III. Music in works.
II. The language of the works.
The works of Aeschylus were characterized by an elevated mythological, heroic style, full of metaphors from the sphere of war and weapons. It is no coincidence that Aeschylus himself called his tragedies "leftovers from Homer's table." Another source of his poetic style was oriental art. This is what Euripides reveals:
All the scamanders, and the fortresses, and on the shields ringing
Griffin eagles, copper and the brilliance of cephalopod speech, -
To understand them is the greatest work.
Indeed, the language of the works of Aeschylus is sublime, solemn, not always understandable. The language of Euripides is simple and understandable. His heroes do not "mumble and do not talk nonsense." When he goes out, he always speaks first of all about his origin. However, judging by one of the phrases of Dionysus, said in the first part, even Euripides' language is not very good. His works are characterized by naturalistic reduction (“ether is the apartment of Zeus”) and mannerisms (“paw of time”).
The prologues of the work are of particular importance. So, in Aeschylus, the hero says a phrase in which two synonyms mean the same thing, which, according to Euripides, is speech redundancy:
Inflow and return - what's the difference?
"To hear, to listen - here the identity is indisputable." Euripides prides himself on the fact that his prologues are free of superfluous words. He notices that Aeschylus is prone to repeating the same steady turns (“Are you almost in a hurry to help the weary?”)
Aeschylus notes, however, that Euripides' prologues are built in the same way, so they can all be continued with the line "lost the bottle." Of course, this is an exaggeration on the part of Aristophanes, not all tragedies are built according to a template, but only those that he chose for his work. But many are really similar in their construction:
The god Dionysus, who, holding the thyrsus in his hand
And covered with skin, in the brilliance of torches
Delphi is dancing... lost a bottle.
A mortal cannot be lucky in everything:
One, worthy, dies in poverty,
Another bad one... lost the bottle.
These are excerpts from the unsaved tragedies Ipsipylus and Sthenebeus.
We cannot say what kind of music accompanied the tragedies of the authors. But Aeschylus in comedy parodies with the help of a tambourine the exquisite mannerism in musical composition choral songs of Euripides. Euripides introduced monody, monophonic arias into the production, following the example of dithyrambic music
Authors who have worked in different eras, and different perceptions of the world. Aeschylus wrote shortly after the victory of the Greeks in the Battle of Marathon. His works glorify mythical kings, great deeds of people, brave heroes. This cannot be asked of him by Euripides, who claims that in his tragedies Aeschylus brought out people of arrogant, arrogant windbags. And Euripides spoke on simple topics, about familiar, closer life. His hero was the clever Theramenes, who was known among the ancients as an example of a dodgy, but unprincipled politician. He was even given the nickname "Feramen-turntable". Euripides considers it a merit that he introduced common sense into poetry. But Aeschylus believes that the works of Aeschylus had a bad influence on the Athenians. He claims in the comedy of Aristophanes that Euripides made reasonable, honest, truthful people scoundrels. People who read his works were heroes in their time, well done, did not weave squabbles, won wars. His works “Seven Against Thebes” and “Persians” were full of the spirit of war and inspired the Athenians with a desire for victory. The famous commander Lamah, who died during the days of the Sicilian expedition, was brought up on his works. As for Euripides, he brought, according to Aeschylus, the “slut” Phaedra (in the tragedy “Hippolytus”) onto the stage. The image of a woman in love is completely alien to the heroic work of Aeschylus. Aeschylus sees in the depiction of women in love on stage the decline of morality in Athens. He believes that they are unworthy of the image. But Euripides created a real psychological drama. He portrays the psychology of each of the characters. In the works of Euripides godless sayings were frequent, in comedy he even prays to gods other than Zeus. In the end, Dionysus uses the same sayings, choosing Aeschylus as the winner.
The comedy of Aristophanes "The Frogs" gives a very subjective description of the two greatest tragedians. In fact, this is a criticism of Euripides, whose work Aristophanes contrasted with Aeschylus. Of course, Aristophanes, as an educated person, understood that new times require new ideas and means. artistic expressiveness, therefore, he could not help but see the progressiveness of the dramaturgy of Euripides. On the other hand, Euripides' interest in inner world man, to the passions that overwhelm him and the tragic outcome of conflicts, to which the incompatibility of conflicting feelings leads, also destroyed the integrity of the moral foundations on which Athenian democracy was based, which preferred the public over the personal, like the philosophy of the sophists. Aristophanes in comedy is given a very detailed description their creative principles, their poetic style and staging features.
