Initially, the phrase "Natural School" 1 was used by the editor of the newspaper "Northern Bee" and the magazine "Son of the Fatherland" F.V. ordinary people. Belinsky, in polemical fervor, objecting to Bulgarin, in contrast to him, assigned to the expression "natural school" positive value, believing that "low pictures" should become the content of literature. Thus, he legitimized the name of the critical movement created by Gogol. He attributed A. I. Herzen, N. A. Nekrasov, I. S. Turgenev, I. A. Goncharov, F. M. Dostoevsky, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, V. I. Dahl to the “natural school” (pseudonym Kazak Lugansky), V. A. Sollogub, D. V. Grigorovich, I. I. Panaev, E. P. Grebenka.
Organizationally, representatives of the "natural school" were not united. They were connected by creative attitudes, joint work in magazines, almanacs, personal contacts.
One of the brightest figures was N. A. Nekrasov. He possessed outstanding appearance, undoubted business qualities and rightly considered a leader. Nekrasov edited two almanacs about the life and customs of St. Petersburg, together with I. I. Panaev became the owner and editor of the Sovremennik magazine.
Participants literary movement united creative enthusiasm, an interested analysis of the influence of social mores on a person, a deep interest in the fate of representatives of the lower and middle classes. The views and work of the writers of the new direction met with criticism from official journalism.
The aesthetic and artistic attitudes of the writers of the "natural school" were embodied primarily in the works included in two famous compilation"Physiology", which were successful with readers.
The so-called "physiology" was already known in European countries. Their "prototypes" were moralistic essays. “Physiology” flourished especially widely in France (for example, the almanac “The French in their own image”, reminiscent of the collection “Ours, copied from nature by Russians” published in Russia). Many writers started with "physiology" and did not leave this genre. So, Balzac owns the essays "Grisette", "Provincial", "Monograph on Rentier", "History and Physiology of Parisian Boulevards". French literature, unlike Russian, also knew the parodic version of "physiology" ("Physiology of candy", "Physiology of champagne").
In terms of genre, "physiology" most often consisted of essays, small works of descriptive and analytical content. Reality was depicted in a variety of situations (by the way, there was no detailed plot) through a variety of social, professional, ethnographic, and age types. The essay was that operational genre that made it possible to quickly fix the state of affairs in society, accurately, photographically (as they said then, “daguerreotype”) to capture faces new to literature. Sometimes this happened to the detriment of artistry, but in the air of that time, in the aesthetic atmosphere, the ideas of combining art with science soared, and it seemed that beauty could be sacrificed for the sake of the truth of “reality”.
One of the reasons for such an attitude to the world and to art was that in the 30s and 40s XIX years century in European science there was an interest in a practical (positive) direction, natural science experienced an upsurge. Russian, as well as Western European, writers sought to transfer the methods of physiological science into literature, to study life as a kind of organism, to become "physiologists of society."
The “physiologist” writer was understood as a true natural scientist who explores in contemporary society, mainly in middle and higher spheres, different kinds and subspecies. He describes with almost scientific accuracy the habits, living conditions, and environment that are regularly observed. Therefore, compositionally physiological essays were usually based on a combination of a collective portrait and everyday sketches. It was believed that literature should consider the laws of the life of society as an organic body. The writer of the 40s was called upon to dissect it, to demonstrate an artistic and at the same time analytical "section" in different cultural and historical conditions and with different parties. So, in Nekrasov's "Petersburg Corners", included in the first two-volume almanac "Physiology of Petersburg" (1844-1845), the topography of the "bottom" of the city unfolds: garbage pits, dirty cellars, closets, stinking yards - and their clogged, crushed by poverty, misfortunes , downtrodden inhabitants.
And yet the character northern capital is explored in the "Physiology of Petersburg" primarily through the gallery of representatives of certain professions. Here, for example, is the beggar organ-grinder from the essay by D. V. Grigorovich, whose hurdy-gurdy feeds a whole family; here is a janitor who has become the guardian of not only cleanliness, but also order (V. I. Dal. “Petersburg Janitor”).
In addition to essays on different professions, “physiologists” often describe a certain place - a part of the city, a theater, a market, a stagecoach, an omnibus, where a diverse audience gathers (“Petersburg Corners” by N. A. Nekrasov, “Notes of a Zamoskvoretsky Resident” by A. N. Ostrovsky, “Moscow Markets” I. T. Kokoreva).
Writers were also attracted by customs, traditions and habits. Such essays described the behavior and morals of the public during, for example, tea drinking, weddings or on a holiday (“Tea in Moscow”, “Wedding in Moscow”, “Team Sunday” by I. T. Kokorev).
In addition to reviewing professions, certain places, customs and habits, "physiologists" revealed to the reader the hierarchy of society from top to bottom. A typical example is the titles: "Petersburg peaks" (Ya. P. Butkov) and "Petersburg corners" (N. A. Nekrasov).
Under the undoubted influence of the artistic searches of the "natural school" and its leading genre - the physiological essay - were created major works: the novel “Poor People” by F. M. Dostoevsky, the novels “The Thieving Magpie” by A. I. Herzen, “The Village” and “Anton the Unfortunate Man” by D. V. Grigorovich, “Tarantas” by V. A. Sollogub.
The cycle of stories by I. S. Turgenev “Notes of a Hunter” (most of them were written in the 1840s), bearing the stamp of physiology, is already outgrowing this genre form.
V. G. Belinsky, in his last annual review of Russian literature for 1847, noted the dynamics of the genre development of Russian literature: "The novel and the story have now become at the head of all other genres of poetry."
Two novels of the 1840s are rightfully considered the highest achievement of the "natural school": ordinary story" I. A. Goncharova and "Who is to blame?" A. I. Herzen.
