultimately becomes the subject of a holistic analysis, is contradiction. The oxymoronic concept of "holistic analysis" is contradictory through and through: "holistic" means indivisible, not amenable to division into parts; "analysis" means precisely the consistent and purposeful dismemberment of integrity.

We started with an emphasis on contradictions also because the specialist’s relationship with them is a constructive principle of any theory, and even more so of the theory of “holistic analysis”. Loyal attitude to contradictions helps to correctly form subject of study. The starting positions in literary criticism (and in its main section - the theory of literature, which is "responsible" for the methodology) are as follows.

On the one hand, a work of art is considered as a “phenomenon of ideas”, as a problematic and meaningful formation, which, being figurative in nature, requires rationalization: abstract-logical, scientific commentary (that is, the translation of figuratively expressed information into the language of concepts).

On the other hand, as a “phenomenon of style”, as a kind of aesthetically closed, self-identical whole. The first approach is often called interpretation, emphasizing its subjective-arbitrary character, not reducible, in essence, to any definite, scientifically substantiated laws (for a free, essayistic interpretation is not tied to the universal scale of higher cultural property). It is clear that the "meanings of reality", haphazardly scattered and giving rise to a work of art, turn out to be more relevant than the work itself. This is exactly the case when the conversation is about everything and nothing.

The second approach, emphasizing the problems of the text as such, seeks to completely abstract from reality, absolutizing the formal-sign principle that is really inherent in all cultural phenomena.

The cardinal problem facing the theory of literature (and indeed all aesthetics, of which the theory of literature is a section) is as follows: how moral-philosophical (non-artistic) strategies (meanings) are transformed into artistic strategies (into modes of artistry) - and, in ultimately in style?

How to reconcile, combine extreme methodological positions, each of which is to a certain extent consistent?

Without concepts information structure(holistically organized when it comes to artistic phenomena) and contradiction is indispensable here.

Obviously, the nature of the object of study of literary critics turned out to be much more complicated than it seemed until recently. The compromise between extreme points of view lies not in the middle, but in a different plane: it is necessary to holistically consider not the text and not the poetic "world of ideas", not artistic And non-fiction strategies taken in isolation, and piece of art, bearing, on the one hand, an ideal, spiritual content that can exist, on the other hand, only in an extremely complexly organized form - an artistic text.

A work of art becomes the subject of research.

To substantiate this thesis, some new concept is needed that explains how problems personalities related to text issues. Such a concept exists, and it can be conventionally denoted as holistic approach to artistic phenomena (work, thinking, creativity). To be short - holistic analysis. In essence, we are witnessing the formation and formation of, perhaps, the most original and promising literary theory to date.