43. Everyday drama of Menander "Arbitration Court" and its use in
Roman literature ("Mother-in-law" Terence).
Brief retelling comedy by Menander "The Grouch". [Before history began, but had great importance. A rich young man named Kharisius raped a girl unknown to him on the feast of Tauropoly. In fact, he was supposed to marry this girl, but everything happened at night, Kharisy did not remember anything, and they did not recognize each other. Soon he married Pamphila, who was the dishonored one, but he and she did not remember. The husband left somewhere, and she gave birth to an illegitimate child. What to do? Husband will leave her after that! She decides to drop the baby. The servant of her husband Onesimus learns about this. He tells the owner everything. According to the laws of Athens, Charisios had the right to return Pamphyla to his parents, because he was deceived about the fact that she was a girl. But he does not dare to do this, but simply goes to his neighbor-friend Herestrat to drink and have fun]. This is where the comedy begins. Charisius is having fun at a party with a flutist named Gabrotonon, but she herself claims that he does not let her go to the box. Pamphila's father, Smikrin, not knowing anything about childbirth, comes to pick up his daughter from an unfaithful son-in-law, who only spends the dowry and does not pay attention to her. But Pamphila is a girl with character. She doesn't want to leave her husband. At this time, the shepherd Dove found the abandoned child. The child had rich gifts and a ring. He took the child, but soon realized that he had nothing to feed him. He left the gifts at home, but he wanted to give the child to someone. I met my friend Sirisk, a coal miner. Sirisk was a slave of Harestraat and begged for the child to be given to him. He gave. But then Sirisk began to beg him to give away rich things, so that if the baby's parents were found, they could identify him. He doesn't want to. Then they ask Smikrin to judge them. Smikrin, having heard what was the matter, leaves the gifts and the child to Sirisk. At this time, Onesimus sees the ring in the hands of Sirisk. He declares that this is the ring of his master Charisius, and he lost it at the Tauropolis festival. He takes the ring, but does not dare to show it to Kharisiya, because then he will have to acknowledge paternity of an unknown child. Geter Gabr comes out of the house of Herestrat O tonon and sees Onesimus with a ring. He tells her everything, and she remembers that in the Tauropolia, where she was, one girl was raped. She knows her face, but does not know her name. She suggests that Charisius be tested first: to pretend that she was this girl in the Tauropolia, and then, when he confesses his paternity, to find the mother. And so she does. Then she, along with baby goes and meets Pamfila, whom she recognizes as her mother. Smikrin is trying to take her daughter from her son-in-law, who, it turns out, still has a child from a hetaera, but she replies that she will not leave her husband in trouble. Charisius overhears and, touched, realizes that he is unworthy of his wife. Here Gabrotonon announces to him who the mother of the child is. There is general relief. Gabroton, as a savior, is granted freedom. Brief retelling comedy Terence "Mother-in-law". Recently married Pamfil and Filumena are forced to part for a while. During their marriage, Pamphilus, still in love with his ex girlfriend Bacchides does not touch his wife. Pamfil leaves on business on Imbros, and Filumena has a premature baby. The returned husband finds childbirth in the house of his wife's parents, to whom she returned, allegedly not getting along with her mother-in-law. Pamphilus suspects his wife of treason and no longer wants to see her, and he returns to his old girlfriend, hetera Bacchis. He does not betray his wife's secrets to anyone and says that he is angry with her because she does not respect her mother-in-law Sostrata. Sostrata is ready to go to the village, if only the young people were happy. Pamphila's father Laches and the bride's father Phidipp are also trying to resolve the conflict. This is also achieved by the hetaera Bacchis, who manages to establish that the ring that Philumena wears was given to her by Pamphilus, who committed violence against her before marriage, during a holiday when he was drunk. The comedy ends happily, the child finds a father, and all the characters, including hetaerae, turn out to be kind and noble.
Menander - the last poet that Attica gave birth to. He was born in Athens in 342 BC. and lived long life until 293. He worked in the Hellenistic era. This playwright became the creator of the neo-Attic comedy (4th-3rd centuries BC). In fact, this genre can be described as an everyday drama with elements of tragedy and comedy. Menander staged over a hundred such comedies, but his contemporaries did not like him. He belonged to the highest aristocracy, was the ancestor of Solon. After the fall Athenian democracy his close friend Demetrius of Phaler became governor of Macedon in Greece.