The most complex social, moral and philosophical meanings A. I. Herzen invested in novel action, “performed, according to Belinsky, a dramatic movement”, a mind brought “to poetry”.
It is no coincidence that the title of the work contains a sharp and concise question that disturbs the reader: “Who is to blame?” Where is the root cause that the best inclinations of the nobleman Negro were drowned out by the vulgarity and idleness so common among the feudal lords? Does he bear personal guilt for fate? illegitimate daughter Lyubonka, who grew up in his own house in a humiliating, ambiguous position? Who is responsible for the naivety of the subtle teacher Krucifersky who dreams of harmony? He, in essence, can only utter sincere pathetic monologues and revel in the family idyll, which turns out to be so fragile: the feeling for Vladimir Beltov becomes fatal, leading to death for his wife, the same Lyubonka.
The nobleman-intellectual Beltov arrives in country town in search of a worthy field of life, but not only does not find it, but finds himself in the crucible of a tragic life collision. Whom to ask for the powerless, doomed to failure attempts of an exceptionally talented individual to find an application for his strength? Is this possible in the suffocating atmosphere of landowner life, state office, domestic backwoods - in those areas of life that the then Russia most often "offered" to its educated sons?
One of the answers to the question "Who is to blame?" is obvious: serfdom, the “late” Nikolaev era in Russia, stagnation, which almost led to a national catastrophe in the mid-1950s. And yet critical pathos does not exhaust the content and meaning of the work. Here the indigenous people are put forward, eternal problems human being. This is a habit and peace that destroys all life (the Negro couple); destructive mental impulses (Lubonka). This is infantilism 2 , painful skepticism (disbelief), equally preventing youth from realizing itself (Krucifersky and Beltov); powerless wisdom (Dr. Krupov). In general, attention to the "nature" of a person and typical circumstances that destroy it, break character and destiny, makes Herzen a writer of the "natural school".
And yet the novel poses a problem, but does not offer a single solution, it poses a riddle and only hints at a solution; every reader needs to look for answers in a complex the art world works.
1 "Natural School" - a trend of early realism that united writers in the publications "Physiology of Petersburg" and "Petersburg Collection".
2 Infantilism - childishness, unpreparedness for serious responsibility.
Today we will talk about the era of the 1840s, in which one of the milestones Russian realism. We will consider the problems of the natural school, look at its authors and talk about the three stages and at the same time three directions of this literary phenomenon of the 19th century.
in 1841 - Lermontov (Fig. 2),
Rice. 2. M.Yu. Lermontov ()
and there is a feeling that the literary scene is somewhat empty. But at the same moment, a new generation of writers who were born around 1820 rises to it. In addition, at the same moment, the famous critic V.G. Belinsky (Fig. 3),
Rice. 3. V.G. Belinsky ()
who becomes the main ideological inspirer and leader of this circle of young writers, who, in turn, give rise to a new literary trend.
The name of this direction was not immediately determined, although we know it as natural school. Although there are other names: the natural trend in literature, the Gogol school, the Gogol trend in literature. This meant that the teacher and indisputable authority for these young writers was N.V. Gogol (Fig. 4),
Rice. 4. N.V. Gogol ()
who writes almost nothing during this period, is abroad, but he is the author of great works of great authority: St. Petersburg Tales, the Mirgorod collection, the first volume of Dead Souls.
Where does the idea of depicting society in all its details come from? It is precisely this idea, promoted by Belinsky and supported by a young circle of writers (Nekrasov (Fig. 5),
Rice. 5. N.A. Nekrasov ()
Turgenev (Fig. 6),
Rice. 6. I.S. Turgenev ()
Dostoevsky (Fig. 7),
Rice. 7. F.M. Dostoevsky ()
Grigorovich (Fig. 8),
Rice. 8. D.V. Grigorovich ()
Druzhinin (Fig. 9),
Rice. 9. A.V. Druzhinin ()
Dal (Fig. 10)
Rice. 10. V.I. dal()
and etc.). The environment becomes extremely important for this circle of young writers, which is understood very broadly: both as the immediate environment of a person, and as an era, and as a social organism as a whole. So where did the idea come from to portray the social organism in all its advantages and disadvantages? This idea came from the West: in France and England in the 1830s - early 1840s. such works appeared en masse. And this idea was born by a non-literary phenomenon. The reason for this is huge, very important discoveries, which were committed in the 1820-30s. in area natural sciences. By that time, the church ban on anatomy had somewhat weakened, anatomical theaters arose, and an extraordinary amount was learned about human anatomy and physiology.
Accordingly, if the human body was recognized in such details, then it became possible to treat many before that time. incurable diseases. But there is a curious transfer from the human organism to the social organism. And the idea arises: if you study the social organism in all its details, then it will be possible to eliminate the screaming contradictions and heal the social diseases of society. There is a mass of so-called physiologies that talk about social groups ah, about the representatives of certain professions, about the social types that are often found in society. This kind of literature often comes out anonymously and resembles investigative journalism. Here, for example, are works published in France: "Physiology of Paris", "Physiology of Grisette", "Physiology married man", and it is by no means about his intimate life but about how he spends the day, how he communicates with loved ones. The physiology of a shopkeeper, the physiology of a salesman or saleswoman, the physiology of an actress. There were even physiologies devoted to subjects: the physiology of the umbrella, the physiology of the hat, or the physiology of the omnibus. Balzac began to work in this genre in France (Fig. 11),
Rice. 11. Honore de Balzac ()
Dickens in England (Fig. 12),
Rice. 12. Ch. Dickens ()
who devoted a lot of time to the study of social ulcers. And this idea comes to Russia - to study a dysfunctional environment - this is the task set by young writers under the leadership of Belinsky. Soon the first work appears, the first collective collection, which is the manifesto of this emerging trend. This is "Physiology of St. Petersburg" (Fig. 13).