Menander created plays of a conciliatory nature. Comedy no longer expressed public problems as it was under Aristophanes. The author was worried about the idea of leaving for privacy, he promoted the principles of humanity - denied cruel treatment with slaves. It was a soft, humane, intelligent position. It reflected what was happening in Attica. People were no longer interested in politics and delved into private life. Menander was also a follower of Thales, who pursued the idea of equality of all citizens in the state.
Dramaturgy Menander - heiress ancient comedy and the tragedy of Euripides. His comedies largely continue the traditions of the city fun game at the feast of Dionysus, because despite all the trials that lie in wait for the heroes, the end of the play is always happy. The constant motives of Menander - violence against a girl, throwing children, recognition - were already used by Euripides. But in Euripides these motifs are connected with everyday life, while in Menander they are transferred to everyday life.
The everyday characters of Menander, whom he so masterfully depicted in his comedy, were due to phenomena public life. People are tired of wars, strife and upheavals. His characters are also without high demands. Their ideal is a calm family life in abundance. In his works there was no purely comic, there was a mixture of comic and tragic. The author's monologue and dialogue is everyday speech. There are no archaic expressions here. The choir is gradually leaving the comedy. Thus, in the "Court of Arbitration" there are choral scenes only at the end of the actions, between the acts.
Comedy "Arbitration court". It was preserved by about two thirds. The date of its production is unknown, but by skill psychological characteristics scientists put it at the end of Menander's work. First of all, this comedy is distinguished by a masterful delineation of characters. Menander created a whole gallery of types, which were then actively used in world literature. But what is important, he managed to enrich typical images to make them alive and authentic. These are images such as:
Old man. Thrifty, grouchy father of a girl. Greedy. In the "Arbitration Court" this role is played by Smikrin father of Pamphila. Having learned about the adventures of his son-in-law, he decides to take his daughter home, because he is afraid that Charisius will spend all the giving on entertainment and getters.
Hetera. An educated woman. She knew how to carry on a conversation, she was talented, smart, educated, head and shoulders above ordinary domestic Greek women. In the Arbitration Court, the role of the hetaera is played by Gabrotonon- flutist. She is a typical comedian, but her individual traits become kindness, honesty and love of freedom. She is not only smart, but also cunning. She knows how to arrange so that the lovers are together, and she is given freedom. She actively participates in the action and contributes to the fastest resolution of the conflict. In relation to Pamphila, she behaves nobly. At first she wanted to use the foundling for her own purposes, but then she restored the family.
"Arbitration" was considered a classic example of a new comedy. At the center of comedy unusual story married couple, in front of whose house the action is played out. It takes place near Athens.
Important ideas: When Pamphila's child is picked up by Sirisk, he claims the child's rights to what was planted with him. For the first time in comedy, the idea that an abandoned child has rights was put forward. The essence of comedy is that the happiness of people depends on themselves, and the fate of a person, not free from accidents, is always determined by his character. This is also said by the servant Onesimus, who asserts that all the cares of the gods about people come down to the distribution of characters.
household comedy, although it was realistic, was completely artificial. Greek society was losing control over its own destiny. It remains to build castles in the air Comedy is moving further and further away from reality.
Show off: Aristophanes of Byzantium said: “Menander and life, which of you imitated whom? ”
Subsequent use in Roman and European literature . Menander is the ancestor of everyday drama, which then passed into Roman literature. His comedies are characterized by 5 acts, developed intrigue with various motives: the kidnapping of a girl, an abandoned child, memory loss. Chance plays a huge role in Menander's comedies. It is the case that helps to resolve the conflict. Such a solution to the conflict was characteristic of subsequent popular literature.
Roman comedians made extensive use of Menander's plays, especially Terentius, who was nicknamed "Half-Menander" by Caesar. But the Roman writers treated the sources so arbitrarily that it is absolutely impossible to find out the originality of the Greek originals from Latin alterations.
Publius Terence (190-159 BC)- was a freed slave of Senator Terentius, brought to Rome from Carthage. He received his education in Rome, where he became acquainted with neo-Attic comedy and began to write his plays based on its plots. He showed great interest in the work of Menander (4 of his comedies date back to Menander). He not only drew plots, but also sought to recreate the subtle Menandrean characters and the humane orientation of his plays. Terentius created imitative comedy. He conveyed not only the plot, but the characters and style of the Neo-Attic drama. The plot of his "Mother-in-Law" is not too different from the "Arbitration Court". He sought only to give the works of Menander life-like credibility. If the heroes of Menander are ideal types, then the heroes of Terence are individuals closer to reality. So, in the Mother-in-Law there is a scene between the slave Parmenon and the hetero Filotida, where she asks him to tell him about the breakdown of Pamphilus's marriage, since he is the former lover of her friend Bacchida. At first, Parmenon refuses, but she tells him: “You yourself want to tell me about this!” And he sighed: “Yes, this is my biggest vice.” Like the works of Menander, Terence's plays were not very popular.
If in the previous period the main thing for the Romans was state activity, now the increasing importance in the life of the Romans began to acquire classes during leisure hours, literature, philosophy. Cultural affairs were dealt with privately, at home, and not in the square, as was customary in Greece. The work of Terence was a reflection of such a circle of educated nobles. Traditional Roman morality is being revised, the life of the Greeks becomes the ideal.
In the prologue to the work "Mother-in-law" Terentius relates that the audience disrupted the performance twice, leaving the theater to watch the rope dancers or the games of the gladiators. Although Terence's comedies are intended for the few, his achievements in characterization are significant and have not gone unnoticed in the history of literature. Terentius tried to convey to the audience the subtlety of Menander's characters and the elegance of the language of the neo-Attic comedy. In his plays there are no rough witticisms, areal expressions, buffoonery. His plays belong to the genre of “touching dramas”, “tearful comedy”. Unlike Menander, there are more philosophical moments in the play.
The plots of Terentius are drawn from the neo-Attic comedy. In his plays, young men in love, hetaerae, free girls, strict fathers, obliging slaves, pimps also act as heroes. But, like Menander, he seeks to enrich typical images with individual features. One of central characters of his works is a young man who is in the power of his ardent feelings, choosing for himself a line of behavior and reflecting on which road he should take. The problem of education turns out to be one of the main ones for the poet.
Interestingly, the mother-in-law in the comedy is not at all evil. And kind and in everything seeks to reconcile the young spouses.
Misha
44. Hellenistic epic of Apollonius of Rhodes "Argonautica".
Brief retelling:
The poem begins with a list of heroes that Jason collects from all over Greece to go after the Golden Fleece - the skin of a golden ram, on which Prince Frix once fled from Greece (he fled from the people excited to kill by his stepmother Frix). The heroes were gathered, Arg built a ship with 50 oars, sat down and sailed across the Aegean Sea. We ended up on the island of Lemnos, where a tribe like the Amazons lives. We lived there for some time, then went to the Sea of Marmara and made our first stop there. Hylas, a friend of Hercules, went to the coastal forest, bent down to the stream and was dragged into the water by the nymphs. Hercules ran to save him. The rest thought what to do, then a huge head appeared from the sea and said to leave Hercules and swim on. At the second parking lot in the Sea of Marmara, Dioscurus Polideuces, the son of Zeus and the Argonaut, fought with the local leader and the son of Poseidon, who loved to wet the aliens in a fistfight. The leader lost, his tribe was beaten and sailed on. The third station was also in the Sea of Marmara, and there they saved the old king-soothsayer Phineus from the harpies, sending on them (the harpies) some winged Boreads. Phineus explained to them how to sail on. Further on, it turned out to be what is now called the Bosphorus Strait, and then it was a gap between two wandering rocks. On the advice of Phineus, they launched a dove, and she managed to slip through, having lost several feathers from her tail. This means that we will pass, the Argonauts decided, poked their head in and, not without the help of Athena, passed, leaving several planks from the stern in the gap. The rocks froze and became the shores of the Bosphorus. In the Black Sea they meet different lands (Amazon tribes, residences of Apollo and Artemis, nests of copper birds, etc.). In Colchis, they ask Aphrodite for help, and she tells Eros to fall in love with the daughter of the local king Medea in Jason. Jason performs impossible tests from King Eet, with the help of Medea, kidnaps the guarded dragon The Golden Fleece, loads it (and Medea at the same time) onto the ship and sails away. On the way they are overtaken by the son of Eet with his people, they kill him and swim to Circe (western part mediterranean sea) to atone for sin. Then they sail almost along the route of Odysseus (the mother of Achilles Thetis helps them jump over Scylla and Charybdis on a sea wave, and the sirens are drowned out by the music of the Argonaut Orpheus), and in Theakia they are overtaken by the second chase from Colchis. The king of the feacians decides that Medea should be given away if she is not yet Jason's wife, and at night they secretly celebrate the wedding in the cave. In the end, a storm runs them aground in Africa, they take the ship in hand and 12 days and nights go through the desert. Then they fall into an oasis and, by the dead snake and the destroyed rocks, they understand that Hercules has already been here. Finally, they arrive at their starting point and go home. This is where the action of the poem ends.