Rice. 13. Title page publications "Physiology of St. Petersburg" (1845) ()
Here are Belinsky's articles: "Petersburg and Moscow", " Alexandrinsky Theater"," Petersburg Literature "; and Dahl's essay "Petersburg Janitor", which came out under the pseudonym Cossack Lugansk; and Petersburg Corners, an excerpt from Nekrasov's unwritten novel The Life and Adventures of Tikhon Trostnikov. Thus, the direction is formed. It is curious that the name of this direction - "natural school" - was given by its ideological enemy - F.V. Bulgarin (Fig. 14),
Rice. 14. F.V. Bulgarin ()
who was also an enemy of Pushkin and an opponent of Gogol. Bulgarin in his articles mercilessly condemned the representatives of the new generation, spoke of a base, dirty interest in the unattractive details of social life, called dirty naturalism what young writers tried to do. Belinsky picked up this word and made it the motto of the entire movement. Thus, the name of the school, the group of young writers and what they did, gradually settled down.
The natural school as a phenomenon developed quite rapidly, and usually one speaks of three stages, or directions, of this school. The first direction is essay. What the young writers did might be like investigative journalism. For example, Grigorovich became interested commonplace, which seemed mysterious to him, - St. Petersburg organ grinders. Everyone hears their sounds, but where do they come from and where do they go, where do they eat, sleep, what do they hope for? And Grigorovich literally undertakes a journalistic investigation. He dresses warmer and simpler and goes to roam with the organ-grinders. So he spent about two weeks and found out everything. The result of this investigation was the essay "Petersburg Organ Grinders", which was also published in the "Physiology of Petersburg". V. Dal became interested in colorful, in an interesting way Petersburg janitor. He describes with great interest work of the same name and the appearance of this social type, and the atmosphere of his closet, and does not shy away from even the most unsightly details. For example, Dahl says that the janitor had a towel, but the dogs, who often ran into the closet, constantly mistook this towel for an edible object, it was so dirty and greasy. An excerpt from Nekrasov's novel "Petersburg Corners" sounded even more vividly and defiantly. It begins with a completely journalistic description of such a St. Petersburg phenomenon as the third courtyard. "Do you know what the third court is?" - asks the author. It is said that the first courtyards retain decency and grand appearance. Then, if you go under the archway, the second courtyard will appear. It is in the shade, it is dirty, unsightly, but if you look closely, you can see a low arch that resembles a dog hole. And if you squeeze through there, then the third courtyard will appear in all its glory. The sun never gets there, these courtyards are decorated with a terrible fetid puddle. It is in this way that the young hero Nekrasov goes and tries to find a place in a rooming house. With anxiety and trepidation, he looks at this huge puddle, which completely blocks the entrance to the rooming house. The entrance to the rooming house looks like a stinking hole. The hero feels that he will not be able to get into the rooming house, having passed this puddle, over which green flies fly in swarms and which is teeming with white worms. Naturally, such details could not previously be the subject of consideration for the literature. Writers of the new generation act fearlessly: they themselves explore life and present the results of their research to the reader. But why are we talking specifically about investigative journalism, why do we call this direction essay? Because there is usually no artistic plot, the personalities of the characters do not interest the writer at all, or they pass into the background. It is nature that matters. The motto of this direction can be chosen as follows: “This is life. Look, reader, maybe you will be surprised, maybe you will be horrified, but life is just like that. It is necessary to know the social organism." At the same time, one can note a certain mechanistic approach, which is characteristic of both Western writers and young Russian ones. Society was presented by them as a kind of organism, akin to a human. For example, in French physiologies, it was assumed that such an organism has lungs, a circulatory, digestive, and even excretory system. Light, for example, were declared numerous gardens and city parks; the circulatory system is represented as financial system, which washes all parts of this organism; digestion was compared by them with the market, which in Paris was called the "Womb of Paris"; accordingly, the excretory system is a sewer. In Paris, young writers ventured into the Parisian cesspool and made all sorts of research there. In the same way, writers in St. Petersburg ventured on the most risky expeditions in order to find out everything the smallest details and flaws in the social organism. A certain influence on the essay prose of the early 1840s was also exerted by Daguerre's discovery (Fig. 15)
photographs in 1839. The first method of photography was named after him: the daguerreotype.
Daguerreotype This is a photograph taken using the daguerreotype method.
Daguerreotype is a way to directly obtain a positive image when shooting.
The essay method was sometimes called in Russia the daguerreotype method, that is, it is a method, as it were, of direct photography of being. A snapshot of life is taken, and then it is up to the reader how to relate to this. the main objective- cognitive.
But of course fiction does not stand still, and without the attitude of the author it was quite difficult to present all the new flaws in reality. The author had to express his inner attitude to what was happening, and readers were waiting for this.
Therefore, a new direction, or the next stage in the development of the natural school, appears quite quickly - sentimental natural(1846). The new motto of the direction is the question: “Is this life? Is this how life should be? In 1846, the following landmark edition was published: Petersburg Collection.