Necessarily creates it for someone, assuming that it will be read, listened to, taken away and appreciated. Art is dialogical, it is always the interaction of at least two - the creator and the viewer. Capturing in artistic images the topics that concern him, raising subtle feelings and impressions about something from the depths of his soul, the artist offers his work topics for reflection, empathy or debate, and the role of the viewer is to understand, accept, comprehend them. That is why perception artwork- this is a serious work associated with both mental and spiritual activity, sometimes requiring special training and special aesthetic, cultural and historical knowledge, then the work opens up, its scope expands, demonstrating the depth of the artist's personality and worldview.
Kinds visual arts
Image art is the most ancient view creative activity of man, accompanying him for thousands of years. Even in the prehistoric era, he painted animal figures, endowing them with magic power.
The main types of fine arts are painting, graphics and sculpture. In their work, artists use various materials and techniques, creating artistic images of the surrounding world in a very special way. Painting uses for this all the richness of colors and shades, graphics - only the play of shadows and strict graphic lines, sculpture creates three-dimensional tangible images. Painting and sculpture, in turn, are divided into easel and monumental. easel works are created on special machines or easels for chamber display at exhibitions or in the halls of museums, and monumental works paintings and sculptures adorn the facades or walls of buildings and city squares.
The types of fine arts are also decorative and applied arts, which often act as a synthesis of painting, graphics and sculpture. The art of decorating household items is sometimes distinguished by such invention and originality that it loses its utilitarian function. Household items created talented artists, take pride of place at exhibitions and in the halls of museums.
Painting
Painting still occupies one of the priority places in artistic creativity. This is an art that can do a lot. With the help of a brush and paints, it is able to convey most fully all the beauty and diversity visible world. Each image created by the artist is not only a reflection of external reality, it contains deep inner content, feelings, emotions of the creator, his thoughts and experiences.
Color and light are the two main expressions in painting, but there are many techniques for doing the work. oil gouache, pastel, tempera. TO painting techniques also include mosaic and stained glass art.
Graphic arts
Graphics is a type of fine art, which, in comparison with painting, does not seek to convey the entire colorful fullness of the surrounding world, its language is more conditional, symbolic. Graphic image- is a pattern created by a combination of lines, spots and strokes of predominantly one black color, sometimes with limited use of one or more more additional colors- most often red.
It is widely believed that there are no fundamental differences between the ways of depicting reality in folklore and in fiction. And here and there the reality is depicted equally true and truthful. So, for example, M. M. Plisetsky, in his book on the historicism of Russian epics, does not agree with those who claim that the epics depict not the events of a particular era, but its aspirations.
Why, he asks, historical events are depicted, for example, in songs about the capture of Kazan, about Stepan Razin, why "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" can correctly depict the campaign of the Polovtsy against the Russians, why L. N. Tolstoy in the novel "War and Peace" or A. N. Tolstoy in the novel "Peter the Great" could depict many historical figures and events, but the epic cannot do this? “Why is this not allowed by epics?” the author exclaims. So, there is no fundamental difference in the depiction of reality between epics, historical songs, "A word about Igor's regiment" and historical novels XIX-XX centuries.
This is an opinion in which the author does not take into account either the artistic means of the genres of folklore and literature, or the social environment that creates art, or the centuries historical development people, despite its obvious and somewhat primitive anti-historical nature, is quite typical for a number of modern works. The same truthful depiction of reality, as for epics, is allowed even for a fairy tale.
In fairy tales, for example, they look for reflections of those forms of class struggle that took place in the 19th century. So, E. A. Tudorovskaya writes the following about a fairy tale: “The age-old class enmity between the oppressors-feudal lords and the oppressed people is truly shown.” But when it comes to examples, the following turns out to be: “Baba Yaga, the “mistress” of the forest and animals, is portrayed as a real exploiter, oppressing her animal servants ...”. According to E. A. Tudorovskaya, the class struggle in a fairy tale acquires a “kind of fiction”. "It somewhat limits the realism of the fairy tale."
Thus, a fairy tale is realistic, but it has one drawback - it is fiction, and this reduces, limits its realism. The logical consequence of such an opinion is the assertion that if there were no fiction in the fairy tale, it would be better.
Such curious opinions would not be worth mentioning if the point of view of E. A. Tudorovskaya was single. But others share it. So, V.P. Anikin writes: “Direct life socio-historical experience is the source truthful image reality in oral art people." Anikin sees the class struggle in fairy tales about animals.
He declares them to be allegories. "Social allegorism is the most important property folk tales about animals, and without this allegorical meaning, the people would not need a fairy tale. Thus, the people do not need a fairy tale as such.
All that is needed is an allegorical social meaning. The author is trying to prove that the wolf is a "people's oppressor". The bear belongs to the same oppressors. In the realm of a fairy tale to the oppressors of the people social order attributed to Koschei and other antagonists of the hero.
Justice demands to be noted that in the book of V.P. Anikin there are many correct observations. But in the years when this book was written, such concepts were considered to some extent mandatory and progressive.
We will not go into further polemics, but we will try to approach the question of how reality is depicted in folklore, what means it has for this, and what are the specific differences between folklore and realist literature, not by abstract speculation, but by studying the material itself.
We will see that folklore has specific laws of its poetics, different from the methods of professional artistic creativity. The question should have been posed historically; however, before doing so, it is necessary to get a clear picture of what is available today.
We will consider folklore monuments according to the records of the 18th-20th centuries, pushing the historical study of the process of composition and development to the future. We will consider only Russian folklore. Such a descriptive study must be done before beginning a historical-comparative study.
There are patterns that are common to all or many genres of folklore, and there are patterns that are specific only to individual genres. We will consider the issue of genres, by no means striving for an exhaustive description of them, but confining ourselves to the problem of the relationship of folklore to reality.
We will begin our study with the fairy tale as a genre in which the question of relation to reality is comparatively simple. At the same time, it is the fairy tale that makes it possible to reveal certain general laws of narrative genres in general.
Speaking about a fairy tale, it is necessary to recall the statement of V. I. Lenin: "In every fairy tale there are elements of reality ...". The most cursory glance at the tale is enough to convince oneself of the correctness of this assertion. IN fairy tales there are fewer of these elements, in other types it is more.
Such animals as the fox, the wolf, the bear, the hare, the rooster, the goat, and others, are precisely the animals with which the peasant has to deal; peasants and women, old men and old women, stepmother and stepdaughter, soldiers, gypsies, laborers, priests and landowners passed from life into a fairy tale.
The fairy tale reflects both prehistoric reality and medieval customs and mores. social relations feudal times and times of capitalism. All these elements of reality are carefully studied by Soviet and foreign science and there is already a very significant literature on them.
However, looking closer at Lenin's words, we see that Lenin does not at all assert that a fairy tale consists entirely of elements of reality. He says only that they "are" in it. As soon as we turn to the question of what these realistic men, women, soldiers or other characters do in a fairy tale, that is, we turn to plots, we will immediately plunge into the world of the impossible and invented.
It is enough to take a pointer fairy tales Aarne-Andreev and open at least the section “Novelistic tales” there, in order to immediately make sure that this is so. Where in life are these jesters who deceive everyone in the world and are never defeated? Are there such clever thieves in life who steal eggs from under a duck or a sheet from under a landowner and his wife? Is it so in life that obstinate wives are tamed, as in a fairy tale, and are there such fools in the world who look down the barrel of a gun to see how a bullet flies out? There is not a single plausible plot in the Russian fairy tale.
We will not go into details, but will focus on just one typical example as an example. This is the tale of the ill-fated dead. IN in general terms the matter proceeds as follows. The fool accidentally kills his mother: she falls into a trap or falls into a hole that the fool dug in front of the house.
Sometimes, however, he kills her intentionally; she hides in a chest to find out what the fool is talking about with his family, and he knows it and pours boiling water over the chest. He puts his mother's corpse in a sleigh, gives her a hoop or a bottom, a comb and a spindle, and rides. Towards the lord's troika rushes. He does not turn off the road, and he is knocked over.
The fool cries that his mother, the royal goldsmith, has been killed. He is given a hundred rubles compensation. He goes on and now puts the corpse in the cellar to the priest; in his hands he gives his dead mother a jug of sour cream and a spoon. Popadya thinks she is a thief and hits her on the head with a stick. The fool again receives a hundred rubles compensation. After that, he puts her in a boat and lowers her down the river. The boat runs into the fishermen's nets.
The fishermen hit the corpse with an oar, it falls into the water and drowns. The fool cries that his mother drowned. He also receives a hundred rubles from the fishermen. He comes home with the money and tells his brothers that he sold his mother in the city at the market. Brothers kill their wives and take them to be sold. The gendarmes take them to prison, and the property of the brothers goes to the fool. With this property and the money brought, he begins to live in clover.