Rice. 16. Title page of the publication "Petersburg Collection" (1846) ()
The most important works for writers of this trend are the famous "Overcoat" by Gogol and "The Stationmaster" by Pushkin. Here are the samples with which I wanted to catch up, but not everyone succeeded. Young writers sought to depict the life of a small, unhappy, oppressed person. As a rule, it was a Petersburg official. Gradually, images of peasants also arose (Grigorovich's story "Anton Goremyk", where sorrows from all sides rain down on the unfortunate peasant, like cones on poor Makar). But it seemed to young writers that Gogol in his "Overcoat" treated Akaky Akakievich Bashmachkin somewhat harshly and not entirely humanely. We see a number of misfortunes that haunt the Gogol hero, but we do not see how the hero relates to the world, to life, we do not see his thoughts, we are not present inside the soul of this character. Young writers wanted to somehow soften and “step down” this image. And there is a whole series of works in which a small official suffers and suffers in the same way in a huge, cold, inhuman city, but he develops attachments, say, to his wife, to his daughter, to a dog. Thus, young writers wanted to strengthen the humanistic side of the story. But in practice it turned out that they could not reach Gogol's heights. After all, for Gogol it is not important what his hero feels, but the fact that he is a man, he is our brother and has the right to warmth, to a plot where no one will touch him. Akaky Akakievich does not have such a niche - he dies from the cold, from the indifference of the world around him. Here Gogol's idea, and in numerous essays and stories of a sentimental-natural direction, everything looks somewhat simpler and more primitive.
A huge exception against this background is the story of F.M. Dostoevsky "Poor people", published in the "Petersburg collection". Largely thanks to this story, the collection gained great fame and was published in an incredible circulation of 5,000 copies for those times, which sold out very quickly. So the hero of the story "Poor People" Makar Devushkin is a petty official. He is poor, homeless, he does not rent a room, but a corner in the kitchen, where there is smoke, the stench, where he is disturbed by the cries of the guests. It would seem that we should feel only pity for him. But Dostoevsky puts the question in a completely different way: his little people, of course, are poor, but they are poor in the absence of money, and mentally and spiritually these people are rich. They are capable of high self-sacrifice: they are ready to give the last without hesitation. They are capable of self-development: they read books, think about the fate of the heroes of Gogol and Pushkin. They are able to write to each other lovely letters, because this story is in letters: letters are written by Varenka Dobroselova, and Makar Devushkin answers her. Thus, Dostoevsky, in a sense, immediately stepped over the rather narrow limits of the sentimental-natural direction. Not just sympathy for the characters causes his story, but deep respect for them. And the spiritually poor are in this story powers of the world this.
Thus, the first two directions appeared quite quickly, and after them the third direction, or the third stage in the development of the natural school, appears. The issue of environment is still important for the writer, but now there is an idea to illuminate the hero himself more brightly. The third level is the level big story, or novel. And here Russian literature makes a world-class discovery: the introduction of a hero of the Onegin-Pechorinsky type into Gogol's milieu. Gogol's environment is the environment that is generously and vividly depicted in Gogol's works. And in such a gray, hopeless environment, a bright, educated, intelligent hero is introduced, who has retained the rudiments of conscience. Those. a hero similar to Onegin or Pechorin. With such a connection, the following will arise: the environment will torment, crush the hero. And then the story can go in two directions. First direction. The hero holds firm and is not inferior to the environment in anything, and the environment is fate, life, which is given to a person only once. The hero refuses to deal with vulgar people, to serve in a department where they are engaged in senseless and vulgar deeds, he wants to prove himself somehow, but the situation is such that the hero cannot prove himself. And at some point, the hero may come to the conclusion that life was in vain, he failed to accomplish anything, he failed to defeat the environment, although he remained true to his convictions and ideals. It turns into smart uselessness. And it is bitter for the hero to realize such an ending own life. All this is the problematic of the novel by A.I. Herzen "Who is to blame?" (Fig. 17)
Rice. 17. Cover of the edition of the novel "Who is to blame?" ()
Second direction. The hero feels complete hopelessness and hopelessness to follow his pure youthful ideals. Still, life is stronger, and he has to give in, reconcile. It seems to the hero that he remains true to himself, but the environment comes inexorably and at some point suppresses the hero so much that he disappears as a person, he has turned into the same vulgar as those around him. Sometimes the hero understands this, and sometimes he is not even able to realize the terrible transformation that has happened to him. This is the problematic of the novel by I.A. Goncharov "Ordinary History" (Fig. 18).
Rice. 18. Cover of the edition of the novel "Ordinary History" ()
Both of these novels appear in 1847 and mark the beginning of the third stage of the natural school.
But we are talking about a natural school in relation to the 1840s. And in the late 40s, a whole series of events took place: Belinsky died, Dostoevsky was arrested and sentenced to death, but then exiled to the distant Omsk prison. And it turns out that writers are now going their own way, and the greatest classics are already creating a definite trend for themselves. Therefore, we say that the time of apprenticeship, common work and the development of an ideology falls precisely on the 40s of the 19th century.
Bibliography
- Sakharov V.I., Zinin S.A. Russian language and literature. Literature (basic and advanced levels) 10. - M.: Russian word.
- Arkhangelsky A.N. etc. Russian language and literature. Literature (advanced level) 10. - M.: Bustard.
- Lanin B.A., Ustinova L.Yu., Shamchikova V.M. / ed. Lanina B.A. Russian language and literature. Literature (basic and advanced levels) 10. - M.: VENTANA-GRAF.
- Internet portal Km.ru ( ).
- Internet portal Feb-web.ru ().
Homework
- Make a table of the main stages in the development of a natural school.
- Make up comparative characteristic romantic and naturalistic literature based on brief analysis most significant works these two periods.
- * Write an essay-reflection on the topic "The ideological confrontation between Bulgarin and Belinsky."