There is another version of this tale, which, however, can be considered a different tale. Here things are a little different. The man's wife treats her lover. Husband is watching.
While she goes to the cellar for oil, the husband kills her lover, and puts a pancake in his mouth so that they think he choked. Then the tricks with the corpse begin, which may partially coincide with the previous version, partially have a different shape.
In this case, the corpse must be disposed of in order to dump the suspicion of murder from oneself. A man leans a corpse against the house where the wedding feast is taking place, and begins to swear. The guests jump out, thinking that the man leaning against the wall was cursing, and hit him on the head. Seeing him dead, they get frightened and, in order to get rid of the dead man, they tie him on horseback to a horse and let him go.
The horse runs into the forest and spoils the hunter's traps. The hunter beats the dead man and thinks he killed him. He puts the corpse in the boat, and the action ends, as in the previous version: the unfortunate dead man falls into the water from the blow of the fisherman, and the corpse disappears.
If a contemporary Soviet writer were to write a story about how her mother was killed and how the murderer later used the corpse to extort money, then no publishing house would publish such a story, and if it were published, it would cause justified indignation of readers.
Meanwhile, the tale does not cause any indignation among the people, despite the fact that the peasants treat the dead with some special reverence. This tale is popular not only among Russians, but among many European nations. It has penetrated even to the Indians of North America.
Why could such an outrageous plot become popular? This was possible only because this tale is a hilarious farce. Neither the narrator nor the listener relates the story to reality. The researcher can and should refer it to reality and determine which aspects of everyday life gave rise to this plot, but this already applies to the field of not artistic perception, but scientific. This is not reduced, limited or fairy-tale realism, this is not an allegory or a fable, this is a fairy tale.
We dwelled on this example in such detail because it is indicative and typical of the question of the relation of a fairy tale to reality.
A fairy tale is a deliberate and poetic fiction. It is never presented as reality. “A fairy tale is a fold, a song is a true story,” says the proverb. "A fairy tale warehouse, the song is red in tune." Having finished the story, they say: “The whole fairy tale, you can’t lie anymore.” IN modern language the word "fairy tale" is a synonym for the word "lie".
But what then attracts a fairy tale, if the depiction of reality is not its goal? First of all, she attracts with the unusualness of her story. Inconsistency with reality, fiction as such delivers special pleasure.
In fairy tales, reality is deliberately turned inside out, and this is all their charm for the people. True, the extraordinary takes place in fiction.
IN romantic prose it is stronger (the novels of Walter Scott, Hugo), in realistic it is weaker (Chekhov). In literature, the extraordinary is portrayed as possible, evoking emotions of horror, or admiration, or surprise, and we believe in the possibility of what is portrayed.
In folk prose, the extraordinary is such that in fact it would be impossible in real life. True, in everyday fairy tales in most cases there is no violation of the laws of nature. Everything that is told, in fact, could have been. But still the events that are told are so extraordinary that they could never have happened in reality, and this is what excites interest.
V.Ya. Propp. Poetics of folklore - M., 1998
One of the image methods surrounding reality means of graphics is the so-called realistic method. It is based on the position of the artist's correct vision and understanding of reality. The realistic method helps to master the correct rules and methods of depiction by means of graphics, since it is very difficult for an artist to convey the whole idea in an artistic image without having certain skills and abilities in his arsenal. The image made using the realistic method is understandable and at the same time figurative for the viewer. Difficult to define without imagery ideological concept work of art and, in general, what is depicted on it. Realistic methods of depicting the surrounding reality include methods such as lengthy analysis of nature(long drawing method) and short sketch method(sketch method). Let's consider each in more detail.
The method of long-term analysis of nature involves a deep and serious study of the laws of the image of a form in space (ie, on a plane). It is based on the structural regularity of the forms of nature, the rules and methods of image on a plane according to the laws of perspective, as well as theoretical knowledge of optics and anatomy. All this helps the artist to see behind the external signs of the object its hidden structure and characteristics, as well as the laws of the structure of the form. He consciously looks at nature, analyzes and depicts it in accordance with its own laws of structure.