Option 1
1. What literary direction dominated the literature of the second half of the 19th century?
A) romanticism B) sentimentalism
B) classicism D) realism
2. Specify the founders of the "natural school".
A) V.G. Belinsky, I.S. Turgenev B) M.Yu. Lermontov, F.I. Tyutchev
B) A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol D) V. G. Belinsky, N. V. Gogol
3. Which of the Russian writers was called "Columbus of Zamoskvorechye"?
A) I.S. Turgenev B) L.N. Tolstoy
B) A.N. Ostrovsky D) F.M. Dostoevsky
4. The heroine of Ostrovsky's play "Thunderstorm", Kabanikha, was called:
A) Anna Petrovna B) Katerina Lvovna
B) Marfa Ignatievna D) Anastasia Semenovna
5.Specify which artistic technique uses A.A. Fet in selected phrases:
“Again the birds fly from afar / / To the shores that break the ice / / The warm sun walks high / / And fragrant lily of the valley waiting."
A) personification B) epithet
B) inversion D) allegory
6. The hero of what work was promised to God at birth, “he died many times and did not die”?
A) L.N. Tolstoy, "War and Peace", Prince Andrei B) I.S. Turgenev, "Fathers and Sons", Bazarov
B) A.N. Ostrovsky, "Thunderstorm", Katerina Kabanova D) N.S. Leskov, "The Enchanted Wanderer". Flyagin
7. In what work of Russian literature does the nihilist hero appear?
A) A.N. Ostrovsky "Forest" B) F.M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment"
B) I.S. Turgenev "Fathers and Sons" D) I.A. Goncharov "Oblomov"
8. Katerina Izmailova is a heroine:
A) essay by N.S. Leskov “Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk district”
B) plays by A.N. Ostrovsky "Dowry"
C) the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment"
D) the novel by I.A. Goncharov "Oblomov"
A) A.N. Ostrovsky B) M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin
B) F.M. Dostoevsky D) L.N. Tolstoy
10. Which of the heroes of the novel "War and Peace" proposed to M. Kutuzov a plan for a guerrilla war?
A) Dolokhov B) Bolkonsky
B) Denisov D) Drubetskoy
11. What hero of "War and Peace" belongs to the statement "Chess is placed. The game starts tomorrow"?
A) Prince Andrew B) Napoleon
B) Emperor Alexander 1 D) M.I. Kutuzov
12. Which hero of the novel "Crime and Punishment" Razumikhin characterizes with the following words: "Gloomy, gloomy, arrogant and proud"?
A) Porfiry Petrovich B) Raskolnikov
B) Zosimova D) Svidrigailova
13. Indicate which of the heroes of Tolstoy's novel "War and Peace" is on the path of searching.
A) Platon Karataev B) Pierre Bezukhov
B) Fedor Dolokhov D) Anatole Kuragin
14. Which of the Russian poets owns the words “You may not be a poet, but you must be a citizen”?
A) A.S. Pushkin B) F.I. Tyutchev
B) N.A. Nekrasov D) M.Yu. Lermontov
15. What kind of literature should include the genres of the novel, story, short story?
A) lyrics B) epic
B) drama D) lyro-epic
16. What is the main character trait of Sonya Marmeladova (F.M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment")
A) sacrifice B) hypocrisy
B) frivolity D) love of freedom
17. Indicate which of the Russian writers is the author of the cycle "Frigate Pallada"?
A) L.N. Tolstoy B) I.A. Goncharov
18. Indicate which of the Russian critics called the heroine of A.N. Ostrovsky's drama "Thunderstorm" "a ray of light in a dark kingdom."
A) V.G. Belinsky B) N.G. Chernyshevsky
B) N.A. Dobrolyubov D) D.I. Pisarev
19. What is the name of the poet who was a supporter of "pure art".
A) A.S. Pushkin B) N.A. Nekrasov
B) A.A. Fet D) M.Yu. Lermontov
20. Indicate the correct name of the Kirsanovs' estate (I.S. Turgenev "Fathers and Sons")
A) Berry B) Maryino
B) Zamanilovka D) Otradnoe
21. How was Dolokhov (L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace") punished for a joke with a quarterly?
A) expelled from St. Petersburg B) was not punished because he gave a bribe
B) demoted to the ranks D) was not punished, as he had support among those in power
22. Raskolnikov's theory (F.M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment") is
A) a rigorous scientific justification for dividing people into categories
B) the division of people into categories depending on their social affiliation, education
C) the division of people into categories: material and people themselves
23. Ivan Flyagin (N.S. Leskov "The Enchanted Wanderer") in his life was not
A) a nanny baby B) a soldier
B) a gardener D) an artist
24. Name the works in which the motive of wandering plays important role in the organization of the plot:
A) "Thunderstorm", "The Enchanted Wanderer"
C) “Who should live well in Rus'”, “The Man in the Case”
D) "Thunderstorm", "Man in a case"
Final test for the course grade 10 Option - 2
1. Indicate the writers of the second half of the 19th century, in the title of whose works there is a contrast.
A) A.N. Ostrovsky, I.S. Turgenev, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin
B) I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy
C) I.A. Goncharov, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov
D) L.N. Tolstoy, N.S. Leskov, I.S. Turgenev
2. In the work of which poet was the impressionistic manner of depiction first used?
A) N.A. Nekrasov B) A.A. Fet
B) F.I. Tyutchev D) A.K. Tolstoy
A) A.N. Ostrovsky "Thunderstorm" B) L.N. Tolstoy "The Living Corpse"
B) F.M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment" D) N.S. Leskov "Lady Macbeth ..."
4. What artistic technique did the author use in this passage: “Blessed is the gentle poet, / / In whom there is little bile, a lot of feeling // He is so sincere greetings / / Friends of calm art ..”
A) allegory B) antithesis
B) metaphor D) hyperbole
5. What are the main criteria for evaluating a personality in Leo Tolstoy's novel "War and Peace".
A) pride and pride B) naturalness and morality
B) nobility and kindness D) generosity and courage
6. Which of the Russian writers was sentenced to hard labor?
A) M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin B) F.M. Dostoevsky
B) A.I. Herzen D) N.A. Nekrasov
7.What literary type depicted in the image of the Wild (A.N. Ostrovsky "Thunderstorm")?
A) type little man» C) tyrant
B) type " extra person» D) romantic hero
A) I.A. Goncharov B) M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin
B) N.A. Nekrasov D) A.P. Chekhov
9. Indicate what position the author takes in the epic novel "War and Peace".
A) a participant in ongoing events
B) a person who deeply experiences and comments on the events described
B) an impassive observer
D) a narrator who interrupts the story to tell the reader about himself
10. Indicate the name of the regiment in which Nikolai Rostov served (L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace").
A) Preobrazhensky B) Izmailovsky
B) Pavlogradsky D) Semenovsky
11. What kind of literature became dominant in the second half of the 19th century?
A) lyrics B) epic
B) drama D) lyro-epic
12. Indicate which of the Russian writers spoke of the need to "squeeze a slave out of yourself drop by drop."
A) I.A. Goncharov B) L.N. Tolstoy
B) A.P. Chekhov D) F.M. Dostoevsky
13. In the work of which writer is the type of “little man” shown for the first time?
A) Samson Vyrin in " stationmaster» A.S. Pushkin
B) Akaki Akakievich in N.V. Gogol's "Overcoat"
C) Maxim Maksimych in "A Hero of Our Time" by M.Yu. Lermontov
D) Captain Tushin in "War and Peace" by L.N. Tolstoy
14. Agafya Pshenitsyna is a heroine:
A) the novel by I.S. Turgenev "Fathers and Sons"
B) the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment" D
C) the novel by I.A. Goncharov "Oblomov"
D) the novel by L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace"
A) A.S. Pushkin B) F.I. Tyutchev
B) N.A. Nekrasov D) A.A. Fet
16. Which of the heroes of the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky asked the question “Am I a trembling creature or do I have the right”?
A) Sonya Marmeladova B) R. Raskolnikov
B) Pyotr Luzhin D) Lebezyatnikov
17. Indicate which of the Russian poets owns the poem "I met you - and all the past ..."
A) N.A. Nekrasov B) F.I. Tyutchev
B) A.S. Pushkin D) A.A. Fet
18. Name the “happy” person in N.A. Nekrasov’s poem “Who should live well in Rus'”.
A) Savely B) Matryona Korchagin
B) Grigory Dobrosklonov D) Ermil Girin
19. Indicate that the teacher Belikov taught, the character of the story "The Man in the Case" by A.P. Chekhov.
A) geography B) literature
B) the Greek language D) the law of God
20. In the novel "War and Peace" there is goodies who have reached the pinnacle of moral and spiritual development. One of them is Kutuzov, the other is
A) Pierre Bezukhov B) Andrei Bolkonsky
B) Platon Karataev D) Vasily Denisov
21. What miscalculations did Raskolnikov (F.M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment") make during the murder of the old woman?
A) forgot to close the door of the apartment B) left the hat at the crime scene
B) forgot to take the crime weapon D) stained with blood
22. The genre definition of "epic novel" means:
A) a novel about the ideological and moral quest of the individual, associated with the fate of the nation
B) a novel in which not one, but several central characters, and among other characters there are historical figures
B) a novel about historical event influencing the fate of the country
23. The turning point in the life of Ivan Flyagin (N.S. Leskov "The Enchanted Wanderer") comes when
A) he recognizes himself as a great sinner and wants to atone for his guilt by suffering
B) he renounces faith and stops praying
C) because of his fault a person dies
24. Not related to the story "The Man in the Case" by A.P. Chekhov, the following character
A) Gurov B) Kovalenko
B) Burkin D) Belikov
Final test for the course grade 10 Option - 3
1. Indicate the reasons for the changes in the character of D.I. Startsev (A.P. Chekhov "Ionych").
A) the influence of his bride B) the influence of the environment
B) the influence of parents D) the profession of a doctor
2. Indicate to which literary direction the epic novel by L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace" should be attributed.
A) romanticism B) classicism
B) sentimentalism D) realism
3. Indicate the work of A.P. Chekhov, which is a lyrical comedy.
A) "Man in a case" B) "Bear"
B) "Seagull" D) "Lady with a dog"
4. Indicate which of the writers owns the statement "There is no greatness where there is no simplicity, goodness and truth."
A) M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin B) L.N. Tolstoy
B) F.M. Dostoevsky D) A.P. Chekhov
5. Indicate where the main action of I.A. Goncharov's novel "Oblomov" takes place.
A) Petersburg B) city NN
B) Moscow D) Oblomov's Tula estate
6. Which of the heroes of the novel "Crime and Punishment" is disturbed by dreams?
A) Lebezyatnikov B) Luzhin
B) Sonya D) Svidrigailov
7. Which character in the Chekhov story belongs to the following remark “The Little Russian language, with its tenderness and pleasant sonority, resembles ancient Greek”
A) Belikov (“Man in a Case”) B) Ochumelov (“Chameleon”)
B) Turkin ("Ionych") D) Ippolit Ippolitich ("Teacher of Literature")
8. What is the name of the writer who was an artillery officer and took part in the defense of Sevastopol in 1854.
A) I.A. Goncharov B) F.M. Dostoevsky
B) L.N. Tolstoy D) I.S. Turgenev
9.Specify a second name Gogol direction in literature.
A) pure art B) decadence
B) natural school D) socialist realism
10. Indicate which of the following composite parts is optional.
A) prologue B) climax
B) tie D) denouement
11.As in Art Theater named characteristic of Chekhov's plays action development?