Realistic methods require that the form of an object or object be depicted correctly and expressively, that the depicted delight and capture the viewer, and upon direct detailed examination, convince him that everything is depicted correctly and accurately. One has only to look at the works of great artists and compare them with mediocre works, you can see that at first glance they do not differ more or less. However, upon closer examination, one can see that in a mediocre picture the image of the form does not look convincing enough, there are violations in proportions, perspective phenomena, in distortions of anatomical proportions. human body. Upon careful examination of the works of great masters, on the contrary, all the laws of image construction begin to admire with their delightful persuasiveness, starting from the shape of objects, and ending with anatomy and the laws of chiaroscuro. The more you look at the work brilliant artist, the more you begin to admire the knowledge and skill of the great artist.
The method of realistic art, the method of realistic reflection of reality, is laid down in the period academic drawing from nature. At first, the student accurately copies everything that he sees in nature, then begins to consciously discard small, insignificant details, focusing on the main thing, and, finally, creates artistic image nature. Speaking about the method of realistic reflection of reality, Goethe wrote: “I have never contemplated nature with a poetic purpose. I began by drawing it, then I studied it scientifically in such a way as to understand natural phenomena accurately and clearly. So, little by little, I learned nature by heart, in all its smallest details, and when I needed this material as a poet, it was all at my disposal and there was no need for me to sin against the truth.
In order to convincingly and truthfully depict nature in his work, the artist needs to carefully and carefully study it, note, highlight its most characteristic features, and during the period of work on the picture, check more than once whether everything was convincingly and correctly conveyed in the image. The artist approaches the artistic image in realistic art by comparing his image with nature, by checking and clarifying the structure of the form, position this subject in space, lighting, etc. Of course, drawing from nature alone does not yet enable the artist to fully solve the creative concept of the composition. Here both a great deal of creative work and a deeper, more comprehensive study of the method of creative work are needed. And yet the drawing from nature in creative work the artist occupies a dominant role, and sometimes influences the further solution of the entire composition. So, for example, the search for a compositional solution for Savrasov's painting "The Rooks Have Arrived" shows how studies from nature gradually changed the artist's original compositional intent. First, the artist gives compositional solution pictures as they saw them for the first time in nature. A new sketch from nature (from a different point of view) suggests to the artist a different solution to the composition. Now the birch trunks are in the center of attention, for the sake of which the artist lengthens the vertical format of the picture, slightly raises the horizon line. Melt water is still in the foreground, the church is located strictly in the middle. However, further observations and field sketches radically change original intention artist. The horizon line runs along the center of the picture, the melt water moves to the lower right corner, and the birch trees also move to the right. However, a new sketch from nature still does not fully satisfy the artist, he continues to look for a more emotional solution to the composition, which he eventually finds. Thus, thanks to sketches from nature, the artist each time found a new, more interesting point of view, a more expressive and interesting solution to the composition. And we know that only a careful study of nature, excellent mastery of drawing allowed the artist to create such a wonderful masterpiece, from which everyone is delighted, as from wildlife. The method of drawing from life is a process of knowing reality. Method scientific knowledge in drawing it comes down to the fact that the student of drawing receives specific knowledge about the regularities of the structure of the form of nature.
The second method of depicting the surrounding reality is sketch method transmits general impression from nature, the most important and essential without working out the details: characteristic proportions, movement, individual characteristics. Sketches are called quick, concise, small sketches. In order to create, an artist must know life, learn to think independently, analyze, be able to observe, accumulate plastic motives. All this is acquired only as a result of constant sketching.
Observation is especially necessary for an artist. This is the main quality of the master of fine arts, characteristic every artist. Observation makes it possible to notice interesting moments in life, important phenomena, processes that are the content and basis of a work of art. Without observation, the artist is not able to create an expressive artistic image, independently compose a composition, or simply come up with a particular plot. Without observation, it is impossible to independently find figurative motif in the surrounding reality. The implementation of the sketch acquires the main importance in education creative attitude to the image process, the ability to find methods and means to achieve expressiveness and figurativeness. The sketch material serves as the starting material for creating graphic and pictorial compositions.
The order of execution of any sketch is subject to the general mandatory principles of the process of any image (long or short-term): from general to particular, from large, main masses to smaller, secondary ones, while maintaining the impression of integrity. First, you should decide its composition, the location of one or more drawings on the sheet, taking into account the "sound" of each sketch and the sheet as a whole. A sketch differs from a drawing in its great summation, conciseness of perception. The artist does not analyze the object of drawing so much as creates a graphic expression of the object based on the knowledge he already has about it, testing his ideas in direct observation. This is important in figurative drawing. Proportions, movement and character - these are the properties of nature that are conveyed in the sketch. If all these conditions are met, then the sketch may have independent artistic value.