A) "turbulent flow" B) "undercurrent"
B) "stream of consciousness" D) "invisible life"
12. What theme is predominant in the work of N.A. Nekrasov?
A) the theme of the city B) love
B) loneliness D) citizenship
13. Indicate which of the Russian writers owns the words that "beauty will save the world."
A) F.M. Dostoevsky B) I.A. Bunin
B) L.N. Tolstoy D) A.P. Chekhov
14. What vice does A.P. Chekhov denounce in the story "Ionych"?
A) spiritual emptiness B) servility
B) veneration D) hypocrisy
A) N.A. Nekrasov “Who should live well in Rus'” B) N.S. Leskov “The Enchanted Wanderer”
B) A.N. Ostrovsky "Thunderstorm" D) I.A. Goncharov "Oblomov"
16. In which of the following works does the action take place against the background of the Volga panorama?
A) The Cherry Orchard B) Dead Souls
B) "Thunderstorm" D) "Gooseberry"
17. Indicate to whom the following lines from N.A. Nekrasov’s poem are dedicated: “A naive and passionate soul, / / In whom wonderful thoughts boiled, / / Persevering, worrying and hastening, / / You honestly walked towards one, high goal ... "
A) N.G. Chernyshevsky B) V.G. Belinsky
B) N.V. Gogol D) M.Yu. Lermontov
18. Indicate to which literary direction the epic novel by L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace" can be attributed.
A) classicism B) romanticism
B) realism D) sentimentalism
19. Specify what social status Martha Ignatievna Kabanova (A.N. Ostrovsky "Thunderstorm")
A) bourgeois B) peasant
B) noblewoman D) merchant's wife
20. What literary device used by the author in this passage: “The Neva swelled and roared / / Boiled and swirled like a cauldron ...”
A) grotesque B) allegory
B) personification D) comparison
21. Oblomov's dream (I.A. Goncharov "Oblomov") is
A) the history of the Oblomov family
B) a realistic depiction of a Russian village from the time of serfdom
C) a poetic picture of Russian life, where reality and a fairy tale are mixed
22. A statement containing a factual error (LN Tolstoy "War and Peace").
A) Tolstoy compares the maid of honor A.P. Sherer with the mistress of a spinning workshop
B) the heroic deed of Prince Andrei determined the outcome of the Battle of Austerlitz
C) Danilo Kupor is a dance that is danced on the name day of the Rostovs
23. For Ivan Flyagin (N.S. Leskov "The Enchanted Wanderer"), the following of these qualities is characteristic
A) indifference B) innocence
B) indifference D) arrogance
24. Name the works in which there are heroes whose images go back to the images of epic heroes
A) "The Enchanted Wanderer", "About Love"
B) "The Enchanted Wanderer", "Who Lives Well in Rus'"
C) “Who should live well in Rus'”, “Thunderstorm”
D) "Thunderstorm", "About love"
Final test for the course grade 10 Option - 4
1. Why did A.P. Chekhov call his play "The Cherry Orchard" a comedy?
A) funny story B) farcical situations
B) a comical ending D) the claims of the characters contradict their capabilities
2. Indicate which of the Russian writers owns the words “Russia cannot be understood with the mind, cannot be measured with a common yardstick ...”
A) A.K. Tolstoy B) A.A. Fet
B) A.S. Pushkin D) F.I. Tyutchev
3. Indicate which of the Russian writers took part in the defense of Sevastopol.
A) F.M. Dostoevsky B) F.I. Tyutchev
B) L.N. Tolstoy D) I.A. Goncharov
4. Indicate which of the Russian poets owns the words "You may not be a poet, but you must be a citizen."
A) A.A. Fet B) N.A. Nekrasov
B) F.I. Tyutchev D) A.K. Tolstoy
5. Indicate which of the named works is not included in the cycle "Notes of a Hunter" by I.S. Turgenev.
A) " raspberry water» C) «Singers»
B) Mumu D) Biryuk
6. Indicate to whom the novel by I.S. Turgenev “Fathers and Sons” was dedicated.
A) N.G. Chernyshevsky B) V.G. Belinsky
B) N.A. Nekrasov D) A.A. Grigoriev
7. Which of the Russian writers served hard labor in the Omsk prison?
A) N.G. Chernyshevsky B) F.M. Dostoevsky
B) M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin D) N.A. Nekrasov
8. Name the writer who committed trip around the world on board the frigate "Pallada"
A) I.S. Turgenev B) L.N. Tolstoy
B) I.A. Goncharov D) A.P. Chekhov
9. Enter the name of the writer who made the trip to Sakhalin Island.
A) L.N. Tolstoy B) A.P. Chekhov
B) I.A. Goncharov D) M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin
10. What is the name of a writer who is not a native of Moscow.
A) A.S. Pushkin B) F.M. Dostoevsky
B) M.Yu. Lermontov D) A.P. Chekhov
11.Choose correct sequence change of one literary direction others.
A) sentimentalism, romanticism, classicism, realism, modernism
B) modernism, romanticism, realism, sentimentalism, classicism
C) classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, modernism
D) realism, classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, modernism
12. The favorite genre of poetry of N.A. Nekrasov is:
A) ode B) elegy
B) ballad D) message
13. Name a poet in whose work the poem "Prophet" is not found
A) A.S. Pushkin B) N.A. Nekrasov
B) M.Yu. Lermontov D) F.I. Tyutchev
14. What does L.N. Tolstoy mean by the concept of “people”?
A) all workers who create wealth
B) serfs working on the land
C) the totality of representatives of all social groups and estates, showing spirituality, patriotism
D) artisans, artisans
15. Which of the heroes of L.N. Tolstoy's novel “War and Peace! Do the words “One must live, one must love, one must believe” belong?
A) Andrei Bolkonsky B) Pierre Bezukhov
B) Nikolai Rostov D) Platon Karataev
16. What is the name of the highest point in the development of the plot of a literary work?
A) hyperbole B) exposure
B) grotesque D) climax
17. Indicate what determines the activity of Lopakhin in A.P. Chekhov's comedy "The Cherry Orchard".
A) the desire to ruin Ranevskaya and appropriate her fortune
B) the desire to take revenge on the owners who fell into poverty
C) an attempt to help Ranevskaya improve her financial situation
D) dream to destroy The Cherry Orchard reminding him of a difficult childhood
18. Indicate the work, in the plot of which there is no episode of the duel.
A) A.S. Pushkin "Shot" B) A.S. Griboyedov "Woe from Wit"
B) L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace" D) M.Yu. Lermontov "A Hero of Our Time"
19. Identify the author and work by final words: “Whatever passionate, sinful, rebellious heart hides in the grave, the flowers growing on it serenely look at us with their innocent eyes; not about one eternal peace of "indifferent" nature; they also speak of eternal reconciliation and endless life.
A) M.Yu. Lermontov "A Hero of Our Time" B) F.M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment
B) L.N. Tolstoy “War and Peace” D) I.S. Turgenev “Fathers and Sons”
20. What artistic technique does A.A. Fet use in the following passage: “This is morning, this joy, / / This power and day and light, / / This blue vault, / / This cry and strings, / / These flocks, these birds, / / This dialect of waters ... "
A) personification B) anaphora
B) antithesis D) epithet
21. Bazarov (I.S. Turgenev “Fathers and Sons”) tells Arkady about his father: “The same eccentric as yours, only in a different way.” Fathers are similar in that they
A) close in age and social status
B) love nature, music and poetry
C) love their sons and strive to keep up with the century
22. In N.A. Nekrasov’s poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'” there are the following characters:
A) Ermil Girin, Kuligin, Yakim Nagoi B) Ermil Girin, Utyatin, Yakim Nagoi
B) Yakim Nagoi, Kudryash, Utyatin D) Feklusha, Utyatin, Kuligin
23. In the concept of Leskov, the next of the parties to the concept of "righteous" is not considered.
A) the ability to be content with little, but never act against conscience
B) religious detachment from earthly passions, serving God
C) ability ordinary person to self-sacrifice.
24. The following problem does not rise in the story "Gooseberry" by A.P. Chekhov
A) the relationship between man and nature
B) personality degradation
C) personal responsibility for what is happening in the world
D) Russian intelligentsia
The natural school is the designation of the type of Russian realism that existed in the 19th century, successively associated with the work of N.V. Gogol and developing his artistic principles. The natural school is early works I.A. Goncharov, N.A. Nekrasov, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.I. Herzen, D.V. Grigorovich, V.I. Dal, A.N. Ostrovsky, I. I.Panaeva, Ya.P. Butkova and others. The main ideologist of the natural school was V.G. theoretical principles V.N. Maikov, A.N. Pleshcheev and others also contributed. Representatives of the natural school were grouped around the journals “ Domestic notes" and later "Contemporary". The collections "Physiology of Petersburg" (part 12, 1845) and "Petersburg Collection" (1846) became the program for her. In connection with the latest edition, the very name of the natural school arose: F.V. Belinsky, Maikov and others took this definition, filling it with positive content.
Most clearly novelty artistic principles natural school was expressed in "physiological essays" - works that set as their goal the extremely accurate fixation of certain social types(“physiology” of the landowner, peasant, official), their specific differences (“physiology” of the St. Petersburg official, Moscow official), social, professional and everyday features, habits, sights, etc. By striving for documentation, for precise detail, using statistical and ethnographic data, and sometimes introducing biological accents into the typology of characters, the “physiological essay” expressed the tendency of a certain convergence of figurative and scientific consciousness at that time and, as in French literature("Physiology" O. de Balzac, Jules Janin and others), contributed to the expansion of the position of realism. At the same time, it is unlawful to reduce the natural school to "physiology", since its other genres - the novel, the story - rose above them. It was in the novels and short stories of the natural school that the conflict between the "romantic" and the "realist" found expression ("Ordinary History", 1847, Goncharova; partly "Who is to blame?", 1845-46, Herzen; "Contradictions", 1847 and "A Tangled Case ”, 1848, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin), the evolution of a character experiencing the irresistible influence of the social environment was revealed. With your interest in hidden reasons behavior of the character, the natural school also turned out to be close to the laws of the functioning of society as a social whole. Western European realism 1840s, which was noted by Belinsky when comparing the novels of Gogol and C. Dickens: “The content of the novel is artistic analysis modern society, the disclosure of those invisible foundations of him, which are hidden from him by habit and unconsciousness ”(Belinsky V.G. complete collection works: In 13 volumes, Volume 10. Page 106).
The natural school, strictly speaking, does not represent such a unity, which is suggested by this very concept - "school" - and how it sometimes seemed to contemporaries. School is generally understood to mean a number of literary phenomena With a high degree commonality - up to a common theme, style, language. It is hardly possible to find such a commonality among the writers of the natural school. However, it is unlawful to abandon the concept of "Natural School" in general, since it corresponds to an objective series of phenomena. The natural school can only be understood from the perspective of literary evolution as a development and sometimes a straightening out of the achievements and discoveries of the first Russian realists. The overcoming of the philosophy and poetics of the natural school, first of all by Dostoevsky and later by the writers of the sixties, began with a criticism of its main provisions and, in connection with this, with a deepening in human psychology, from the refutation of attempts to fatally subjugate the character to circumstances, the utmost emphasis on the role of human activity and self-consciousness.
